1.

Interaction
Lecture 1: Scientific Study 2. Goals
of Groups 3.
4.
Interdependence
Structure
5. Unity

What is a Group? 1.Interaction

Two or more individuals who are connected by and ● exchanged information with each other,
within social relationships. through both verbal and nonverbal
communication;

Two or More ● arguments, talked over issues, and made

A group can range in size from two members to decisions.
thousands of members. Very small collectives,
such as dyads (two members) and triads (three ● upset each other, gave one another help
members) are groups, but so are very large and support, and took advantage of each
collections of people, such as mobs, crowds, and other’s weaknesses.
congregations.
● worked together to accomplish difficult
Although groups come in all shapes and sizes, tasks, but they sometimes slacked off when
they tend to “gravitate to the smallest size, two”. they thought others would not notice.

The members of dyads are also sometimes ● taught each other new things and they
linked by a unique and powerful type of touched each other literally and emotionally.
relationship—love—that makes their dynamics
more intense than those found in other groups.
2. Goals
● Groups usually exist for a reason.
Who are Connected?
The connections, or ties, may be based on strong ● A team strives to outperform other teams in
bonds, like the links between the members of a competitions.
family or a clique of close friends.
● In groups, people solve problems, create
The links may also be relatively weak ones that are products, develop standards, communicate
easily broken with the passage of time or the knowledge, have fun, perform arts, create
occurrence of relationship-damaging events. institutions, and even ensure their safety
from attacks by other groups.
By and Within Social
Relationships
McGrath’s Model of Group Goals

A group is a collection of individuals who have ● Generating ideas or plans

relations to one another. ● Choosing a solution
● Negotiating a solution to a conflict
They share a social identity—creates a sense of we ● Executing (performing) a task.
and us, as well as a sense of “we”.

Qualities of a group 3. Interdependence

Members depend on one another; their outcomes,
actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are Types of Groups
determined in part by others in the group.

Members are obligated or responsible to other Primary groups, such as family, friends, or tight-
group members, for they provide each other with knit peer groups, are relatively small, personally
support and assistance. meaningful groups that are highly unified.

4. Structure Social groups are larger and more formally

organized than primary groups, and memberships
Depends on the complex of roles, norms, and tend to be shorter in duration and less emotionally
intermember relations that organizes the group. involving.

The roles of leader and follower are fundamental Collectives are larger groups whose members act
ones in many groups. in similar and sometimes unusual ways. It includes
a street crowd watching a building burn, an
5. Unity audience at a movie, a line (queue) of people
waiting to purchase tickets, a mob of college
Interpersonal forces bind the members together in students protesting a government policy, and a
a single unit with boundaries that mark who is in the panicked group fleeing from danger.
group and who is outside of it.
Category is an aggregation of individuals who
This quality of “groupness,” or solidarity, is are similar to one another in some way like gender,
determined, in part, by group cohesion. ethnicity, religion, etc.

Groupness is also related to entitativity.

What are Group Dynamics?
Entitativity
Dynamic -comes from the Greek dynamikós,
which means to be strong, powerful, and
Even though an aggregation of individuals may not energetic.
be very cohesive, those who observe the group—
and even the members themselves—may believe Dynamic implies the influence of forces that
that the group is a single, unified entity. combine, sometimes smoothly but sometimes in
opposition, to create continual motion and change.
Entitativity is influenced by
Group dynamics, then, are the influential inter-
personal processes that occur in and between
Common fate: Do the individuals experience the
groups over time.
same or interrelated outcomes?

Similarity: Do the individuals perform similar

behaviors or resemble one another?
The Nature of Group Dynamics
Proximity: How close together are the individuals
in the aggregation?
Kurt Lewin (1951) described the way groups and numeric form, such as frequencies,
individuals act and react to changing proportions, or amounts.
circumstances, he named these processes group
dynamics. ● Interaction Process Analysis (IPA)-a
structured coding system developed by
Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander supplied Robert Bales used to classify group
a formal definition, calling it a “field of inquiry behavior into task-oriented and relationship-
dedicated to advancing knowledge about the oriented categories.
nature of groups, the laws of their development,
and their interrelations with individuals, other
groups, and larger institutions. ● Qualitative study - A research procedure
used to collectand analyze nonnumeric,
unquantified types of data, such as text,
images, or objects.
Level of Analysis
Such data are often textual rather than numeric,
individual-level analysis-focused on the person in and may include verbal descriptions of group
the group. interactions developed by multiple observers,
interviews, responses to open-ended surveys
group-level analysis-assumes each person is “an questions, notes from conversations with group
element in a larger system, a group, organization, members, or in-depth case descriptions of one or
or society and what he does is presumed to reflect more groups
the state of the larger system and the events
occurring in it
Lecture 2: Studying Groups
William Foote Whyte (1943) used observation
in his classic ethnography of street corner gangs in
Italian American sections of Boston.
Scientific Study of Groups
Whyte observed and recorded these groups for
three and a half years, gradually developing a
Group dynamics resulted from group processes.
detailed portrait of this community and its groups.

