SOIL MECHANICS

COMPACTION
COMPACTION

Why do we need
to compact the soil
in our project
site???
COMPACTION

In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams,

and many other engineering structures, loose soils must
be compacted to:

✓ Increase their unit weights

✓ Increase the strength characteristics of soils, which
increase the bearing capacity of foundations
constructed over them
✓ Decrease the amount of undesirable settlement of
structures
✓ Increase the stability of slopes of embankments
✓ Reduce the compressibility and permeability of soil
COMPACTION

Compaction is the densification of soil by removal of air or

pressing of soil particles close to each other which requires
mechanical energy
 COMPACTION

❑Rapid process of reduction of volume ❑Gradual process of reduction of

by mechanical means such as rolling, volume under sustained, static loading
tamping, and vibration ❑Causes a reduction in volume of a
❑The volume of a partially saturated saturated soil due to squeezing out of
soil decreases because of expulsion of water from the soil
air from the voids
 COMPACTION

❑It is an artificial process which is done ❑It is a process which occurs in nature
to increase the density of the soil to when the saturated soil deposits are
improve its properties before it is put subjected to static loads caused by the
to any use weight of the buildings and other
structures
COMPACTION: General Principles
COMPACTION: General Principles

• The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in

terms of its dry unit weight. When water is added
to the soil during compaction, it acts as a
softening agent on the soil particles. The soil
particles slip over each other and move into a
densely packed position. The dry unit weight after
compaction first increases as the moisture
content increases.
• When the moisture content is gradually increased
and the same compactive effort is used for
compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit
volume gradually increases.
• Beyond a certain moisture content, any increase
in the moisture content tends to reduce the dry
unit weight. This phenomenon occurs because
the water takes up the spaces that would have
been occupied by the solid particles. The moisture
content at which the maximum dry unit weight is
attained is generally referred to as the
optimum moisture content.
COMPACTION: General Principles
Two basic compaction tests

Standard Proctor Compaction and Modified Proctor Compaction

- developed Proctor (1933)

➢ Dry Unit Weight

➢ Moisture content
COMPACTION: General Principles
Two basic compaction tests
 COMPACTION: General Principles

For retaining wall backfill, For heavier load application

highway embankments, and such as airport runways,
low earth dams highway base courses, and high
earth dams
………….Standard proctor is ………….Modified proctor is
applicable applicable
COMPACTION: Standard Proctor Test
 COMPACTION: Standard Proctor Test

For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, γ, can be calculated as:

where
W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold
Vm = volume of the mold (944cm3)

For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the laboratory. With the
known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated as

where
γd = dry unit weight
γ = moist unit weight
ω = moisture content
 COMPACTION: Standard Proctor Test

For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation S, the dry unit weight of
compaction can be calculated as:
where
γd = dry unit weight
γw = unit weight of water
ω = moisture content
Gs = specific gravity of soil
S = degree of saturation

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when no air is in
the void spaces—that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%.Hence, the maximum dry unit
weight at a given moisture content with zero air voids can be obtained by substituting S = 1:

where
γzav = zero-air-void unit weight
COMPACTION: Modified Proctor Test
 COMPACTION: Modified Proctor Test

Omar et al. (2003)

where
ρd(max) = maximum dry density (kg/m3 )
❑ modified Proctor compaction tests on wopt = optimum moisture content(%)
311 soil samples. Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
❑ Of these samples, 45 were gravelly LL = liquid limit, in percent
soil (GP, GP-GM, GW, GW-GM, and R#4 = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
GM), 264 were sandy soil (SP, SP-SM,
SW-SM, SW, SC-SM, SC, and SM),
and two were clay with low plasticity
(CL).
 COMPACTION: Modified Proctor Test

Patra et al. (2010)

❑ For granular soils with less than 12% fines where

(i.e., finer than No. 200 sieve), relative Dr = maximum relative density of compaction
density may be a better indicator for end achieved with compaction energy E (kN-m/m3 )
D50 = median grain size (mm)
product compaction specification in the
field.
❑ Based on laboratory compaction tests on
55 clean sands (less than 5% finer than
No. 200 sieve)
 COMPACTION: Modified Proctor Test

Gurtug and Sridharan (2004)

For modified Proctor test, E = 2700 kN/m3. Hence,

❑ proposed correlations for optimum moisture where

content and maximum dry unit weight with the PL = plastic limit (%)
plastic limit (PL) of cohesive soils E = compaction energy (kN-m/m3 )
 COMPACTION: Modified Proctor Test

