UNIT-1

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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Internet Protocol
(IP)
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• The unit of transfer in an IP network is
called an IP datagram. It consists of an IP
header and data relevant to higher level
protocols.
• It is an unreliable, best-effort, and
connectionless packet delivery protocol.

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Figure 7-1

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• VER is the field that contains the IP
protocol version. The current version is 4.
6 is the version for IPv6.

• HLEN is the length of the IP header in

multiples of 32 bits, without the data field.

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• Service Type The service type is an indication of the quality
of service requested for this IP datagram. It contains the
following information.
• Precedence specifies the nature/priority:
• 000: Routine
• 001: Priority
• 010: Immediate
• 011: Flash
• 100: Flash override
• 101: Critical
• 110: Internetwork control
• 111: Network control

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• TOS specifies the type of service value:
1000: Minimize delay
0100: Maximize throughput
0010: Maximize reliability
0001: Minimize cost
0000: Normal service
The last bit is reserved for future use.

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• Total Length specifies the total length of the
datagram, header and data, in octets.
• Identification is a unique number assigned by
the sender used with fragmentation.
• Flags contains control flags:
• – the first bit is reserved and must be zero;
• – the 2nd bit is DF (Do not Fragment), 0 means
allow fragmentation;
• – the third is MF (More Fragments), 0 means
that this is the last fragment.
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Shikha Sharma RCET,Bhilai 11
• Fragment Offset is used to reassemble the full
datagram. It is a pointer that shows the offset of
the data. If this is the first (or only) fragment, this
field contains a value of zero.
• TTL (Time to Live) specifies the time (in
seconds) the datagram is allowed to travel. In
practice, this is used as a hop counter to detect
routing loops.

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• Protocol Number indicates the higher
level protocol to which IP should deliver
the data in this datagram. E.g., ICMP = 1;
TCP = 6; UDP = 17.
• Header Checksum is a checksum for the
information contained in the header. If the
header checksum does not match the
contents, the datagram is discarded.

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• Source/Destination IP Addresses are
the 32-bit source/destination IP addresses.
• IP Options is a variable-length field (there
may be zero or more options) used for
control or debugging and measurement.
Padding is used to ensure that the IP
header ends on a 32 bit boundary.

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Figure 7-4

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Figure 7-8

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 Overview
• The IP (Internet Protocol) relies on several
other protocols to perform necessary
control and routing functions:
• Control functions (ICMP)
• Multicast signaling (IGMP)

• Setting up routing tables (RIP, OSPF, BGP, PIM, …)

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 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• The Internet Control Message Protocol

(ICMP) is a helper protocol that supports IP
with facility for
– Error reporting
– Simple queries
• ICMP is a mechanism used by the host and router to
send notification of datagram problems back to the
sender.
• If delivery of DG is not possible, ICMP allows it to
inform the original source.
• ICMP reports onlyShikha
to the original source.
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• ICMP Only Report problem, not correct
them.
• it is an integral part of IP.
• it is typically not used to send and receive
data between end systems like TCP/UDP.
• ICMP for Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
is also known as ICMPv4.
• IPv6 has a similar protocol, ICMPv6.
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• ICMP messages are constructed at the IP
layer.
• IP encapsulates the appropriate ICMP
message with IP header.
• For example--time to live (TTL).

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 ICMP HEADER FORMAT

Type ( 8 bits) Code ( 8 bits) Checksum ( 16 bits)

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

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 Each ICMP message contains three fields

1. TYPEÆ field identifies the ICMP message.

2.CODEÆ field provides further information about the

associated TYPE field OR subtype of message.

3. CHECKSUMÆ provides a method for determining the

integrity of the message. similar to IP header
checksum.

If there is no additional data, 4 bytes set to zero.