1.Formative processes- how were you formed?

Did you exchange pleasantries? Were you there
Structured observational due to some circumstances?
methods
2.Influence processes -if you refuse to
Psychologists classify people into various
cooperate, then no group will be formed. Members
personality types. They decide which behaviors to
take on specific roles within the group that generate
track. Then they develop unambiguous descriptions
regularities in their actions, and they accept and
of each type of behavior they will code. Next, using
conform to the group’s norms that define what the
these behavioral definitions as a guide, they note
group expects of them. Communication and
the occurrence and frequency of these targeted
influence often develops in groups.
behaviors as they watch the group.

3. Performance processes - Groups get things

● Quantitative study-a research procedure
done.
used to collect and analyze data in a
4. Conflict processes - Conflict is omnipresent 2.Meso-level factors are group-level qualities of
in and between groups. Tensions tend to the groups themselves, such as their cohesiveness,
undermine the cohesiveness of the group and their size, their composition, and their structure.
cause specific relationships within the group to
weaken or break altogether. 3. Macro-level factors are the qualities and
processes of the larger collectives that enfold the
5.Contextual processes - group’s location groups, such as communities, organizations or
societies.
These group processes shaped the field’s
paradigm.
Measurement in Group
Individual & the group Dynamics

In studying groups…
Observation-watching and recording group’s
activities and interactions.
- Psychological researchers favored individual level
analyses. William Foote Whyte (1943)
He used observation in his classic ethnography of
- Sociological researchers tended to conduct group- street corner gangs in Italian American sections of
level analyses. Boston.

He observed and recorded these groups for three

and a half years, gradually developing a detailed
Two views/ analyses portrait of this community and its groups.

He focused on observable actions and avoided

1.Group mind (Collective consciousness) -
making inferences about what group members
group members often act together, particularly
were thinking or feeling if he had no direct evidence
when the majority of the members share the same
of their inner states.
views, attitudes, intentions, and so on.
He also focused his observations, for he realized
that he coud not record every behavior performed
2.Group fallacy - explaining social phenomena in by every corner boy.
terms of the group as a whole instead of basing the
explanation on the individual-level processes within Instead, he concentrated on communication,
the group; ascribing psychological qualities, such leadership, and attempts at gaining status.
as will, intentionality, and mind to a group rather
than to the individual within the group. ● Covert observation - Watching and
recording group behavior without the
participants knowledge.
Multilevel/ Perspective
● Overt observation - Openly watching and
recording group behavior with no attempt to
1. Micro-level factors include the qualities conceal one’s research purposes.
characteristics, and actions of the individual
members.
 ● Participant observation - Watching and observation alone–contributed to the performance
recording group behavior while taking part gains.
in the social process.

Robert F. Bales’ original Interaction

Process Analysis (IPA) coding system
Hawthorne Effect for structuring observations of
groups.
Elton Mayo and his associates made a research at Areas A (1–3) and D (10–12) - used to code
the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric socioemotional, relationship interactions.
Company. They studied productivity in the
workplace by systematically varying a number of Areas B (4–6) and C (7–9) - used to code task
features while measuring the workers’ output. interaction.

The Hawthorne groups worked in smaller teams, The lines to the right (labeled a through f) indicate
members could talk easily among themselves, and problems of orientation
their managers were usually less autocratic.
Storming (a), evaluation
Hawthorne effect-a change in behavior that (b), control
occurs when individuals know they are being (c), decision
studied by researchers. (d), tension
(e)management
(f)integration

Hawthorne Effect Is the research conducted by

psychologist Elton Mayo and his associates at the
Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company.
These researchers studied productivity by
measuring how workers reacted to changes in the
work place.

