FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Trace Evidence
Trace evidence analysis is the discipline of forensic science that deals with minute transfers of materials
that cannot be seen with the unaided eye. The handling and analysis of trace evidence requires care and
specialized techniques. The sub-disciplines within Trace Evidence Analysis will be presented into separate
topics. 

1. Impression Evidence, Forensic Casting and Toolmarks

Impression evidence:

-can be defined as objects or materials that have retained the characteristics of other objects through
direct contact.

-are created when one object is pressed against another material with enough force to leave an
impression of the object.

-Shoeprints, tool marks, tire tracks, bite marks, and marks on a fired bullet are several examples of
impression evidence

-Impressions may be found in or on many different types of materials. The quality of the impression
depends on the object making the impression and the surface conditions, such as how hard or soft it is
and what type of material it is (soil, mud, dust, concrete, grass, skin, etc.)

Types of Shoe Print and Tire Impression

1.Two Dimensional (Patent Impression) 2. Visible Prints

-impressions are usually found on a hard - Prints (impressions) are usually readily
surface that has been contacted by a shoe sole apparent.
or tire tread that has left behind or removed
residue or other materials. -When a shoe or tire comes in contact with
either a liquid substance such as paint, grease,
-Details of the sole or tread pattern can be seen blood, water; or a dry residue such as fire
on the surface. extinguisher powder, flour, safe insulation; and
then contacts a hard surface, a visible print will
-impressions that are already visible. be deposited.

as people walk, they can acquire dust, dirt, - Usually these prints are fairly stable and can
residues, grease, oil, blood, and moisture into be recovered during normal crime scene
the shoes  processing as long as they are adequately
protected from inadvertent destruction.
-Shoes then deposit these materials back into
other surfaces that leaves a track  -The exception would be if the print consists of
water or a volatile liquid (gasoline) that may
Positive impressions. -are made when the shoe quickly evaporate, documentation and recovery
or tire has deposited or left behind residue. should then be an immediate priority

Negative impressions -occur when preexisting

residue is removed when contacted by a shoe
sole or tire tread.
3. Latent Prints 4. Three-dimensional (Plastic print)

-Prints (impressions) are usually made when -impressions are created when a shoe sole or
relatively clean, dry shoes deposit or remove a tire tread contacts the ground or a soft surface
very thin layer of residue such as dust. with sufficient force to cause a deformation of
that surface.
- Because these deposits occur in trace
quantities and often lack contrast to the surface, -impression is a negative impression of the shoe
they may not be readily visible and are often sole or tire tread and will reveal length, width,
overlooked. and depth characteristics.

-Searching the crime scene with a strong -these impressions will be photographed, the
oblique light source or making a blind search surface will be prepared (stabilized) for casting,
with an electro-static lifting device may reveal the impression will be rephotographed and a
these impressions. plaster cast will be made
 

The characteristics of impression evidence that allow for a comparative examination largely consist of
three (3) elements

1.Design Characteristics

- This is the basic pattern of the shoe sole or tire tread design.

- These patterns are usually patented although illegal copies or “knock-offs” are often
reproduced) and are somewhat specific to a manufacturer.

-Usually many shoes or tires are produced that have this basic pattern design
Features to analyze:

A. Manufacturer, B. Approximate height and C. Activity of wearer when imprint

model and size of wearer: was made:
the footwear or
thread pattern -Measurements of footwear -analysis of an impression can also be
impression dimensions can be used help determine the activity of the
-examination for the used to provide the approximate wearing when the imprint was made.
general outsole height of a suspect.
patterns and shapes, -imprint left by person is different
footwear design -With shoeprint size when they are walking, running or
features and feature information, investigators can carry heavy loads.
markings refer to statistical data to
approximate the height of the -impression left by running person will
person since shoeprint vs. height typically deeper in the heel and toe
relationship follows a normal sections of the shoeprint.
distribution.
-Impression left carrying a heavy load
-Height can also be approximate will cause deeper prints than a person
by stride length which could be not carrying anything
measured from a set of footwear
impressions
2. Wear patterns

-As the shoe is worn or tire is used on a vehicle the pattern area will wear down as erosion of the
tread or sole material takes place. This wear pattern generally follows a somewhat “normal
progression”. however, other factors such as the gait or walking pattern of an individual wearing
the shoes, or the front-end misalignment of the tires on a vehicle or the under or over inflation of
the tires will have an effect on the overall wear pattern. Although normally the wear pattern
alone will not provide the basis for positive identification, it does impart some individuality or
agreement between the comparison of the known shoe/tire and the unknown found at the crime
scene. 
3. Accidental Characteristics

-during the normal use of a shoe or tire some damage such as small cuts and nicks are imparted
on the tread or pattern surface, characteristics are known as “accidental” and occur randomly on
all tire and shoe designs commonly in use.

-Assuming the agreement of the design characteristics and wear patterns, the “match” of
accidental characteristics may allow for the positive identification of a particular shoe or tire as
having made a particular impression.
2. Forensic Casting
Tool marks

Crimes against property frequently involve the use of a tool in order for the criminal to gain entry into the
premises. By applying force with the tool, the criminal usually accomplishes two distinct things. He/she
gains entry and unwittingly leaves tool marks. These tool marks can be highly identifiable and of great
evidentiary value.

No two tools are alike in every detail. Thus, they will not leave identical impressions. Tools may have
obvious differences in size, with, thickness or shape. They also have minute differences that are only seen
when tools are examined under a microscope. This minute difference can be cause by manufacturing,
grinding and finishing, uneven wear and unusual use or misuse. They also may be caused by accidents,
sharpening and alterations or modifications made by users of the tools. From these minute differences, it
may be possible to identify the tool that made a given impressions.  

Tool- an instrument or object capable of making a mark on other objects is considered as a tool.
Examples: axes, knives, screwdriver, chisels, crowbars, pliers, cutters and drills bits. Tools may be store
brought at home made.

Tool mark- is defined as any impression, compression, cut, gouge, scratch, indentation or any other
markings left in an object by another harder objects or instruments. There are two general types of tool
marks:

Impressions: are those tool marks in which Striations: are those tool marks in which
only the general form, size of the tool is peculiar characteristics or irregularities of the
apparent. When tool is pressed into some type tool are reproduced in the form of indentations
of materials, it produces a negative impression. or striations. These marks are the most valuable
These negative impressions or marks may not as evidence since they can sometimes positively
make a definite identification of the tool, identify a particular tool to the exclusions of the
possible However; they can serve as a guide others.
when it is necessary to decide, whether or not,
the tool of a suspect could produce the marks.
 

How tool marks are created:

1.Compression:  is made when a tool is pressed against or into a receptive surface. It is also a
static indentation made by blows using a tool. It is known also as Negative impression.

Examples:  The mark made by a crowbar used to pry open a door or a window is a negative
impression. Hammer marks-sledge, ballpen, claw, screwdriver pry marks, opposed jaw marks
made by pliers, bolt cutters, pipe wrench.
2.Friction:  is a dynamic mark, most often leaving striations made by the unique edge
irregularities of a particular tool.  It is also known as abrasion mark which is made when a tool
cuts into or slides across a surface.

Examples. This type of marks may be made by a pair of pliers, a bolt cutter, knife, ax, or saw or
it may be made by drill, a plane, or a die in manufacturing.
3.Repetition or combination:  is a repeated dynamic mark left by tools such as files or saws.
These are very difficult to identify because of the great number of teeth and the confusion of the
marks left. Examples: When a cowbar is forced into the space between a door and its facing and
pressure is then applied to the handle of the tool to force the door open. The force insertion of
the crowbar makes an abrasion or friction marks. The levering action produces a negative
impression. The visible result is a combination of the two.
 