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The TYPES defined are:

TYPE Description
0 Echo Reply
1 & 2 IS RESERVED.
3 Destination Unreachable
4 Source Quench
5 Redirect Message
6
7 RESERVED.
8 Echo Request
11 Time Exceeded
12 Parameter Problem
13 Timestamp Request
14 Timestamp Reply
15 Information Request (No Longer Used)
16 Information Reply (No Longer Used)
1725 August 2010Address MaskShikha
Request
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18 dd k l
 Frequent ICMP Error message
Type Code Description

3 0–15 Destination Notification that an IP datagram could not be

unreachable forwarded and was dropped. The code field
contains an explanation.
5 0–3 Redirect Informs about an alternative route for the
datagram and should result in a routing table
update. The code field explains the reason for
the route change.
11 0, 1 Time Sent when the TTL field has reached zero
exceeded (Code 0) or when there is a timeout for the
reassembly of segments (Code 1)
12 0, 1 Parameter Sent when the IP header is invalid (Code 0) or
problem when an IP header option is missing (Code 1)
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 Example of ICMP Queries
Type/Code: Description

The ping command

8/0 Echo Request uses Echo Request/
0/0 Echo Reply Echo Reply

13/0 Timestamp Request

14/0 Timestamp Reply

10/0 Router Solicitation

9/0 Router Advertisement
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 ICMP Query message
ICMP Request

ICMP Reply

Host Host or router

ICMP query:
• Request sent by host to a router or host
• Reply sent back to querying host

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 ICMP Error message

IP datagram IP datagram
is discarded
ICMP Error
Message

Host Host or router

• ICMP error messages report error conditions

• Typically sent when a datagram is discarded
• Error message is often passed from ICMP to the application program

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• Destination UnreachableÆ When a
packet is undeliverable, a Destination
Unreachable, Type 3, ICMP is generated.
Type 3 ICMPs can have a Code value of 0
to 15:

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Type 3
Code Value Description
0 Network Unreachable
1 Host Unreachable
2 Protocol Unreachable
3 Port Unreachable
4 Fragmentation needed and DF (Don't Fragment) set
5 ---
6 ---
7 ----
8 -----
15 Source route failed

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Some subtypes of the “Destination Unreachable”

Code Description Reason for Sending

0 Network No routing table entry is available for the destination
Unreachable network.
1 Host Destination host should be directly reachable, but
Unreachable does not respond to ARP Requests.
2 Protocol The protocol in the protocol field of the IP header is
Unreachable not supported at the destination.
3 Port The transport protocol at the destination host cannot
Unreachable pass the datagram to an application.
4 Fragmentation IP datagram must be fragmented, but the DF bit in the
Needed IP header is set.
and DF Bit Set

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• Echo Request & Echo ReplyÆ This is
the ICMP most used to test IP connectivity
commonly known as PING.
• The Echo Request ICMP will have a Type
field of 8 and a Code field of 0.
• Echo Replies have a Type field of 0 and a
Code field of 0.
• Ask a machine if it is alive.

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• Source QuenchÆ An ICMP Source
Quench message has a Type field of 4
and Code 0.
• Source Quench messages are sent when
the destination is unable to process traffic
as fast as the source is sending it.
• The Source Quench ICMP tells the
source to cut back the rate at which it is
sending data.
• continue generate Source Quench ICMPs
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• Redirect MessageÆ An intermediary
device will generate an ICMP Redirect
Message when it determines that a route
being requested can be reached either
locally or through a better path.
• Redirect Message ICMPs are Type 5 and
are further defined by the following Code
field values.
• Teach a router about geography.

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Type 5
Code Value Description
0 Redirect datagrams for the Network
1 Redirect datagrams for the Host
2 Redirect datagrams for the Type of
Service and Network
3 Redirect datagrams for the Type of Service
and Host.

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• Time ExceededÆ If a router or host discards
a packet due to a time-out, it will generate a
Time Exceeded Type 11 ICMP.
• The Time Exceeded ICMP will have a Code
value of either 0 or 1.
• A Code 0 is generated when the hop count
of a datagram is exceeded and the packet is
discarded.
• A Code 1 is generated when the reassemble
of a fragmented packet exceeds the time-out
value.
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• Parameter Problem
• Invalid header field, an ICMP 12 is
generated.
• For missing option, the ICMP will have a
Code value 1.
• For invalid field, code value is 0.