First, they moved one group of women to a

separate room and monitored their performance
carefully. Then they manipulated features of the
work situation, such as the lighting in the room and
duration of rest periods. They were surprised when
all the changes led to improved worker output. Dim
lights, for example, raised efficiency, but so did
bright lights. Mayo’s team concluded that the shift
members were working harder because they were
being observed and because they felt that the
company was taking a special interest in then.
(Mayo, 195; Roethlisberger &Dickson, 1939)

Smaller teams, members could talk easily among

themselves and their managers were usually less
autocratic than those who worked the main floor of
the factory, and all these variables– and not
Systematic Multiple Level
Observation of Groups
(SYMLOG)

SYMLOG coders use 26 different categories

Examples of group Roles from sociometry:
instead of only 12, with these categories signa ft E3
wwwling members dominanc-
● Neglected (Isolated) - Member who is
submissiveness,friendliness, unfriendliness, and
infrequently chosen by any members.
accepting opposing the task orientation of establish
● Rejected (unpopular) -Who is disliked by
authority.
many members.
(Hare, 2005)
● Popular (star) - Who is most chosen, well-
liked by many.
● Controversial - who is liked by many but
also disliked by many others
● Sociable (Amiable)- who selects many
others as their friends
● Unsociable (negative ) - who selectsfew
others as their friends
● Cliques - who is subcluster within the group
● Couples (pairs) - inliked by reciprocal
bonds
● Gatekeeper - located at a hub or subhead
of the group’s social network who can
Self Report Measures control the flow of information.

If you want to know what a group member is

thinking, feeling, or planning, then just ask him or populars, or stars, are well-liked, very popular
her to report that information to you directly. group members with a high choice status: they are
picked by many other group members.
● Interviews- the researcher records the
respondent’s answer to various questions
unpopulars, or rejected members, are identified as
● Questionnaires- done by asking disliked by many members and so their choice
respondents to record their answers status is low
themselves.
isolates, or loners, are infrequently chosen by any
group members
● Sociometry - by Psychiatrist Jacob
Moreno (1934) :Whom do you like the most positives, or sociables, select many others as their
in this group?” “Whom do you like the least” friends

negatives select few others as their friends

● Sociogram - graphic representation of the
pairs are two people who choose each other,and
patterns of intermember relations created
so have reciprocal bonds
through sociometry
clusters are individuals within the group who make
up a subgroup, or clique
 John Thibaut and Harold Kelley’s (1959)
social exchange theory extended Skinner’s
behaviorism to groups. They agreed that individuals
hedonistically strive to maximize their rewards and
minimize their costs. However, when individuals
Research Method join groups, they forego exclusive control over their
outcomes.

Case Study - research technique that draws on

Social change theory - an economic model of
multiple sources of information to examine, in
interpersonal relationships that assumes individuals
depth, the activities, and dynamics of a group or a
seek out relationships that offer them many
groups.
rewards while exacting few cost.

Correlational Studies - do more than just

describe groups and their dynamics they also tesat
Systems theory Perspective
the strenght of the relationship between the
variables that they measure.
-Assumes groups are complex, adaptive, and
dynamic system of interacting individuals.
Experimental Studies - research design in
which the investigator (1) manipulates at least one
The members are the units of the system, who are
variable by randomly assigning participants to two
coupled one to another by relationships.
or more different conditions, (2) measure at least
one other variable. And (3) controls the influence of
groups are sometimes created for a purpose, with
toher variables on the outcome.
procedures and standards that are designed with
the overall goal of the system in mind.

Theoretical Perspective
Input-process-output (I-P-O) - models of group
productivity are systems theorist that emphasize
Motivational Perspective - Why do some inputs that feed into the group setting, the
people shy away from groups, whereas others join processors that take place within the group as it
dozens of them? works on the task, and the outputs generated by
the system.
-Motivations are psychological mechanisms that
give purpose and direction to behavior.
Cognitive Perspective
Emotions often accompany these needs and
desires: feelings of happiness, sadness, Mental processes that acquire, organize, and
satisfaction, and sorrow, are just a few of the integrate information including memory systems
emotions that can influence how peple act in group that store data and the psychological mechanism
situations. that process this information.

Hierarchy of needs. Self reference effect - The tendecy for people to

havetheir better memories for actions and events
that they are personally connected to in some way.