Laboratory examination of tool marks

The examination of tool marks is based on the same principles and techniques used for fingerprints and
firearms identification. Tools leave unique characteristics traces that cannot be reproduced exactly by any
other tool. In the laboratory test marks are made with the suspects tools on materials like those on which
tool marks are present. The test marks are then compared with the suspect tool marks and examine under
comparison microscope.

1. Class characteristics  2. Individual characteristics

    Tool marks left at the scene of a crime, Tools that are similar in class characteristics are
usually will reveal microscopic characteristics often quite different in their individual
that can help reveal the class characteristics of characteristics. These individual characteristics
the tool that was used. The class characteristics are derived from the processes used to produce
of a tool are usually considered as a the tool and the manner in which the tool has
functionally from another. Therefore, been used. Often, small burrs or nicks will
screwdrivers may be considered as a class apart develop on the bit of the screwdriver, producing
from crowbars   since they have different individual characteristics of the tool. If the
intended functions. The class characteristics of material subjected to the tool marks is soft
the tool serve as screening device in criminal enough, it will retain minute impressions or
investigation and allow one to narrow the field striations reflection
of search, which is especially valuable in
achieving positive identification of the tool that
left the impression.

Number Restoration
The identification of stolen property found or recovered by the police is often a necessary procedure to be
able to return the property to the owners or to identify the articles. In many cases the owner can identify
the property by special peculiarities but even in such cases difficulties arises in making the identification.
The articles are normally with serial number or a monogram or other inscription that serves to identify
them. In order to destroy this identification, a finder or stealer will erase the identifying marks by some
suitable methods such as filing, chiseling of filing. It the job of the police to reconstruct or restore the
numbers so that the articles may be identified as a stolen property

1. Serial Number
Is a series of digits that is placed on a particular item to distinguish that item from others like it. It is
sometime preceded by interpolated or followed by letters or symbols. It is planned, recorded number that
corresponds to a system of numbering.

As a rule, the serial number is not used on two similar articles. A serial number is often the only positive
means of identifying an item; this is significant source of the frequency with which numbered articles are
stolen, ownership of numbered articles in the commission of the crime.

Importance of number restoration:

1. Serial numbers offers the investigators a key to the record of reported theft or abandonment of repair,
repossession, and registration etc by means of number restoration.

2. Establish investigative leads from the articles that were found at the scene.

3. To prove that the property was found in the possession of suspect

4. Establish government ownership of recovered property that is believed to have been stolen, lost or
abandoned.

5. Resolve conflicting claims to property that has been stolen and recovered by investigators

6. Satisfy ownership of property that has been recovered by the investigators.

Spot detection of obliterated or tampered serial numbers:

1. The serial number is concealed or hidden

2. Presence of any signs of welding surrounding the serial numbers
3. Presence of several scratches and filling marks
4. Presence of concavity
5. Disalignment numbers and digits
6. Double stamping of numbers and digits
7. Irregularity on the size, style and spacing of individual letters and numbers
8. Uneven depthness in stamping of letters and digits.
9. absence of rating plate
10. Absence of one or more letters before, in between or after a set of sequential digits.
11. Alteration of the production number
12. Model of the vehicle in the chassis number does not tally with that from the rating plate.

RA6539; An act Preventing and penalizing carnappings:

1. Carnappings- is the taking of with intent to gain a motor vehicle belonging to another without the
latter’s consents, or by means of violence against intimidation of persons or by using force upon
things.
2. Motor vehicle- any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular power.
3. Defacing or tampering with a serial number is erasing, scraping, altering or changing of the original
factory inscribed serial number on the motor vehicle, engine, engine blocks or chassis number of
the motor vehicle 
4. Repainting- changing the color of a motor vehicle by means of painting
5. Body building- replace the entire body of a motor vehicle with new body
6. Remodeling- changes in shape or form of the body of the motor vehicle
7. Dismantling- tearing a part, piece by piece or part of a motor vehicle
8. Overhauling- cleaning or repairing of the whole engine of a motor vehicle, by separating the motor
engine and its part from the body of the motor vehicle.

Petrography as applied to crime detection (soil, dust and mineral)

Is a branch of geology which deals with the systematic classification and identification of rock-forming
minerals and soils. Minerals are materials found on earth crusts

1. Soil analysis
Purpose

1. Soils have forensic value when they are used as an aid to an investigation. The forensic geologist may
be able to determine from his experience or use of geologic maps, the locations from which the soil
samples similar to those being studied could be found, thus providing possible sources of the sample.

2. Indication of location of the crime scene. The soil found on the clothing of a suspect could possibly
indicate particular place the crime occurred.

3. Elimination of large areas for search. Upon identification of the kind of soil obtained from the subject, it
is easier to locate the crime scene since other known soils are eliminated.

4. In a small number of cases, soil themselves are evidence since they are used to prove a certain facts.

B. Limitations of soil analysis

1. Sufficient materials must be available for examination. Sufficient samples must be collected (from the
crime scene or the subjects) for comparison.

2. Soils collected from other locations. Soil may be collected by the subjects in many locations in addition
to or other than the crime scene.
3, Presence of soil is not conclusive.

C. important things to consider

1. The method used for examination must take full advantage of the diversity of soils and can be selected
to provide the best information for characterizing the soil.

2. Methods to be used in the analysis must be appropriate to the samples.

Soil

Mixture of organic and inorganic material, may range from 100% inorganic (sand) to nearly 100% organic
(peat).The inorganic part is minerals and the organic part is decayed plant and animal material and is
sometimes called human

Factors in the Formation of soil

Parent material from which the soil is formed. (Soil parent material could be bedrock,
material organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit from water, wind, glaciers,
volcanoes, or material moving down a slope).
Climate Heat, rain, ice, snow, wind, sunshine and other environmental forces break down
the parent material and affect how fast or slow soil processes go
Organisms plants and animals living in or on the soil (including micro-organisms and
humans!), the amount of water and nutrients plants need affects the way soil
forms, animals living in the soil affect decomposition of waste materials and how
soil materials will be moved around in the soil profile, dead remains of plants and
animals become organic matter which enriches the soil and the  way humans use
soils affect soil formation.
Topography The location of a soil on a landscape can affect how the climatic processes impact
it. (Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water than soils on the slopes, and
soils on the slopes that directly face the sun will be drier than soils on slopes that
do not).
Time All of the above factors assert themselves over time, often hundreds or thousands
of years. Soil profiles and their horizons change as you move across a landscape,
and also change as you move downward deeper into the soil at one location
 

Soil Evidence

1.Class characteristics: the type of soil may 2.  Individual characteristics: only if the soil has
have similar characteristics at the primary an unusual or specialized ingredient such as
and/or secondary crime scene, on the suspect or pollen, seeds, vegetation, or fragments
on the victim
2. Dust
- is a fine particles of organic and inorganic substances suspended in the atmosphere. The substance
includes animal fibers, vegetables fibers, pollen, silica, bacteria and molds.

Classification of dust

   As is a complex mixture of distinctively various types of particles and fibers, it might have a great value
or information for criminal investigation. If particular combination of some unique components in dust is
established, it can be a strong proof of contact with a particular place, A lot of interesting issues are still
remained untouched in forensic dust evidence.

1.Dust deposited from the air

It is extremely fine dust which are present everywhere in air but more abundant in
thickly populated and industrial regions. Although these particles settle very slowly, they are
ultimately deposited on any expose surface. The value of these particles of dust in crime
detection is relatively insignificant through they may occasionally record surface footprints and
impressions of clothing or glove fingers
2.Road and footpath dust

These are produced by wear and tear of the road surface by vehicular pedestrian traffic with
particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining region. Road dust which are brought
from the field consist largely of soil and rock debris together with minute fragments of decayed
plants materials and possibly animal manure and other form of fertilizers. Such debris will
naturally  vary with the type of rock and soil from which it is derived.
3.Industrial dust

In some cities atmospheric dust also contains a large number of smoke particles and

tarry soot particles. In an industrial city the air may contain more than three millions particles
per cubic centimeter, but above the middle of the ocean or in high mountains the count maybe
just few thousand per cubic centimeters. The size of dust particles varies from about half a
micrometer (0.0002in) to several times this size. The particles remain suspended in air for a long
period of time and maybe carried to a great distance. 