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Timestamp Request & Timestamp Reply
• Like as Echo request and reply, but with
timestamp.
• synchronizing the time maintained on
different devices.
• Network performance.
• The Request has a Type field of 13 and the
Reply is Type 14.
• This method for time synchronization is crude
and unreliable. Therefore, it is not heavily
used.
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Internet Group
Management
Protocol
(IGMP)
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Position of IGMP in the network layer

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• The Internet Group Management Protocol
(IGMP) is a communication protocol used
to manage the membership of Internet
Protocol multicast groups.
• Multicasting allows a host to transmit an IP
datagram to a set of hosts that form a
multicast group.
• Used in mapping of class D network.

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• IGMP is used by IP host and adjacent
multicast routers .
• It is an integral part of the IP multicast
specification, operating above the network
layer.
• Not like TCP/UDP.
• only needed for IPv4 networks.

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• The IGMP message is encapsulated in an IP
datagram, which is itself encapsulated in a
frame.
• The IP packet that carries an IGMP packet has
a value of 2 in its protocol field.

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Encapsulation of IGMP packet

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• Membership in a multicast group is
dynamic.
• IGMP can be used for online streaming
video and gaming, and allows more
efficient use of resources.
• IGMP does allow some attacks, and
firewalls.

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IGMP message types

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IGMP message format

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• Max Resp Time Æ specifies the time limit for
the corresponding report.
• Used only in query messages.
• In all other messages, it is set to 0 by the
sender and ignored by the receiver.
• Checksum ÆThis is the 16-bit one's
complement of the sum of the entire IGMP
message.
• Group Address Æ The field is zeroed when
sending a General Query.
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 IGMP type field

Type value
General Or Special 11 OR 00010001
Query
Membership Report 16 OR 00010110
Leave Report 17 OR 00010111

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ARP
and
RARP
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 Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP)

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 Overview

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• Note:
– The Internet is based on IP addresses
– Data link protocols (Ethernet, FDDI, ATM)
may have different (MAC) addresses
• The ARP and RARP protocols perform the
translation between IP addresses and
MAC(medium access control) layer
addresses.

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• MACÆ The address of a device used at the
DLL.(MAC)
• Ethernet Æ a LAN using CSMA/CD access
method.

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 ARP Ethernet MAC
IP address
address
(32 bit)
(48 bit)
RARP

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 ARP Protocol

• Machine A wants to send a packet to B, but A

only knows B’s IP address
• Machine A broadcasts ARP request with B’s
IP address
• All machines on the local network receive
the broadcast
• Machine B replies with its physical address
• Machine A adds B’s address information to
its table
• Machine A delivers packet directly to B

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• Hardware type (HTYPE) ÆEach data link
layer protocol is assigned a number used
in this field. For example, Ethernet is 1.
• Protocol type (PTYPE) ÆEach protocol is
assigned a number used in this field. For
example, IPv4.
• Hardware length (HLEN) ÆLength in
bytes of a hardware address. Ethernet
addresses are 6 bytes long.

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• Protocol length (PLEN) ÆLength in bytes
of a logical address. IPv4 address are 4
bytes long.
• Operation ÆSpecifies the operation the
sender is performing: 1 for request, 2 for
reply, 3 for RARP request, and 4 for RARP
reply.

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• Sender hardware address
(SHA) ÆHardware address of the sender.
(first 32 bit)
• Sender protocol address (SPA) ÆProtocol
address of the sender.
• Target hardware address
(THA) ÆHardware address of the
intended receiver. This field is ignored in
requests. (last 32 bit)
• Target protocol address (TPA) Æ Protocol
address of the intended receiver.
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 ARP Caching
• To reduce communication cost, computers
that use ARP maintain a cache of recently
acquired IP-to-physical address bindings.
• Each entry has a timer (usual timeout
period is 20 minutes)
• The sender’s IP-to-address binding is
included in every ARP broadcast;
receivers update the IP-to-physical
address binding information in their cache
before processing an ARP packet.
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 Introduction to LAN with its
cables, connectors, Switches,
Hubs and
topologies

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 LAN
• Small interconnected computers or workstations within a
building or small area up to 10 Kms.