Group reference effect - The tendency for group

members to have better memories for actions and
events that are related, in some way, to their group.
 The Need to Belong
Allow members to gather information, make sense
of it, and then act on the results of their mental Need to belong: “a pervasive drive to form and
appraisals. maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting,
positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships.”
The identify rapidly those who are outgoing, shy,
and intelligent. Aristotle famously suggested that “Man is by
nature a social animal; and an unsocial person
They take note of the actions of others and try to who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally
understand what caused the other member to act in is either unsatisfactory or superhuman.”
this way.
Isolated individuals, such as stranded explorers,
self-categorization theory- a conceptual secluded scientists, prisoners in solitary
approach developed by John Turner and his confinement, and so on, speak of the psychological
colleagues that explains a range of group behavior, costs of their ordeal: fear, insomnia, memory
including the development of social identity and lapses, depression, fatigue, and general confusion.
intergroup relations, in terms of the social cognitive Prolonged social isolation has been identified as a
categorization processes. risk factor for the onset of a number of
psychological disorders, including depression,
Biological Perspective paranoia, and the disordered thought characteristic
of schizophrenia (de Sousa et al., 2015).
Group members are also living creatures whose
responses sre often shaped by physiological, ● Loneliness - is an aversive psychological
genetic, and neurological characteristics. reaction to a perceived lack of personal or
social relations.
When conflict arises in the group, heart rates
escalate, and other body changes occur to help ● Emotional loneliness occurs when the
members cope with the stress, they become problem is a lack of a long-term,
physiologically aroused, and this arousal can meaningful, intimate relationship with
interfere with their work. another person; this type of loneliness might
One biological perspective—evolutionary be triggered by divorce, a breakup with a
psychology lover, or repeated romantic failures.

● Social loneliness, in contrast, occurs

Lecture 3: Inclusion and when people feel cut off from their network
of friends, acquaintances, and group
Identity members.

-Some species of animals are solitary. Inclusion and Exclusion

-Cheetah, giant panda, orangutan, and opossum
remain apart from other members of their species
and congregate in some cases only to mate or rear
offspring.
 Inclusion & Human nature

● Herd Instinct -the idea that humans are

instinctively drawn to gather with other
humans is not a new one.

Humans’ preference for living in groups rather than

alone may also be sustained by psycho- logical and
● Ostracism- excluding one or more biological mechanisms that evolved over time to
individuals from a group by reducing or help individuals solve basic problems of survival
eliminating contact with the person, usually (Kurzban & Leary, 2001).
by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing
them.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
● Reactions to Exclusion - feeling
frustrated, anxious, nervous
● Individualism - tradition, ideology, or
Some people, facing exclusion, fight their way back personal out- look that emphasizes the
into the group (a fight response), or they avoid primacy of the individual and his or her
further rejection by seeking membership elsewhere rights, independence, and relationships with
(a flight response). other individuals.

● Tend-and-befriend response – in fear ● Collectivism - tradition, ideology, or

of exclusion, others would make sure personal orientation that emphasizes the
members’ needs were met, reducing risk primacy of the group or community rather
(tending), and doing what he could to than each individual person.
strengthen his connection to others in the
group (befriending).

● Cyberostracism -excluding one or more

individuals from a technologically mediated
group interaction, such as a computer-
based discussion group, by reducing or
eliminating communication with the person.

Exclusion and Aggression

The need to belong is a powerful force in human
behavior, so much so that individuals can respond
violently when that need is thwarted (Leary et al.,
2003).

Angered when excluded, these individuals are the

ones who are more likely to engage in antisocial
behavior, including aggression.
 prototypical characteristics attributed to members of
one’s group as accurate descriptions of oneself.

Stereotype threat when individuals know that

others they are interacting with may be relying on
group stereotypes to judge them.

“Kaya mo lang ba ako kinaibigan dahil mayaman

ako?”
“Kaya mo lang ba ako kinaibigan dahil pogi ako?”

Social identification - accepting the group as

Social Self an extension of the self and therefore basing one’s
self-definition on the group’s qualities and
characteristics. As social identification increases,
individuals come to think that their membership in
the group is personally significant.