The heavy concentration of dust in the air over large cities is a serious pollution problem.

In places such as four and sugar mills and coal mines a concentration of flammable particles
constitutes an explosion hazard. Silica particles in dust are destructive to machinery because of
their hardness, they can also be injurious when inhales (Silicosis).
4.Occupational dust

Some of the finely powdered materials mentioned maybe found in clothing or footwear

of the person engaged in such industry. There are other kinds of job and occupational callings
which leaves their traces on the clothing and in the fingernails of those who practice them. Other
occupational dusts are not so obvious.

 Example.

1. The discovery of glue and minute fragments of wood on the clothing of the suspect. The
inference was that the owner of the coat was a cabinet worker. The conclusion was also

 confirmed.

2. Various kinds of paper fibers, traces of cloth, glue and leather from books characterize the
clothing of the suspect which is a librarian.

3. Sometimes diagnostic feature of an occupational dust may consist of one or group of

distinctive mold and fungi. Thus the clothing of a laborer of San Miguel Brewer may contain
both yeast and molds.
Collection and submission of evidence:

Dust and dirt specimen are removed from clothing by several methods.

1. Brush sampling -procedure is used for loose or lightly attached particles. Synthetic bristle
brushes work best because it is difficult to remove some particles from hair scales as camel
hairs. Glass sealed envelope or resealable plastic bag is used for preservation.
 2. Scrape sampling -Razor blades or scalpels are preferred for particles or stains that tightly
held on surfaces. But cautions have to be taken because razor blade can damage some surfaces.
Push the scrapings together with the blade and scoop them into a plastic container.
3. Adhesive tape sampling -Clear cellophane tape attached to a glass microscope slide is the
most common of the adhesive tape sampling. Check whether the adhesive tape can damage the
surface or not before sampling.
4. Wipe sampling -variety of wiping materials including cloths, swabs and filter papers have
been used to sample surfaces for contamination. Recently, a plastic wipe is preferred for
microscopic particles identification a resealable plastic bag is used for preservation.
5. Vacuum sampling Both a full size modified vacuum cleaner and a smaller size modified
hand-held vacuum system have been used to collect dust. But these vacuum samples can collect
only particles greater than 5 um and therefore may not include all the particles of interest to a
microscopy. Air sampling pump with a flow rate between 1 and 15 L/min is used for vacuum.
3. Soil analysis/examinations
A. Physical examination

1. Color determination- it is th8e most important identifying characteristics of minerals and soils. It is the
first examination made in the laboratory. Soil color is naturally caused by the presence of minerals and
organic compounds. Soil particles become stained, coated and impregnated with mineral and organic
compounds. In most situations, the coatings on the soil particles consist of iron, aluminum, organic matter,
clay and other substances. It is the quality and composition of the coating which usually give the main
coloration to the weathered soil or soil materials                                                             

a. reddish soil-usually caused by the amount of iron present and its oxidation
b. black mineral soil-related to manganese or various iron-manganese combinations
c. green color- due to concentration of specific mineral rather than of the mineral coatings.
Ex .cooper minerals, chlorites and glauconite
d. deep blue-purple coloration- due to mineral vivianite, and iron phosphate
e. dark reddish-brown to nearly black brown--combinations of iron and humic acids
2. Soil-particle-size examination- the weight of the material in each particles size range is determined on
diagrams.

 1.Density gradient column technique

-the weight of the particle per unit volume is expressed as grams per cubic meter. It is used in
determining density of individual particles in a soil sample such sample of soil sample soil is
similar o the standard soil collected.
a. Sieving method

- soil sample will pass through a nest of wire sieves with the size of the opening decreasing from
top to bottom.

Dry sieving- is considered unsatisfactory since the small particles tend to cluster together and
clay

tends to adhere to larger particle

b. Settling method

- It determines the rate of settling of the rains in a fluid which corresponds to its measurement in
terms of size of the particles
c. Hydrometer method

- rapid method for determining the percentage of sand, silt and clay in the sample. This method
is rapid and accurate
d. Pipette method

 - method consist of preheating the sample of dispersing the soil in   water and calculating the
time required for various sized particles to settle out from the suspension.
e. Elutriation

– separation of the finer and lighter particles from coarser and heavier particles in a mixture by
means of elutriator, an apparatus for separating particles according to size.
f. Decantation

- process of decanting soil components by pouring the soil solution from one container to
another container without disturbing the underlying sediments or precipitates on the lower liquid
layers.
g.Centrifugation

- Separation of soil particles having different densities by using centrifuge machine

h. Plummet method

- used to determine the specific gravity of the soil sample

 

Chemical soil analysis

Soil has chemical properties that are derived from material or conditions that exists between the minerals
grains. These materials or conditions may be natural, (soil bacteria) or man-made (chemical fertilizers).
Identification of these properties can be important in identifying the source of a soil sample or in coming
to the judgment of similarity or comparison.

1.Ph-is a unit to measure soil acidity, neutrality and alkalinity. 

2. Saccharide content--determine the saccharide contents of soil
3. Enzymatic characterization-
4. Walkey-black method- it is a method to determine organic matter percentage in soil
5.Ammonium acetate method- it determine the cation exchange capacity of soil
6.EDTA titration method- determines calcium and magnesium content of the soil
7.Cold H2SO4 method– exchangeable potassium content of the soil
8.Bray No 2 method- determines the possible phosphorous content of the soil
4. Mineral
 -is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and stable at room temperature

-representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic

-has an ordered atomic structure.

-distinguished by various chemical and physical properties

Physical properties of minerals

Crystal -results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal
structure and structure of a mineral.
habit
-Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal
Hardness -hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching.

-physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline

structure of a mineral.

-mineral's hardness is not necessarily constant for all sides, which is a function
of its structure; most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs
hardness scale
3.Lustre and Luster: indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its
diaphaneity quality and intensity

Diaphaneity: describes the ability of mineral to allow light to pass through it

4.Colour and Color:  is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic.
streak It is caused by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons (except in the
case of incandescence, which does not apply to minerals).

 Streak:  refers to the color of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may
not be identical to its body color
Specific numerically describes the density of a mineral, dimensions of density are mass
gravity divided by volume with units: kg/m3 or g/cm3 or it measures how much water a
mineral sample displaces

Glass and Glass Fractures

Glass: In the technical sense, glass is an inorganic product of fusion which has been cooled to a rigid
condition without crystallizing. Many glasses contain silica as their main component and glass former.

In the scientific sense the term glass is often extended to all amorphous solids (and melts that easily form
amorphous solids), including plastics, resins, or other silica-free amorphous solids. In addition, besides
traditional melting techniques, any other means of preparation are considered, such as ion implantation,
and the sol-gel method. However, glass science commonly includes only inorganic amorphous solids,
while plastics and similar organics are covered by polymer science, biology and further scientific
disciplines.

Glass plays an essential role in various scientific fields and in industry. The optical and physical properties
of glass make it suitable for applications such as flat glass, container glass, optics and optoelectronics
material, laboratory equipment, thermal insulator (glass wool), reinforcement fiber (glass-reinforced
plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and art.

The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier,
Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent,
lustrous substance.