• Small group of workers that share common application

programs and communication needs.

• LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s

to G b/s).

• LAN is interconnected with other networks via switches and

router/gateways.

• In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission

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 Basic transmission medium
concepts
• Medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver in a data
transmission system.
• Guided Medium: waves are guided along
a solid medium path.
• Unguided medium: waves are propagated
through the atmosphere and inner/outer
space.

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Transmission medium

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Twisted-pair cable

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Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines

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Noise on Twisted-Pair Lines

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 Twisted-pair cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and
the other is used only as a ground reference.
• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at
different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e.g., one is closer and the other is farther).
• By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example,
suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source
and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally
affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk).
• This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference
between the two, receives no unwanted signals.

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Types of Twisted-pair cable

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 Frequency range
• 100Hz-5MHz

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 Applications

– Common in building for digital signaling used at

speed of 10’s Mb/s (CAT3) and 100Mb/s (CAT5)
over 100s meters.
– Common for telephone interconnection at home
and office buildings
– Less expensive medium; limited in distance,
bandwidth, and data rate.

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 Connector
• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands
for registered jack)
• It is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be
inserted in only one way.
• It has 8 wires.

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 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of
higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable.

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 Frequency range
• 100 KHz-500MHz

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Categories of coaxial cables

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A section of RG-59 cable with its end stripped.
A: outer plastic sheath
B: copper braid shield
C: inner dielectric insulator
D: copper core

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 Coaxial Cable Connectors
• Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC)
• BNC T connector,
• BNC terminator

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BNC( British Naval Connector)

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 Fiber-optics
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or
plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light.

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Fiber-optics

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 Fiber-optics
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light
through a channel. A glass or plastic Core
is surrounded by a cladding of less dense
glass or plastic.
• The difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a beam of
light moving through the core is reflected
off the cladding instead of being refracted
into it.
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Fiber optics cable connector

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 Connectors
• The subscriber channel (SC) connector
is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull
locking system.
• The straight-tip (ST) connector is used
for connecting cable to networking
devices. It uses a bayonet locking system
and is more reliable than SC.
• MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size
as RJ45.

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 Applications
• Fiber-optic cable is often found in
backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective.

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 Advantages
• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the
gigabits.

• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity.

• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to

be "refreshed" or strengthened.

• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as

radios, motors or other nearby cables.

• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

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 Disadvantages
Installation and maintenance.
• Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation
and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available
everywhere.

Unidirectional light propagation.

• Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional
communication, two fibers are needed.

Cost.
• The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive
than those of other guided media. If the demand for
bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be
justified.

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 connectivity
Connection can be made between
• Computer-computer
• Computer-hub
• Hub-hub
• Hub-switch
• Switch-switch

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 Straight-through cable
• Straight-through cable is a type of twisted pair
copper wire cable for local area network (LAN) use
for which the RJ-45 connectors at each end have the
same pinout (i.e., arrangement of conductors).
• Straight-through cable is also commonly referred to
as patch cable.
• Straight-through cable is used to connect computers
and other end-user devices (e.g., printers) to
networking devices such as hubs and switches

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Cross over cable

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 Cross over cable
• It is generally used to connect similar
devices.
• Such as hub-hub, switch-switch.

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 Roll over cable
• You can identify a roll-over cable by
comparing the two modular ends of the
cable.
• Holding the cables side-by-side, with the
tab at the back, the wire connected to the
pin on the outside of the left plug should
be the same color as the wire connected
to the pin on the outside of the right plug.

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 Roll over cable
Conn 1 conn2
1 8
2 7
3 6
4 5
5 4
6 3
7 2
8 1

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 Switches
• A network switch is a computer
networking device that connects network
segments.
• The term commonly refers to a Network
bridge that processes and routes data at
the Data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI
model.

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Rack mounted 24 port switches

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 HUB
• A hub is a device that lets a single network
cable to split into multiple cables leading to
nodes.

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4-port Ethernet hub

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