“we, us, and them”

Social identity theory- theoretical analysis of

Status - Is something that is shared in a group
group processes and intergroup relations that
relationship
assumes groups influence their members’ self-
concepts and self-esteem, particularly when
individuals categorize themselves as group
Interdependence - when the other group
members and identify with the group. members are obligated to perform and provide
assistance to other people.
Social categorization - the perceptual
classification of people, including the self, into
Entitativity - believing that the group is single
categories. (Rich or poor, pretty or not, exclusive and has unified entity speaks about entitativity.
school or public school). This leads to stereotyping. it
Dynamic - Talks about the forces that combine,
Stereotypes - socially shared set of cognitive sometimes, smoothly but sometimes in opposition,
generalizations (e.g., beliefs and expectations) continual motion, and change in a group.
about the qualities and characteristics of the typical
member of a particular group or social category. Covert observation - It is watching and
recording group behavior without the participants
knowledge
Self-stereotyping (or autostereotyping) -
accepting socially shared generalizations about the Elton Mayo - He pioneered in the study of
Hawthorne effect
 gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement,
William Foote Whyte - He uses ethnography seeking and cheerfulness
is studying behaviors of corner gangs in Boston
AGREEABLENESS; cooperative, orientation to
Jacob Moreno - He developed sociometry. others, including acceptance, frankness,
compassion, congeniability, modesty, and
sympathy.
Self-reference effect - The tendency for
people to have better memories for actions and
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS; persistence in the pursuit
events that they are personally connected to in
of task, including self confidence, orderliness,
some way
meeting of obligations, achievement striving, self
regulation and measured responding
Emotional loneliness - Occurs due to lack of
long term, meaningful relationship with another NEUROTICISM; strong emotional proclivities,
person. including anxiety, hostility, negative affect, shyness,
lack of impulse control, and reactivity to stressors.
Social categorization theory - Classifying
people according status, gender, social affiliation
leads to social categorization which in turn leads OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE; active pursuit of
to….., leading the person to think that since he is intellectually and aesthetically stimulating
categorized as such, therefore he will act according experience, including imagination, fantasy,
to the expectations set of that category. appreciation of art, openness to emotion and
experiences, curiosity, and cognitive flexibility.

Individualuality: individualist thinks about 3. Social Motivation

individuality. ● Need for Affiliation
● Need for Intimacy
● Need for Power

Lecture 4: Formation of
groups FUNDAMENTAL INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
ORIENTATION THEORY

● INCLUSION - the desire to be of group and

Joining to be accepted by a group---is similar to the
need for affiliation.
● CONTROL - corresponds to the need for
1.PERSONALITY - traits and dispositional power
characteristics ● AFFECTION OR OPENNESS - is the desire
to experience warm, positive relations with
•Big Five theory of personality others, which is similar to the need for
intimacy.
2.Men, Women, and Groups - women are more
relational than them 4. Anxiety and Attachment
•Sexism also works to exclude women and men People who are socially inhibited, or shy do not join
from certain types of groups. groups as readily as others and they do not find
group activities to be as enjoyable. In some cases,
however shyness escalates into social anxiety.
EXTRAVERSION; Engagement and interest in
social interactions, including friendliness,
attachment to style - one's basic cognitive, Downward social comparison-when self-
emotional, and behavioral orientation when in a esteem is on the line we select targets who are
relationship with others. worse off than we are.

Upward social comparison-occurs when a

person compares himself or herself to others who
are better off than he or she.

self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model - -

people often graciously celebrate others’
accomplishments—but not when they are bested in
a domain that they value greatly. Others’ success
will more likely trigger resentment, envy, and
shame rather than pride and admiration.

7. Social Support

-A sense of belonging, emotional support, advice,

5. Affiliation guidance, tangible assistance, and spiritual
perspective given to others when they experience
Social Comparison -people compare their stress, daily hassles, and more significant life
interpretations to those of other people. it begins crises.
when people find themselves in ambiguous,
confusing situations. Such situations trigger a
variety of psychological reactions, most of which Some Forms of Social Support
are unsettling, and so people affiliate with others to
gain the information they need to reduce their Provided by Groups
confusion (Leon Festinger).

Misery Loves Company–Stanley Schachter Belonging– Inclusion in a group

(1959) believed that most people, finding ● Expressing acceptance
themselves in such a predicament, would chose to ● Reassurance of belonging
join with other people to gain the information they ● Reaffirming membership
need to allay their anxiety. ● Encouraging identification
● Group Acitivties
Misery Loves Miserable Company–if people
believed that the others could not provide them with Emotional Support – Expressing caring and
any social comparison information, there would be concern for one another
no reason to join them.
● Expressing respect and approval
● Encouragement
Embarrassed Misery Avoids Company–Even
● Listening
when people need information about a situation,
● Sharing feelings
they sometimes refrain from joining others because
● Responding nonverbally in positive way
they do not wish to embarrass themselves.