1. Two kinds of glass fractures

Two kinds of glass fractures:

Radial fractures -is a primary Concentric fractures- are secondary fractures having the
fractures that resemble the spokes appearance of circles around the point of impact connecting
of a wheel radiating outward from one radiating crack to the other, thus forming triangular
the point of impact. Radial cracks pieces of glass. Concentric cracks are fractures forming in
are fractures extending outward an approximately circular pattern around the point of
from the point of impact. impact. They are usually in straight segments that terminate
in an existing radial crack
 

Definition of terms:

1. Cone or crater (Hertzian cone) is a funnel-shaped area of damage caused by a high-velocity impact.

2. Hackle is a line on the crack surface running parallel to the local direction of crack spreading.

3. Ream is an imperfection; nonhomogeneous layers of flat glass.4

4. Wallner lines (ridges) are rib-shaped marks with a wave-like pattern. Wallner lines are called rib marks or
ridges to describe their shape and are almost always concave in the direction from which the crack was
propagating.

 The Breaking of glass:

            When a force pushes on one side of a pane glass, the elasticity of glass permits it to bend in the
direction of the forced applied. Once the elastic limit is exceeded, the glass begins to crack. Radial cracks
are first commencing on the same side of the glass opposite to the destructive force. Concentric cracks
occur afterwards, starting on the same side as the force.

 Derivations from the study of fractures:

1.Point of Impact :The front of the glass can be determined due to the accumulation of dust and
dirt on the glass
2.Direction of impact :A bullet will make a clear cut hole in the side of the entrance rather than
on the exit side If fired perpendicularly, it will give a crater of uniform flaking. If shot is fired at
an angle from the right, the left side of the glass will give more flaking and vice versa.
Depression will be produced on the exit side of the glass due to the rebound of the glass. Radial
fractures can be felt on the exit side and concentric fractures on the entrance side.
3 .Cause of fractures

 Thermal Fractures  due to heat does not exhibit a definite pattern of radial and concentric
fractures but are characteristically wavy. They show little stress lines whereas fractures due to
mechanical means show a definite pattern of radial and concentric fractures
4.Determination of the sequence of multiple bullet holes

The radial fractures from the second bullet hole always terminate into the fractures from the first
bullet hole, the radial fractures from a third bullet terminate into the radial fractures from the
second bullet, and so forth.
  5. Determining the direction from which a bullet was fired: Compare the size of the entrance
hole to the size of the exit hole

  a. Exit holes: always larger, regardless of the type of material that was shot a larger piece of
glass is knocked out of the surface where the bullet is leaving because glass is elastic and bows
outward when struck.

  b. Entrance holes: bullet makes a very small hole when it enters glass always blows back in the
direction of the impact because of its elasticity, glass snaps back violently after being stressed
and can blow shattered glass back several meters and most of the shattered glass lands on the
impacted side of the glass, instead of by the exit hole.

Gunpowder Determination and Explosives

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, law enforcement officers need an
understanding to gunpowder, their burning characteristics and the way in which their burning rates may
be change in order to determine the following:

1.Whether the suspect/victim fired the firearms.

2.Whether the firearms were fired or not

3.The approximate distance of the firer to its target

1. Gunpowder
In more recent times, the general term “gunpowder” is replaced by the term “propellant”, which is the
primary propulsive force in a cartridge which when exploded will cause the bullet to be driven forward
towards the gun muzzles.

In a shooting case there are two types of gunshot residue that occur during the discharge of a firearm

Primer gunshot residue (GSR) Gunshot residue (GSR)

 - comprised of fused particles of the -is principally composed of burnt and unburnt particles
elements lead, barium and antimony.  from the explosive primer, the propellant, as well as
components from the bullet , the cartridge case and
- identification of GSR can only the firearm  used.
associate a subject with a firearm. 
 -there are authors who use other definitions, such as
- analysis is conducted by scanning cartridge discharge residue (CDR) or firearm discharge
electron microscopy coupled with residue (FDR).
energy dispersive spectroscopy
(SEM/EDS - is the residue that gets deposited on the hands of the
 shooter after the bullet has been fired.

It may or may not have some burnt, unburnt or semi-burnt

particles
 

Powder gunshot residue Modified Walker test( Griess test

-is pattern evidence that originates from the -is performed by first treating a piece of
muzzle of a firearm and is deposited on the desensitized photographic paper with a
target.  chemical mixture of sulfanilic acid in distilled
water and alpha-naphthol in methanol
-this residue pattern can be comprised of un-
burnt and partially burnt gun powder, -the resulting reaction will appear as orange
particulate metals and nitrites.  specks on the piece photographic paper

 -Pattern comparison and chemical testing can

assist in determining muzzle to target distance. 
Gunpowder range determination Factors to consider in determining the
approximate distance of the firer to its victim:
-gunshot residue can travel out from the gun to
distances of 3–5 feet (0.9–1.5 meters) or even 1. Size
farther.
2. Density
-at the farthest distance, only a few trace
particles may be present. 3. Pattern of gunpowder

-this information can be useful in determining if  

someone was near a gun while it was
discharged. - As the distance to the victim increases the size
of the pattern increases while the density
- GSR can match the residue left on clothes to decreases and vice versa.
match a specific gun
 

Paraffin test Interpretation of the result

chemical test is also known as 1. Characteristics of the specks; small,

minute blue specks.
-dermal nitrate  
2. Distribution of the specks: more than
-diphenylamine test. two(2) specks should be present for
positive results for the presence of
-lunge’s or gonzales test gunpowder.

-detects two polyatomic ions (nitrites and nitrates) that 3. Location of the specks; mostly found
originate from gunpowder or primer on the dorsal portion of the thumb and
index finger.
-positive test produces blue flecks in the paraffin in
response to deposits on the hands of the shooter
Presence or absence of gunpowder residues may Substances that will give a false positive
depend on several factors: reaction:

1. Types and caliber of the firearms Urine

2. Length of the barrel of the firearms Tobacco/cigarettes

3. Distance of the gun muzzle of the gun to the target Detergents

4. Humidity Cosmetics
5. Wind Velocity Explosives        

6. Direction of firing Fertilizers

7. Nature of the materials into which the gun was fired Firecrackers                 

8. Use of gloves Food samples

9. When 72 hours or three(3) days had lapse Matches

2. Test for Primer components (powder residue)

A. Harrison & Gilroy test

It was developed by Harrison and Gilroy to determine just three elements.

Procedure:

The hands of the subject are swab moistened with dilute hydrochloric acid.

The swab is dried and treated with triphenymethylarsonium iodide.

it is dried again then treated with sodium rhodosinate and finally dilute hydrochloric acid was
added.

Results:

1. If antimony is present on the swab, the first reagent ( triphenymethylarsonium iodide)-

    would give a orange color.

2. If lead and barium is present, the second reagent (sodium rhodizonate) would give a

    red color.

3. If lead is present the addition of dilute hydrochloric acid turn the spots purple.

Limitations:

            The test is not sensitive enough and may give misleading results.
B. Neuron Activation Analysis (NAA)

            It used in the qualitative analysis of major, trace and rare elements. The principle
involved in neuron activation analysis consists of first radiating a sample with neurons in a
nuclear reactor to produce specific radionuclides. After the irradiation, the characteristics
gamma rays emitted by the decaying nucleotides are quantitatively measured by gamma
spectroscopy, where the gamma rays detected at a particular energy are indicative of a specific
radio nucleotides presence. It detects barium, antimony but not lead. To collect samples for it,
use cotton swabs with plastic handles dip in a mild hydrochloric or nitric acid solution and wipe
the hands with the swabs where the residue is expected to be present.
C. Flameless Atomic Absorption spectrophotomerty (FAAS)

            It detects antimony, lead, barium and copper. It is capable of measuring the amounts of
various elements present. The sampling method is similar to that of NAA system except that 5%
nitric acid solution must be used.
D. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

            Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis (SEM-NEDA) has
become an excellent method for detection of gunshot residue. It is considered the most reliable
test but requires the use of scanning electron microscope, a very expensive piece of equipment.
Samples are taken from the hand with tape.it looks for the distinctive shape of gunpowder and
then X-rays the particles to determine the elements present.

