HEAT CONDUCTION IN RECTANGULAR SOLIDS WITH INTERNAL HEAT

GENERATION

Zhipeng DUAN, Hao MA*

School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing
100044, China

*
Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected]

A representative steady-state heat conduction problem in rectangular solids

with uniformly distributed heat generation has been investigated analytically.
An analytical solution is provided by solving a nonhomogeneous partial
differential equation. A simple and accurate model is proposed to predict the
dimensionless shape factor parameter for the first time. The dimensionless
shape factor is obtained in the light of the solution of Poisson equation with
constant wall temperature boundary conditions. The area-mean temperature
is found by integration on the rectangular cross-section. The model is very
concise and nice for quick real world approximations, and it provides
acceptable accuracy for engineering practice.
Key words: heat conduction, rectangular solids, dimensionless shape factor,
internal heat sources, Method of Eigenfunction Expansions

1. Introduction

Heat conduction problems with internal energy sources are frequently encountered in various
applications. For example, an electric current flowing through a body has the effect of an external
energy addition (power input) to the internal portions of the body because of the dissipation due to
electrical resistance. Since the dissipated energy is to be transferred out of the body by some heat
transfer mechanism, the effect is said to be a heat source distributed throughout the body. Processes
that produce similar effects are chemical reactions distributed throughout a body, nuclear reactions in
a fissionable material exposed to a neutron flux, change of phase, and biological problems in
fermentation. Some efforts have been made to solve analytically heat conduction problems in
engineering. Rogié et al. [1] analytically modeled heat conduction of Printed Wired Board with heat
generation. Xu et al. [2] analytically studied the temperature fields in a slab for laser heating. Forslund
et al. [3] analytically modeled the moving Gaussian heat flux problem appeared in powder bed fusion
application. França and Orlande [4] carried out an investigation on heat conduction in a transistor
employing a Bayesian Approach. Shen et al. [5] performed an investigation on the effect of non-
condensable gas on heat conduction in pressure steam sterilization.
In general, exact solutions of common and simple physical models are utilized to validate the
accuracy of numerical solutions in fluid mechanics and heat transfer. Significant contributions have
been made by Haji-Sheikh et al. [6,7] and Beck et al. [8–10] for multidimensional heat conduction
problems. Beck et al. [10] discussed convergence problems for heat conduction in rectangular plates.
Wang [11] presented an analytical investigation on the steady heat-conduction problem via local
fractional derivative. Laraqi et al. [12] pointed out that heat conduction in solids subjected to non-
homogenous boundary conditions are difficult to solve by using the classical methods such as integral
transforms or separation of variables. Gao and Yang [13] proposed the local fractional Euler’s method
to consider the steady heat-conduction problem. EI Maakoul et al. [14] pointed out that the resistance
and quadruple concepts may be utilized to work out heat conduction problems.
Deng and Ge [15] considered a generalized local fractional 2-D Helmholtz equation in steady
heat transfer process. Yilmazer and Kocar [16] solved analytically heat conduction equation for an
eccentric spherical annulus. Some efforts have been made to solve differential equations in fluid flow
and heat conduction problems [17–22]. Tian [23] presented a symmetry analysis of non-linear heat
conduction equations. Harfash [24] focused on penetrative convection porous media with internal heat
generation. Bennett and Hohmann [25] highlighted the shear stress have a significant mitigating effect
on heat exchanger fouling. Monsivais et al. [26] focused on the conjugate heat transfer problem in a
thin microchannel. Li et al. [27] performed an investigation on the optimization of heat transmission
paths. A heat transmission problem in the human head was considered by Mohsenyzadeh et al. [28].
Maitama and Zhao [29] proposed a semi-analytic method for solving nonhomogeneous heat
transmission problems. Wang et al. [30] presented an optimization study of the heat source
identification.
It is difficult and time-consuming to obtain analytical solutions of heat conduction equation.
The method of separation of variables (SOV) is commonly employed to find exact solutions of heat
transmission problems. Though the SOV is a powerful approach, it may not acquire exact solutions at
nonhomogeneous boundary conditions. The standard separation of variables procedure for steady heat
transmission is the means recommended in heat transmission textbooks. For instance, Carslaw and
Jaeger [31], Arpaci [32], Özişik [33], Schneider [34], Bejan [35], and Kakaç et al. [36] point out that
the SOV is the appropriate way to work out heat transmission problems. However, the SOV often
produces analytical solutions having low convergence. The problem was clearly identified in
References [8,37,38]. Hayat et al. [39] solved the convergence of the temperature equations employing
the homotopy technique. The convergence of the SOV solutions has not been detailedly discussed in
heat conduction textbooks published over the last six decades. Therefore, solving the area-mean
temperature of an object by integration is extremely difficult.
Selecting the proper form of solutions can reduce significantly the number of terms in the
summations. This paper deals with a typical two-dimensional heat conduction problem in the rectangle
with consistently distributed heat generation. The series solution having rapid convergence is obtained
by solving a nonhomogeneous partial differential equation utilizing the Method of Eigenfunction
Expansions. A model is first proposed for precise prediction of a dimensionless shape factor parameter.
The conduction shape factor which is composed of area-average temperature difference, internal heat
generation, thermal conductivity of the solid media, and a representative dimension of the cross-
section. The developed solution can be easily applied to engineering practice and verification of the
accuracy of numerical solutions.