6. Downward (and Upward) Social

Informational Support - Providing advice and
Comparison
guidance
 ● Sharing helpful information someone who is not in the group and thereby draw
● Giving directions, advice, suggestions the nonmember into the group.
● Demonstrating a way to perform a task
● Problem Solving Similarity principle -tendency to affiliate with or
be attracted to similar others; this tendency causes
groups and other interpersonal aggregates to be
Instrumental Support– Providing tangible composed of individuals who are similar to one
resources another rather than dissimilar.

● Doing favors Complementarity principle- which suggests that

● Lending money or possessions people are attracted to those who possess
● Assisting with work, duties characteristics that complement their own personal
● Transportations characteristics.

Spiritual Support– Addressing issues of Reciprocity principle- tendency for liking to be

meaning and purpose met with liking in return; if A likes B then B will tend
to like A.
● Explaining challenging events
● Allaying existential anxiety , fear of death Minimax principle-tendency to prefer
● Sharing faith relationships and group memberships that provide
● Reconfirming one’s world view the maximum number of valued rewards and incur
the fewest number of possible costs.
8. Companionship-in times of loneliness we turn
to groups for companionship.

Types of Loneliness

Emotional loneliness occurs when the problem is

a lack of a long-term, meaningful, intimate
relationship with another person.

Social loneliness, in contrast, occurs when people

feel cut off from their network of friends,
acquaintances, and group members.

9.. ATTRACTION-Affiliation may set the stage for

a group to form, but attraction transforms
acquaintances into friends.

Principles of Attraction:

Proximity principle-suggests that in some cases,

people join groups that just happen to be close by
proximity increases interaction between people,
and interaction cultivates attraction.

Elaboration principle-tendency for groups to

expand as members form dyadic associations with
 Strength of the social forces that keep
an individual from leaving a group.
–Cohesiveness of a group is here deemed as the
result of all the forces acting on the members to
remain in the group. These forces may depend on
the attractivenss or unattractiveness of either the
prestige of the group, members in the group or the
activities in which the group engages. (Festinger)
Lecture 5: Cohesion and
Tendency to stick together (cohere)
Development
–Social cohesion should also be understood as a
state of affairs concerning how well people in a
A sampling of Definition of society “cohere” or “stick” to each other. (Chan, To,
&Chan, 2006)
Cohesion
–Cohesion is now generally described as a group
members inclinations to forge social bonds,
Core Concept:
resulting in members sticking together and
– Attraction among the members of a group
remaining united. (Casey-Campbell &Martens)
–Attraction of the members to the groups as a
whole. Trust and Teamwork
–The essence of strong primary group cohesion,
which I believe to be generally agreed on, is trust
Definition and Source:
among group members (e,g..to watch each other’s
back) together with the capacity for teamwork
–-The cohesiveness of small groups is defined in (e.g…pulling
terms of intermember attraction that group properly together to to get the task or job done) (Siebold,
which s inferred from the number and strength of 2007)
mutual positive attitudes among the members of a
group (Lott& Lott, 1965.,)
4 interrelated processes:
–Cohesiveness refers to attraction of members to a
group as a whole…. A kind of synthetic or Social Cohesion
aggregative property of the sum of the feelings of
attraction to the group of each of the individual
group members. (Nixon, 1979) –Cohesion; to describe the forces that keep groups
intact by pushing members together as well as the
–Relational cohesion is the sense of coming countering forces that push them apart.
together of something large that unifies actors and
actions. –Festinger and his colleagues also stressed social
forces that bind individuals to grous.
Belonging and Morale:
–Perceived cohesion encompasses an individual -It can be multilevel; individual & group.
sense of belonging to a particular group and his or
her feelings of morale associated with membership
in the group. (Bollen & Hoyle) Task Cohesion
–Stress the quality of ther teamwork
–A group whose cohesiveness is generated by a
shared task focus tends to be high in collectiveness
efficacy.

Perceived Cohesion
–Members express a sense of belonginess to the
group by stressing their commitment to the group;
they are loyal to the group, identify with the group,
and readily classify themselves as members.

Emotional Cohesion
–Intense emotional experience
–Esprit de corps; A feeling of unity, commtment,
confidense, and enthusiasm for the group shared
by most or all of the members.