3. EXPLOSIVES
EXPLOSIVES:

Any explosive material has the following characteristics:

            It is chemically or otherwise energetically unstable. The initiation produces a sudden expansion of
the material accompanied by large changes in pressure (and typically also a loud flash or loud noise)
which is called explosion.

Classification of explosions as to the source of energy:

1. Mechanical explosion- cause by expansion of gasses producing high pressures beyond the
capacity of the container. It involves the use of machines or tools or produced by machine.
Examples:  machine use by arm forces particularly mechanical weapons.
2. Electrical explosion-associated with the energy of electricity to create explosions
3. Nuclear Explosion-involving the use of atomic nuclei or nuclear transformation. Most
industrialized and powerful countries create nuclear weapons and use it to distract other
countries, because once this nucleonic proper explode it creates another form of nucleus and
causes harmful effects towards living matter.
4. Atomic explosion-which the energy is associated with atoms, or consisting of atoms,
5. Chemical explosion-called a chemical reaction. It is a change in which a substance is
transformed into chemically different substance
 

Classification of explosives:

            The speed of the chemical reaction or detonation of the explosive determines the classification of
explosives:

1. Low explosives:

             Low explosives burn through deflagration rather than a detonation wave, are usually a mixture, are
ignited by heat and require confinement to create an explosion. They are use primarily as propellants; they
undergo auto combustion at rates that vary from few centimeters per second to approximately 400 meters
per second

A. Black Powder

            Black powder, the oldest explosives, this is an explosive substance that consists of carbon material
(charcoal is common, nitrate and sulfur. All such powders are extremely flammable, they are design to
intend to burn rapidly and vigorously when ignited. Oxygen from air is not necessary for the combustion
of smokeless powder since they contain built in oxygen to burn completely even in a close space such as
the chambers of a firearm.

Compositions: Modifications were introduced in order to lower

the rate of burning:
1. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) + charcoal +
sulfur 1. Addition of silicate dust and graphite

2. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) + charcoal + 2. Addition of resin

sulfur
3. Substitution of pitch or cuprene for charcoal,
3. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) + charcoal + mixing black powder with nitrocellulose dissolves
sulfurless black powder in solvent
 
B. Smokeless powder:

            Smokeless powder is the most widely used propellants is based with nitrocellulose, It contains
stabilizers, plasticizers and coating and sometimes a burning modifiers.

Preparations:

Single base: compose of either Double base: compose of both Triple base: compose of both
cellulose nitrate or cellulose nitrate o& cellulose nitrate &
nitroglycerine nitroglycerine nitroglycerine and
nitroquanidine
 

2. High explosives:

            High explosives consist of molecules with many high-energy bonds. The shock wave breaks an
apart the molecular bonds between the atoms of the material at a rate approximately equal to the speed
of sound traveling through that substance. Because high explosives are generally solids or liquids, this
speed can be much greater than the speed of sound in air.

High explosives are conventionally subdivided into two classes and differentiated by sensitivity:

A. Primary-extremely sensitive to shock, friction and heat, they will burn rapidly or detonate if
ignited
B. Secondary- relatively insensitive to shock, friction and heat. They may burn when ignited in
small, unconfined quantities, detonation occurs otherwise.
 

Common High explosives:

  Chemical name Characteristics Uses

explosives
TNT Trinitrotoluene Light yellow, Military explosives, known second
brown or light oldest explosives
gray
Bombs, projectiles, grenades,
demolition charges, propellant
composition
RDX Triazacyclohexane White, maybe Detonating cord, blasting caps, base
dyed pink charge, projectile, bomb filler
Hexogen, cyclonite ingredients
HMX Tetranitro-tetrazacyclo- white Mixed with TNT to form explosives
octane, octagon, filler for high blast weapons, military
applications as buster charges for
Homocylonite artillery shells, components of solid
fuel rocket propellants
NG Nitroglycerine, glyceryl Colorless, Industrial explosives, main
nitrate odorless, oily components in many dynamites and an
liquid, pale ingredient in multi base propellants
yellow color
PETH Penta or ten, pentrit White crystalline, Detonating cord, blasting caps, booster
sometimes dyed charges, priming composition
green
AN Ammonium nitrate White, maybe Ingredients of explosives mixtures,
dyed & presence dynamites and fertilizers
of other colors
EGDN Ethylene glycol Transparent Mixture with nitroglycerine for low
dinitrate, nitroglycol colorless, liquid freezing dynamite
glycoldinitrate explosives
NC Nitrocellulose,guncotton Transparent Blasting explosives, smokeless
, colorless, liquid powder, propellants
explosives
cellulose, nitrate, nitro
cotton
 

3 Primary or initiating explosives:

      These explosives are less powerful than secondary explosives but are easier to detonate (most will
detonate with a hot spark but detonate better with a blasting cap.) These explosives are often used in the
blasting caps. Most fall under the category of nitrates, peroxides, nitrides, sulfides, chlorates and
acetylides.

      These are compounds which are highly sensitive to mechanical shock, friction and heat and are readily
ignitable to direct contact with flame or electrical shock.

Explosives Chemical name Characteristics Uses

1. Mercury HG(ONC)2 White to gray or  
fulminate light brown
Mercuric It is thermally unstable and very sensitive
fulminate to impact and friction. It reacts with metals
in a moist atmosphere. Beings a mercury
derivative, it is a toxic compound.
2. Lead azide PB(N3)2 White to buff to It has a good stability to heat and storage.
gray It is less sensitive to impact, but more
sensitive to fiction. It is easily ignited. It is
compatible with most explosives and
priming mixture ingredients.
3. Silver azide AGNO3   It requires less energy for initiation than
lead azide and fires with shorter time
delay. It may be used in smaller quantities
as an initiator. All azides are toxic due to
the evolution of hydrazoic acid.
4. Diazo DDNP Green, yellow, It is sparingly spluble in water, non-
Nitrophenol brown crystalline hygroscopic and less sensitive that other
powder primary explosives to impact, friction or
electrostatic energy. It is used as an
initiator in industrial blasting caps.
5. Tetrazene Tetracene Pale yellow It decomposes in boiling water. It ignites
crystalline readily and is slightly more sensitive to
explosive impact than mercury fulminate. Its main
use is for the sensitization of priming
composition.
6. Lead Lead It is thermally stable, non-corrosive and non-hygroscopic. It is
styphnate Trinitrosorcinate very sensitive to flame and to electrostatic discharge. It is
therefore used sensitize lead azide and to initiate burning in
primer compositions. The addition of graphite enhances its
electrical conductivity in system designed for electrical
initiation. 
 