2. Theoretical Analysis

In this work, it is considered that typical 2D steady-state heat conduction problems with
consistently distributed heat generation which are idealizations of more involved problems frequently
encountered in practice. For instance, thermal management system controls lithium batteries to work
in a suitable temperature range for electric vehicle application.
 The steady heat transmission in the rectangular solid media 2a × 2b × L with uniform surface
temperature Ts is shown in Figure 1. The surface of the solid media is cooled by external systems so
that its temperature is nearly constant. The power of the heat source in the solid is q and the thermal
conductivity of the solid media is k. It is assumed that the dimension of the rectangular solid in the z
direction is sufficiently large so that heat flow may be considered as two-dimensional.

Figure 1. Heat conduction in a rectangular solid

We are interested in the temperature distribution T(x, y) of the rectangle, in order to simplify the
solution we introduce the temperature difference expressed as θ = T(x, y) − Ts. The governing equation
of heat transmission in this solid with heat generation can be expressed as follows:
 2  2 q
 2  (1)
x 2
y k
where k represents the thermal conductivity of the rectangular solid media and q denotes the
uniformly distributed volumetric heat generation. Due to symmetry, the boundary conditions can be
written in the following form:

  x, b   0 0 xa (2)

  a, y   0 0 yb (3)


0 0 xa (4)
y y 0


0 0 yb (5)
x x 0

The transformed Poisson equation and the corresponding boundary conditions may be expressed
as follows:
   qb 2
2 2

2  
 ax    (6)
2 y 2
  b
k

where ε = b/a, the ratio of width to height of the rectangular section.

x  x
  ,1  0 0 1 (7)
a  a
 y y
 1,   0 0 1 (8)
b  b
 x
0 0 1
  
y
b y
b
0
a (9)

 y
0 0 1
  ax 
(10)
x 0
b
a

Employing the Method of Eigenfunction Expansions, it is assumed that the solution of the temperature
distribution is of the form:

qb2 
 x  cos   y 
  x, y    X    n  (11)
a  b
n
k n 1

where δn is a cluster of eigenvalues, Xn is a cluster of functions of x/a, and cos(δn y/b) is a cluster of
eigenfunctions. The temperature distribution satisfies the boundary condition, Equation (9). Further,
substituting the solution into the boundary condition, Equation (7), the eigenvalues δn are determined
as follows:

 n   2n  1 n  1, 2 (12)
2
Then, the temperature distribution is obtained as follows:

sin  n cos   n
 y  n x  
  cosh  
  a 
2
  x, y  
2qb 
 b
k
 n
3 1 
 
 (13)
n 1
 cosh  n  
   
The method of SOV is generally used to determine analytical solutions of heat conduction
problems; however, the SOV often produces analytical solutions having low convergence [8]. To
obtain the average temperature of a body, it is critical and desired to utilize a method of evaluation
with fast convergence. However, the issue of the convergence of analytical solutions has not been
discussed in advanced heat conduction books published over the last six decades. Hence, further
solving for the area-mean temperature by integration is extremely difficult. As Equation (13) consists
of a rapidly convergent series, the value of any point in the cross section can be easily and quickly
determined using this series solution.
The average temperature rise of the rectangular solid is obtained by integration of Equation (13)
for the rectangular cross-section
  n 
 tanh  n 
1 x y 2qb2 


1 1
m    dA     d d  5  

(14)
A A 1 1 a b k n 1 n
 
where θm is the area-mean temperature variation. Take a rectangular solid with   1 as an example,
the variation of the values of the series solution with the number of terms is demonstrated in Figure 2.
In details, q, k are constants, here taken as unity. The convergence analysis of the developed solution
demonstrates that the single term solution gives acceptable accuracy for engineering practice.