Industrial Explosive

Ammonium nitrate-fuel oil explosives (ANFO)-These mixtures are made of porous prills of AN
(about 94%) soaked in fuel oil (6%). In some cases, aluminum is added to increase the explosive
strength. These explosives are inexpensive and safe to handle, but low in explosive strength and
detonation velocity. They cannot be used in the presence of water

Water Explosives Slurries and water gels Explosive’s emulsions

-explosives do not contain -explosives are made of -sensitized by air bubbles,

NG and are based on a aqueous solution of AN and introduced by means of hollow
solution of nitrates, sodium or calcium nitrate, glass or plastic bubbles.
containing 10-15% of water. gelled by the addition of
They are inexpensive and guar gum or cross-linking -neither gelled nor cross-linked
safe to produce and handle. agents. their storage time is limited.
They are unstable and
deteriorate during aging. –high detonation velocity
compensates for low explosive
strength of the constituents.
Stabilizers: -chemical compounds that are added to explosives to control the rate, characteristics
and type of reaction that ensues following the detonation. They may also be used to maintain the
chemical stability of the explosive while in storage
 

Stabilizers in explosives

1. Diphenylamine (DPA)- used in single base propellants. Since it is incompatible with

nitroglycerin, it cannot be used in double-base and triple base propellants composition
2. Dinitrotoluene (DNT)-Used as stabilizers in single base propellants. Also used as a ballistic
modifier (homogenizer) for single base propellants
3. Ethyl Centralite-used as a stabilizer, gelatinizer and waterproofing agent. It can be used in
relatively large proportions (up to 8%) of the propellant composition
4. Methyl Centralite-used as a stabilizer for multi base propellant and as a burning rate modifier.
5. 2-Nitrodiphenyamine-used for double base and triple base propellants which use
nitroglycerine as gelatinizing agent for the nitrocellulose.
6. N-methly-P-Nitroaniline (MNA)-used as a stabilizer in the manufacturer of solid fuel
propellants
7. Silica (Sio2)-occurs commonly in nature as sandstone, silica sand or quartzite. It is the
starting material for production of silicate glasses and ceramics. Silica is one of the most
abundant oxide materials in the earth’s crust. It can exist in an amorphous form (vitreous silica)
or in a variety of crystalline forms. Often it will occur as a non-crystalline oxidation product on
the surface of silicon or silicon compounds. It is used in numerous types of explosives due to
inherent stability.

Hairs and Textile Fibers

Hairs can be transferred during physical contact; their presence can associate a suspect to a victim or a
suspect /victim to a crime scene. Value of hair evidence is based on the variability of hair characteristics
between individual in the population. 

Two features that make hair a good subject for establishing individual identity.

1. resistance to chemical decomposition

2. ability to retain structural features over a long period of time

1. Morphology of Hair
1. Root- The root and other surrounding cells contained within the hair follicle provides the tools
necessary to produce hair and continue its growth. A human head hair grows in three developmental
stages, and the shape and size of the hair root is determined by what growth phase the hair happens. It is
the portion embedded on the skin and it is the life of the hair.

Kinds of root:
1. Hair extracted forcibly: Living root 2. Hair extracted Naturally: dry or dead root

- hair root found to have follicular tissue( root -hair has a rounded extremity, a smooth surface
sheath cells) adhering to it is an indicative of a and the most probably show sign of atrophy or
hair that has been pulled out either by another fatty degeneration especially in elderly person.
person or by brushing or combing. The hair
bulb is irregular in form due to rapture of the
sheath and shows undulating surface, together
with excrescences of different shape and size.
Phases of hair growth   

1.Anagen- on phase 2. Catagen phase (transitional 3. Telogen – resting phase

phase)
- initial growth phase, hair - Final growth phase in which
follicle is actively producing -Regressive phase when hairs hair naturally falls out of the
hair. stop growing. skin

- last up to six years - Transition stage - Root takes a club-shaped

appearance
- Root is attached to the follicle - Hairs continue to grow but at
giving the root bulb a flame- a decreasing rate - During a 2 to 6 month period,
shaped appearance the hair will be pushed out of
- May last from two to three the follicle causing hair to be
- When pulled from the root, weeks naturally lost.
anagen hairs will contain a
follicular tag (translucent piece - Roots typically have an - Towards the end of telogen
of tissue surrounding the hair’s elongated   appearance (root phase activity in the hair follice
shaft near the root.  It contains bulb shrinks and is being starts again  
the richest source of DNA pushed out of the hair follicle
associated with hair).
2. 2. Microscopic parts of the shaft
a. Cuticle -cuticle is formed by overlapping scales that always point toward the tip end of the hair. The
scales are formed from specialized cells that have hardened (Keratinized) and flattened in progressing
from the follicle. The scales of most animal can be best describes as having the appearance of shingles on
a roof. Although the scale pattern is not a useful characteristic for individualizing human hair, the variety
of patterns formed by animal hair makes it an important feature for species identification.  

1.Coronal 2.Spinous 3. Imbricate

-crown-like scale pattern, is -petal-like scales are triangular     -flattened-scale type consists
found in hairs of very fine in shape and protrude from the of overlapping scales with
diameter and resemble a stack hair shaft. narrow margins.
of paper cups.
-they are found at the proximal       -they are commonly found
- scales are commonly found in region of mink hairs and on the in human hairs and many
the hairs of small rodents and fur hairs of seals, cats, and animal hairs
bats but rarely in human hairs some other animals.

 -they are never found in

human hairs.
 

b. Cortex -made up of spindle shape cortical cells that are aligned in a regular array, parallel to the length
of the hair. The cortex derives its major forensic importance from the fact it is embedded with the
pigments granules that imparts hair with color. The pigments granules are in varying proportions
depending on a type of hair. It is a location where the natural hair coloring creates a substance melanin.

It is the color, shape and distribution of these granules that provide the criminalist with important points
of comparison between the hairs of different individual. It also provides hair with strength, elasticity and
determines the texture and quality of hair. The structural features of the cortex are examined
microscopically after the hair has been mounted in a liquid medium that has a refractive index closely
matched tom that of the hair. It is the characteristics portion of the hair together with the medulla.

Cortical Fusi Pigment granules Ovoid bodies

-are irregular-shaped - are small, dark, and solid -are large (larger than pigment granules),
airspaces of varying sizes. structures that are granular solid structures that are spherical to oval
in appearance and in shape, with very regular margins.
-they are commonly found considerably smaller than
near --the root of a mature cortical fusi. -they are abundant in some cattle and dog
human hair, although they hairs as well
may be present -they vary in color, size,
throughout the length of and distribution in a single  as in other animal hairs.
the hair hair
-to varying degrees, they are also found
in human hairs.
 

c. Medulla -is the central canal of hair or central core of the hair; a collection of cells having the
appearance of central canal running through a hair. In many animals, this canal is the most predominant
feature, occupying more than half of the hairs diameter. The medullary index measures the diameter of
the medulla relative to the diameter of the hair shaft and is normally expressed as a fraction. It is a hollow
tube within the hair which maybe present or absent. Not or hairs have medullae and when they exist the
degree of medullation can vary, It could bed classified as being continuous, fragmented interrupted or
absent. Human hairs generally exhibit no medullae or have fragmented medullae. One noted exception is
the mongoloid race, which usually have head hairs with continuous medullae. Also most animals have
medullae that are either continuous or interrupted.  The examiner compares the following factors, color
coarseness, granule distribution, hair diameter and presence or absence of medulla. Another interesting
feature of the medullae is its shape. Humans as well as many animals have medullae that give a nearly
cylindrical appearance. Other animals exhibit medullae that have a patterned shape.

Human Medulla Animal Medulla

Continuous - no breaks in the Uniserial ladder-resembles a ladder-like appearance
medulla
Interrupted- few short breaks Multiserial ladder-resembles a series of uniserial ladders
side by side
Fragmented- few parts of medulla Lattice ladder-Speckled or honeycomb appearance
visible
Common in deer and deer relatives
Absent- no medulla visible Cellular or vacuolated-resembles a chain-like shape
composed of many vacuoles,-common in many animal
hairs
3. Racial origin
   A human hair can be associated with a particular racial group based on established models for each
group. Forensic examiners differentiate between hairs of Caucasoid (European ancestry), Mongoloid (Asian
ancestry), and Negroid (African ancestry) origin. All of which exhibit microscopic characteristics that
distinguished one racial group from another. Head hairs are considered best for determining race,
although hairs from other body areas can be useful. Racial determination from microscopic examination of
head hairs from infants, however, can be difficult and hairs from individual of mixed ancestry may possess
microscopic characteristics attributed to more that one racial group.