Figure 2. The values of the developed solution of the average temperature rise versus the
number of terms in the series
Further, absolute values of the relative errors δ in the average temperature rise of rectangular
solids with various aspect ratios ( 0.1    1) for the single term solution and two terms solution are
showed in Figure 3. In details, the largest error compared to the convergence value occurs when the
aspect ratio is equal to 1, and this error of the single term solution is less than 0.7%. When higher
accuracy is required, the two terms approximation is accurate enough because of the fast convergence
performance (the largest difference is in this case less than 0.05%) [40].

Figure 3. Absolute values of the relative errors in the average temperature rise versus the
number of terms in the series
Thus, the two terms approximation is recommended as follows:
 1 64    1  3    qb
2
m =   5  tanh  2  tanh    (15)
3     243  2   k
Since Equation (15) is based on theoretical analysis, it has greater accuracy compared to those
solutions relying on the curve fitting method. In addition, the solution of the average temperature
provides a good insight into the underlying heat conduction mechanism and it can be recast as:
1
 1 64    1  3    k m
q  5  tanh  2  tanh     (16)
3    243  2    b
2

For steady heat transmission problems in solid materials, it is often handled on the basis of
conduction shape factor parameter. In numerous cases, heat conduction problems can be quite rapid
worked out by employing existing solutions to the heat conduction equation. However, these available
solutions are presented in terms of a dimensional shape factor in heat and mass transfer textbooks [41]
and are not easy to utilize.
It is well known that engineering practice is based on the combination of theoretical analysis
and experimental research, especially for heat transmission which is heavily dependent on
experimental means. In general, so far researchers and engineers followed the standard practice of
providing practical results on a simple diagram in terms of dimensionless groups which are quite
convenient to use. The graphic description of these existing results avoided a lot of difficulties related
to dealing with engineering problems on the slide rule.
For complex engineering problems, it is important and necessary to introduce a useful
dimensionless group and describe existing solutions in dimensionless form. The determination of the
proper dimensionless parameters provides a strong means for simplifying and solving engineering
problems. Moreover, the shape factor of heat transmission problems with internal heat generation is
rarely reported. Therefore, using scale analysis of the heat conduction equation, a new dimensionless
shape factor parameter of interest is proposed herein and defined as:
k m
 (17)
qs

where qs is the average surface heat flux and is an arbitrary scaling parameter that is related to the
length scales of the cross-section. This may be associated with the temperature gradient by means of
the integration for the perimeter P of the domain, and defined by:
1   
qs 
P  P
k  ds
 n 
(18)

where ∂/∂n is the directional derivative normal to the perimeter and ds is an arc length of the
perimeter.
The average surface heat flux is given by

A
qs =q (19)
P
The ratio of area to perimeter can be expressed in terms of b and aspect ratio as:
 A b
= (20)
P 1 
When the scaling parameter is selected as = Dh, the dimensionless shape factor becomes
k m
 Dh  (21)
qs Dh
For rectangular solids, we can obtain the dimensionless shape factor from the above equation.
Substituting Equations (16) and (20) into Equation (19), the average surface heat flux can be expressed
as:
12 k m 1 k m
qs = 
2  192   3   D ( ) Dh
1    1  5  tanh    tanh    h
1 (22)
    2  243  2   
This relation confirms that the average surface heat flux scales as km Dh . Hence, the shape factor
for the rectangle with internal heat source can be written as:
1 2  192    1  3  
( )= 1    1  5  tanh  2  tanh    (23)
12      243  2  
The results of dimensionless shape factor for the rectangle are obtained from Equation (23) and
presented in Figure 4 for the aspect ratio range from 0.01 to 1.
For rectangular solids, the model of the dimensionless shape factor  is developed by means of
a least-square fit of the results calculated from Equation (23) and expressed as:

( )  0.0829  0.1256  0.0707 2  0.0026 3 (24)

The conduction shape factor  is only a function of the aspect ratio and the model is very concise and
nice for quick real world approximations, and it provides acceptable accuracy for engineering practice.

Figure 4. Dimensionless shape factor as a function of aspect ratio

 We can observe from Figure 4 that the shape factor curve is rather steep at low aspect ratios but
flattens out starting with an aspect ratio value of about 0.8. The increase in shape factor with the aspect
ratio is not so pronounced at high aspect ratios. It is well understood that heat conduction is less
influenced by the aspect ratio of the geometry as the aspect ratio increases.