Caucasoid-(European):Hairs of Caucasoid or Caucasian origin can be of fine to medium coarseness, are

generally straight or waxy in appearance and exhibit colors ranging from blonde to brown to black. The hair
shafts of Caucasian hairs vary from round to oval in cross section and have fine to medium-sized, evenly
distributed pigments granules.
Negroid(African):Hairs of negroid or African origin are regularly curly or kinky, have a flattened cross
section, and can appear curly, waxy or coiled. Negroid pigment granules are larger that those found in
Mongoloid and Caucasian hair and are grouped in clumps of different sizes and shapes. The density of the
pigments in the hair shaft may be so great as to make the hair opaque. A Negroid hair shaft exhibits variation
or apparent variation in diameter because of its flattened nature and the manner in which it lies on the
microscopic slide. Twisting of the hair shaft, known as buckling can be present and the hairs shaft frequently
splits along the length.
Mongoloid(Asian):Hairs of mongoloid or Asian origin are regularly coarse, straight and circular in cross
section with a wider diameter than the hairs of the other racial groups. The outer layer of the hair, the cuticle,
is usually significantly thicker than the cuticle of Negroid and Caucasian hairs and the medulla or central
canal is continuous and wide. The hair shaft or cortex of Mongoloid hairs contains pigment granules that are
generally larger in size that the pigment granules of Caucasian hairs and which often appear to be grouped in
patchy areas within the shaft. Mongoloid hair can have a characteristics reddish appearance as a product of
its pigments. 
4. Somatic origin
a. Body area determination:

  The body from which a hair originated can be determined by general morphology. Length, shape, size,
color, stiffness, curliness and microscopic appearance all contribute to the determination of body area.
Before a comparison can be attempted, the portion of the body from which the hairs originates must be
determined. No comparison can be made without first obtaining samples from the homogenous regions:
The physical characteristics of hair are influenced by two factors; specialized services like hair coloring, hair
lighteners, permanent waxes and relaxes and the environment.

Hair origin Description

Scalp/head hair

1. Head hair is usually the longest hairs on the human body as having a uniform diameter and
often a cut tip, 100-1000mm long, 26-125 um diameter, 0.4 mm/day growth

 2. Head hairs can appear uncut, with tapered tips but are more often cut with scissors, razors
or clippers.

3. Hairs are subject to more alteration than hairs from other areas which includes use of hair
dyes, rinses, permanents, frosts and other chemical applications.

4. Environmental alteration can results from exposure to excessive sunlight, wind, dryness,
and other conditions.

5. Hairs samples should be obtained as soon as possible from suspects or victim because it
can be affected by a number of environmental and chemical conditions.  
Pubic

1. Considerable variation exists between individuals in the population. Pubic hairs are not
subject to as much change as head hairs over time and because of this a sample taken a year
or more after a crime may still be suitable for meaningful comparison purposes. It is
recommended that a known pubic hair sample be obtained as soon as possible after a crime
and should contain at least 25 full length hairs taken from different areas of the pubic region.

2. Pubic hairs are generally coarse and wiry in appearance. They exhibit considerable
diameter variation or buckling and often have a continuous to discontinuous medulla. While
tapered tips are common, these hairs may also be abraded or cut.
 Vulvar: Secondary pubic hair, finer and shorter than pubic hair, maybe abraided
 Chest: Pectoral, moderate to considerable diameter variation, long fine arch-like tip, usually
longer than pubic hair
Facial hairs

1. Are commonly called beard hairs or mustache hairs. These hairs are coarse in appearance
and can have a triangular cross section. Heavy shouldering or troughs in the hairs are
observed under magnification.

2. Other characteristics include complex medulla, blunted or razor cut tip, triangular cross
section and grows 0.4 mm/day.

3. The presence of facial hairs on the clothing of a suspect or victim may help established
contact between these individuals.
Axillaries :Arm pit, 10-50 mm long, grows 30mm/day, blunt tip, abraded or frayed, usually
straighter than pubic hair, many cortical fuss; sometimes yellow and bleached
Eyebrow :1 cm long, 16mm/day growth ; curved, relatively  coarse for length, smooth curve
with punctuate tip and large medulla
Eyelash: Less than 1 cm long, short curves pointed hair
Limb

1. Hairs from the leg and arms constitute limb hairs. These hairs are shorter in length, arch-
like in shape and often abraded or tapered at the tips.

2. The pigments in limb hair are generally granular in appearance and the medulla is
discontinuous. 

3. While limb hairs are not routinely compared in a forensic laboratory, they can differ in
appearance between individuals. These differences however, are not considered sufficient to
allow limb hairs to be of value for meaningful comparison purposes. The presence of leg or
arm hairs on certain items of evidence may help to corroborate other investigative
information.
 Ear:Tragic, pinnae, downy
Buttock: Anal hair, short abraided hair
Nose: Similar to facial hair
Fringe hairs: Hairs originating from areas of the body outside those specifically designated as
head or pubic hairs are not generally not suitable for significant comparison purposes. These
hairs might originate from the neck, sideburns, abdomen, upper leg and back. 
5. Other points or consideration in the identification of hair
 

Age: The age of an individual cannot be determined definitively by a microscopic

examination; however, the microscopic appearance of certain human hairs, such as those of
infants and elderly individuals, may provide a general indication of age. The hairs of infants,
for example are generally finer and less distinctive in microscopic appearance. As individuals
age, hair can undergo pigments loss and changes in the configuration of the hair shaft to
become much finer and more variable in diameter.

Sex/Gender:  Although the sex of an individual is difficult to determine from microscopic

examination, longer, treated hairs more frequently encountered in female individuals. Sex can
be determined from a forcibly removed hair (with tissue) but this is not routinely done.
Definitive determination of sex can be accomplished through the staining of sex chromatin in
the cells found in the follicular tissue, but nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA)
test will provide more specific information regarding the possible origin  of the hair.
Treatment and removal

Bleaching removes pigments from the hair and can give the hair a characteristics yellow cast.
The cortical cells margins may become more prominent and cortical fusi may develop. In
addition, harsh or repeated treatments can make the hair shaft brittle and the scales will
appear disturbed. Artificial bleaching can be distinguished from solar bleaching by a sharper
line of demarcation between the bleached and unbleached regions. To the experience
examiner, dyes hairs possess an unnatural cast or color. In addition, the cuticle will take on
the color of the dye. If hair generally grows at the rate of one half-inch per month, the
distance can be measured from the root to the line of demarcation of the dyed portion to
estimate the time since dyeing. Repeated dyeing or bleaching results in several lines of
demarcation. This would serve to further individualize a particular specimen.
6. Animal Hairs Identification
-Animal hairs will be limited to those animals most likely to be encountered in casework.

classified into three major groups on the basis of their microscopic appearance.
For individual identification in these groups

1.Deer family and antelope 2.Commercial fur animals 3. Domestic animals

- are distinguished on the are distinguished on the basis are distinguished primarily through
basis of their scale patterns of their: color, color bands, their; root structure,
scale patterns and medullary
structure medullary structure and
pigmentation
hairs are not readily fur group includes rabbit, seal, there are wide variations in color
distinguishable on the basis mink, muskrat, and chinchilla and length of the hair specimens in
of their gross appearance which are  encountered in fur the domestic animal group.
or microscopic appearance garments that are distinctive in
in whole mount. their microscopic appearance -the identifying characteristics given
are general and apply in most cases.
-when scale cast -are identifiable largely by
impressions are carefully their characteristic colors and -In order to distinguish between dog
studied, certain patterns color banding. and cat and between beef (cattle)
become apparent that can and horse, it is usually necessary
be used to separate the -Seal and chinchilla are that the root be present
different members of this identified on the basis of the
group. appearance of their down or
fur hairs, not by their guard
-It is emphasized that these hairs.
patterns are impressions
perceived through general - this is because guard hairs are
observation of the entire frequently plucked from seal
hair specimen pelts for a more pleasing
appearance

- Chinchilla pelts have few, if

any, guard hairs
Group Characteristics Group Characteristics Group Characteristics

-Very coarse 1.Very fine to medium overall -Medium overall diameter (75 to
diameter (20 to 150μ) 150μ)
overall diameter
(approximately 300m)    

-Medulla composed of 2.Characteristic medullary -Medulla generally amorphous

spherical cells that occupy formations (serial or
entire hair vacuolated)  

-Diameter constant   -Moderate diameter variation in

throughout most of hair single hair
3.Wide diameter variations in
-Wineglass-shaped root single hair  

-Regular wave or crimp   -Hairs generally unbanded

4.Hairs generally banded  

-Characteristic root shapes

7. Textile fibers
-Fibers can become important evidence in incidents that involve personal contact and struggle

-Regardless of where and under what condition fibers are recovered – their forensic value depends on the
examination to narrow their origin to a limited number of sources or even to a single source

-Mass production of fibers limits the value of fiber evidence

-It is only under the most unsual circumstances that the recovery of fibers at a crime will provide individual
identification with a high degree of certainty

Classification of Plant fibers

According to Uses According to their origin

a. textiles a. Seed

b. cordage b. Fruits

c. brushes c. Soft

d. plaiting or coarse weaving d. Hard

e. stuffing material or filling fabrics

f.  paper and  specialty goods

Surface or seeds fibers

COTTON Kinds of cotton fibers

-plant is a perennial shrub or small tree a.Mercerized

naturally, but under cultivation it is treated as
an annual.      - treated with caustic soda which imparts a
high luster and silky appearance
-It branches freely and grows to a height of 4-8
ft. b. Absorbent

-It thrives in sandy soil in humid regions that  it consist of fibers that have been cleaned and
are near water.  from which oily coverings layer has been
removed
-Cotton matures in 5-6 months and  ready to
harvest
Soft or bast fibers;

1. Flax 2.Hemp - cannabis sativa

- from genus  Linum Usitatissimum has been -plants and stalks of the plants used for rope
cultivated since prehistoric time and twine

- major source of cloth fibers - produces toughest cloth or canvass used in the
early shipping industry
- plants grows to around 4 feet and with blue
and white flowers -Used to make paper fiber( first kind of paper in
ancient china)
- grown in many tropical countries for its oil
bearing seeds. - can be burned to produced charcoal

- used as insulating materials, writing and - Biomass fuel from plants, methanol, gasoline,
cigarette papers methane
3.Jute 4. Ramie

-obtained from the secondary phloem of -perenial, herbaceous or shubby plants without
corchorus of asia branches when cultivated

plants is tall, slender shrubby annual with -slender stalks and grows around 3-6 feet in
yellow flowers and grows to a height of 8-10 height with heart shaped leaves that are green
feet. above and white beneath
a.Carchorus capsularis -fine fibers obtained from the bast which are
very long, strong and durable,has a very high
- produce best quality of jute fibers degree of luster.

 - species with a round pods and grows in -stem are first immersed in water, the bark is
lowland peeled and the outer portions and green tissue
are scraped off or are removed by oiling or
b. Carchorus olitarius mechanical means

 - a species with long pods -used in Europe for under garments, upholstery,
thread and paper
  - grows in upland

 
Hard or structural fibers

1. Manila hemp or abaca 2. Henequen or Mexicana sisal

-from the leaves of  Manila hemp (Musa -leaves bear spines that make it difficult to
textiles), a wild banana that grows natively in handle
the Philippines
light straw colored fibers is scraped out from
-Used for general cordage purposes the leaf tissue

-premier materials used for marine rope due to -hard, elastic and wiry measuring 2-5 ft in
strength, lightness and water resistance length

-Used for paper industry, specialized papers used mainly for binder twine, lariats an durable
like tea and coffee bags, sausage casing papers, mats
electrolytic paper, currency notes, cigarette
filter paper, medical/disposable papers, and -Not suitable for marine or hoisting cables it is
some high quality writing papers. heavy and weak

-Table mats have a beautiful luster and are

resistant to stains
3. Sisal agave or sisalana 4.Pineapple, Ananas comosus

-similar appearance to henequen  -is the source of fibers of great strength and
fine qualities. 
-is a woody herb with a rosette of thick fleshy
spiny leaves that are shaped like a sword, -shiny white, very durable and flexible and are
measuring up to 2 meters long. not harmed by water. 

-Leaf edges are spiny with a sharp, dark brown -grown for the fiber pineapples are planted
tip. closer together and develop longer leaves. 

-the best fibers are gathered from leaves that

have not attained their maximum length. 
Coir (Cocos nucifera) :Fruit Fibers

-applied to the short, coarse and rough fibers that make up a large part of the husk of coconut
fruits.

-only prominent fiber that is obtained from fruits.

-Unripe coconuts are soaked in salt water for several months to loosen the fibers. 

-are then beaten to separate the fibers that are then washed and dried. 
8. Supplemental notes on Human and animal hairs
Supplemental notes on Human and animal hairs
Hairs Phases of hair growth

-Is an appendage of the skin 1.Anagen- on phase

-Known as modified type of skin or epidermal - Initial growth phase during which the hair
appendage follicle is actively producing hair.

Morphology of hair 2. Catagen – transitional phase

Root - Regressive phase when hairs stops growing.

      - Root and other surroundings cells - Transition stage

contained within the hair is necessary to produce
hair and continues its growth. 3. Telogen – resting phas

A. dry or dead hair - Final growth phase in which hair naturally

falls out of the skin
B. Living root
- Root takes a club-shaped appearance
2.    Shaft

                a. Cuticle

                b. Cortex

                c. Medulla

3.   Tip

Three basic scale structures that make up the

cuticle

1.coronal (crown-like)

2.spinous (petal-like)

3.imbricate (flattened).  

       Combinations and variations of these types

are possible

 
Man-made fibers or synthetic fibers.

-fibers which are artificially made by various chemical compositions

-Some of them are manufactured from natural cellulose, including rayon, modal, and Lyocell.

 -Nylon is a made from diamines and dicarboxylic acids and is used in many fabrics, mosquito netting,
rope, and tire cords.

- Rayon is made from cellulose of cotton linters and wood pulp.

- Fiberglass is made from molten glass.

- It is strong, durable, and impervious to many caustics and to extreme temperatures and are used for
curtains, drapery and for industrial purposes.

a. Nylon- The term nylon refers to a family of plastics. It is a manmade compound derived from
petroleum , it is the first synthetic thermoplastic material characterized by strength , elasticity,
resistance to abrasion and chemicals. It is also manufacture in form of sheets, clothing, and
molded plastics used in variety of products such as, fabrics, surgical sutures, thread, insulating
wire coverings and rope and tire cords.
b. Polyester- it is made from chemical substance found mainly in petroleum, it is manufactured
in three forms, fibers, films and plastics.  Polyester fibers are used to make fabrics, it is used for
making soft drinks bottles, resistant from abrasions and the sun’s ultraviolet rays and better that
any synthetic fibers. It is strong crisp, soft hands resistant to stretching and shrinkage.
c. Polypropylene- It is a common plastic, used extensively in automobiles industry for interior
trim, such as instruments panels, and in food packaging such as yogurt containers, special
compounds are added to this fiber to give it ultraviolet resistance.
d. Aramid fibers- it is a generic name or a class of synthetic organic fibers called aromatic
polyamide fibers, sensitive to degradation from ultraviolet radiation, good resistance to abrasion,
chemical degradation & thermal degradation. It is extremely strong and can be used under hotter
condition, because it has a high melting point. It also resists stretching. It is used in a flame-
resistant clothing, protective vests and helmets, composites, asbestos replacement, hot air
filtration fabrics, tire and mechanical rubber goods reinforcement, ropes, cables, sail clothing
and sporting goods