3. Results and Discussion

The reliability and performance of electronic chips and batteries are significantly affected by
their operating temperature [42–44]. Determining accurately of the temperature distribution and
analyzing the influence of aspect ratio on temperature distribution are critically paramount for
designing an effective cooling scheme of the thermal management for electronic applications and
electric vehicle applications. We investigated analytically steady-state heat conduction with uniformly
distributed volumetric heat sources in long rectangular solids. Temperature distributions from
Equation (13) for three typical aspect ratios 1, 0.5 and 0.2 are presented in this section.
Temperature distribution from Equation (13) for   1 is shown in Figure 5. A crucial feature
of the solution that should be captured is axial symmetry and diagonal symmetry duo to   0 at all
boundaries of the square cross-section. Figure 5(a) demonstrates the axial and diagonal symmetries of
the temperature distribution. Another significant feature of the solution that should be captured is that
the temperature gradient gradually increases from the origin to edges of the rectangle. This trend is
clearly observed in Figure 5, and Figure 5(b) demonstrates the three-dimensional structure of the
temperature distribution which is a parabolic profile with the maximum temperature in the core region
and minimum temperature at the walls.

(b)
(a)
Figure 5. Temperature distribution from Equation (13) for   1 . (a) Computational domain, (b)
three-dimensional structure of the temperature distribution
Figures 6 and 7 demonstrate the computed results of the temperature distribution on the cross-
section using Equation (13) for aspect ratios 0.5 and 0.2, respectively. The temperature distribution
corresponding to a value of θ may be obtained, and components of the heat flux can be obtained by
utilizing Equation (13) with Fourier’s law. The axial symmetry of the obtained results can be observed
in Figures 6(a) and 7(a). The temperature distribution is symmetric about x = 0 and y = 0, with ∂T/∂x =
0 at x = 0 and ∂T/∂y = 0 at y = 0 in detail. Hence, by Fourier’s law, we could know the symmetry
planes at x = 0 and y = 0 are adiabatic and therefore are heat flow lines.
 An interesting variation trend of the temperature gradient can be found that it increases from the
origin to edges of the rectangle, and larger temperature gradient appears near the walls. As can be seen
from Figures 5–7, compared with numerical methods, it is a great advantage that more accurate values
can be obtained from Equation (13) at any position of the rectangle, especially near the walls and at
the corners. Compared with numerical means, the developed solution is a more appropriate choice
because its cost is negligible. In case of numerical solution, the computational grid should be refined
near the region of high temperature gradients in order to achieve grid independency. This is not
required when the present analytical approach is used. In addition, it is visually observed for all figures
that the maximum temperature occurs in the core region and the minimum temperature at the walls.
Although not shown here, similar trends are also observed for other aspect ratios.

Figure 6. Temperature distribution from Equation (13) for   0.5

Figure 7. Temperature distribution from Equation (13) for   0.2

4. Conclusions

This paper provides an exact analytical solution for steady-state heat transmission with
uniformly distributed volumetric heat sources in long rectangular solids. A dimensionless shape factor
parameter was introduced and its solution was first obtained. This factor depends on the area-average
temperature difference, the average wall heat flux, the thermal conductivity and a characteristic scaling
parameter of the cross-section. The analytical solution provides highly precise values of the
temperature distribution, and the area-average temperature difference is found by integration on the
rectangular cross-section. The obtained solution can be easily applied to engineering practice and
verification of numerical solutions.
Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2017YFB0102101)
and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51576013). The authors acknowledge
Professors Michael Yovanovich and Yuri Muzychka, who meant a lot to the work.

Nomenclature

A – cross-sectional area, [m2]

a – major semi-axis of rectangle, [m]
b – minor semi-axis of rectangle, [m]
Dh – hydraulic diameter (= 4A/P), [m]
k – thermal conductivity, [Wm-1K-1]
L – length of solid, [m]
P – perimeter, [m]
q – internal volumetric heat sources, [Wm-3]
qs , qs – heat flux and mean surface heat flux, [Wm-2]
T, Ts – temperature and surface temperature, [K]
Xn – function of x/a, [–]
x, y, z – Cartesian coordinates, [m]
Greek symbols
δn – eigenvalues, [–]
ε – aspect ratio (= b/a), [–]
 – dimensionless shape factor, [–]
θ – temperature rise (= T (x, y) − Ts), [K]
θm – area-average temperature rise, [K]

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Received: 15.04.2020.

Revised: 24.07.2020.

Accepted: 24.08.2020.