Osman et al. (2008)

❑ analyzed a number of laboratory compaction test where

results on fine-grained (cohesive) soil, including wopt = optimum water content (%)
those provided by Gurtug and Sridharan (2004) PI = plasticity index (%)
γd(max) = maximum dry unit weight (kN/m3 )
E = compaction energy (kN-m/m3 )
 COMPACTION: Modified Proctor Test

Matteo et al. (2009)

❑ analyzed the results of 71 fine-grained soils and where

provided the following correlations for optimum LL = liquid limit (%)
water content (wopt) and maximum dry unit weight PI = plasticity index (%)
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
[γd(max)] for modified Proctor tests (E =2700 kN-
m/m3)
COMPACTION

What are the

factors affecting
Compaction
COMPACTION: Factors Affecting Compaction
COMPACTION: Factors Affecting Compaction
A. Soil Type
For sands, the dry unit weight has a
general tendency first to decrease as
moisture content increases and then to
increase to a maximum value with
further increase of moisture. The initial
decrease of dry unit weight with
increase of moisture content can be
attributed to the capillary tension
effect. At lower moisture contents, the
capillary tension in the pore water
inhibits the tendency of the soil
particles to move around and be
compacted densely.

Typical compaction curves for four soils

(ASTM D-698)
COMPACTION: Factors Affecting Compaction
B. Compaction Effort
The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test is:
COMPACTION: Factors Affecting Compaction
B. Compaction Effort
If the compaction effort per unit volume
of soil is changed, the moisture–unit
weight curve also changes.

Four compaction curves for a sandy clay

- The standard Proctor mold and hammer were used to
obtain these compaction curves. The number of layers of soil
used for compaction was three for all cases. However, the
number of hammer blows per each layer varied from 20 to 50,
which varied the energy per unit volume

Observation:
1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum
dry unit weight of compaction is also increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum
moisture content is decreased to some extent.
COMPACTION: Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soils
COMPACTION: Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soils

A. Soil Structure

❖Flocculated structure
(A, B and E).

❖Dispersed structure
(E and D)

According to Lambe (1958)

 COMPACTION: Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soils

B. Strength

Samples compacted
in the dry side of
optimum tend to be
more rigid and
stronger than
samples compacted
wet-of-optimum
 COMPACTION: Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soils

One-dimensional consolidation C. Compressibility

a) At low stress - soil samples
compacted at the wet side
of optimum tend to be
more compressible
b) At high stress – soil
samples compacted at the
dry side of optimum tend
to be more compressible
due to collapse of soil
structure
COMPACTION: Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soils

D. Permeability

Increasing water
content results in a
decrease in
permeability in the dry
side and a slight
increase in the wet side
COMPACTION: Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soils

E. Water Absorption

Dry side of optimum compaction

- There is more potential for water
absorption and high swelling
potential
COMPACTION: Field Compaction
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Rolling and kneading Vibration

- By using rollers equipment - By using vibrators equipment

- Rollers consist of smooth - Vibrators comprise of out-of-
wheel, pneumatic, and balance type or pulsating
Ramming
sheepsfoot hydraulic type mounted on
plates or rollers
- By using rammers equipment
- Rammers include dropping
weights by internal
combustion or pneumatic
types
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Ramming
- A hand-operated tamper consists of a block of iron (or stone), about 3-5kg in mass,
attached to a wooden rod. The tamper is lifted for about 0.30m and dropped on the soil to
be compacted. A mechanical rammer is operated by compressed air or gasoline power. It
is much heavier, about 30-150kg. Tampers can be used for all types of soils
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Rollers
- The compaction using a roller depends upon the following factors:
(i) Contact pressure
The compaction increases with an increase in the contact pressure. For a smooth-wheel
roller, the contact pressure depends upon the load per unit width and the diameter of the roller.
(ii) Number of passes
The compaction of a soil increases with an increase in the number of passes made. For
economy consideration, the number of passes is restricted to a reasonable limit between 5 to 15.
(iii) Layer thickness
The compaction of a soil increases with a decrease in the thickness of the layer.
However, for economy consideration, the thickness is rarely ept less than 15cm.
(iv) Speed of roller
The compaction depends upon the speed of the roller. The speed should be so adjusted
that the maximum effect is achieved.
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Rollers
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum
rollers)

Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof

rolling subgrades and for finishing operation of
fills with sandy and clayey soils. These rollers
provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with
ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380
kN/m2. They are not suitable for producing high
unit weights of compaction when used on
thicker layers.
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Rollers
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better in

many respects than the smooth-wheel rollers.
The former are heavily loaded with several rows
of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to
six in a row. The contact pressure under the
tires can range from 600 to 700 kN/m2, and they
produce about 70 to 80% coverage. Pneumatic
rollers can be used for sandy and clayey soil
compaction. Compaction is achieved by a
combination of pressure and kneading action.
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers

Sheepsfoot rollers are drums with a large

number of projections. The area of each
projection may range from 25 to 85 cm2. These
rollers are most effective in compacting clayey
soils. The contact pressure under the
projections can range from 1400 to 7000 kN/m2.
During compaction in the field, the initial passes
compact the lower portion of a lift. Compaction
at the top and middle of a lift is done at a later
stage.
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
In the field, the soil is compacted by applying energy in three ways:

Vibration
Vibratory rollers

Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in

compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be
attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-
tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil.

Vibratory compactors can compact the granular

soils to a very high maximum dry density.
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
Special Compaction Technique
(1) Vibroflotation

Vibroflotation is a technique for in situ

densification of thick layers of loose
granular soildeposits. It was developed in
Germany in the 1930s. The first
vibroflotation device was used in the
United States about 10 years later. The
process involves the use of a Vibroflot
unit (also called the vibrating unit).
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
Special Compaction Technique
(1) Vibroflotation
Stage 1: The jet at the bottom of the
Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into
the ground.
Stage 2: The water jet creates a quick
condition in the soil and it allows the
vibrating unit to sink into the ground.
Stage 3: Granular material is poured
from the top of the hole. The water from
the lower jet is transferred to the jet at
the top of the vibrating unit. This water
carries the granular material down the
hole.
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is
gradually raised in about 0.3 m lifts and
held vibrating for about 30 seconds at
each lift. This process compacts the soil
to the desired unit weight.
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
Special Compaction Technique
(1) Vibroflotation

The grain-size distribution of the backfill material

is an important factor that controls the rate of
densification. Brown (1977) has defined a
quantity called the suitability number for rating
backfill as:

where D50, D20, and D10 are the diameters (in

mm) through which, respectively, 50, 20, and
10% of the material passes
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
Special Compaction Technique
(2) Dynamic Compaction

Dynamic compaction is a technique that has gained popularity in the United States for the
densification of granular soil deposits. This process consists primarily of dropping a heavy weight
repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals. The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of
80 to 360 kN, and the height of the hammer drop varies between 7.5 and 30.5 m. The stress waves
generated by the hammer drops aid in the densification. The degree of compaction achieved at a
given site depends on the following three factors:
1. Weight of hammer
2. Height of hammer drop
3. Spacing of locations at which the hammer is dropped

Leonards, Cutter, and Holtz (1980) suggested that the significant depth of influence for compaction
can be approximated by using the equation
 COMPACTION: Field Compaction
Special Compaction Technique
(3) Blasting

Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects (Mitchell, 1970) for the
densification of granular soils. The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by blasting are
the same as those for compaction by vibroflotation.

The process involves the detonation of explosive charges, such as 60% dynamite at a certain depth
below the ground surface in saturated soil. The lateral spacing of the charges varies from about 3 to
9 m. Three to five successful detonations are usually necessary to achieve the desired compaction.
Compaction (up to a relative density of about 80%) up to a depth of about 18 m over a large area
can easily be achieved by using this process. Usually, the explosive charges are placed at a depth
of about two-thirds of the thickness of the soil layer desired to be compacted. The sphere of
influence of compaction by a 60% dynamite charge can be given as follows (Mitchell, 1970):
COMPACTION: Suitability of various methods of compaction
 COMPACTION: Suitability of various methods of compaction

1. Cohesionless soils only – smooth-wheel rollers are suitable or compacting layers of small
thickness in base courses.
2. Cohesive soils only – sheep-foot rollers are suitable for compaction of cohesive soils.
3. Both cohesive and cohesionless soils – The following methods are universal which can be
used for both soils:
(i) Tampers are effective for compacting soils in a confined space of all types
(ii) Pneumatic-tyred rollers are extremely useful for compacting all types of soils
(iii) Pounding method has a great promise for compacting all types of soils
COMPACTION: Specifications for Field Compaction
 COMPACTION: Specifications for Field Compaction

For control of field

compaction, construction
specifications require that the
dry unit weight of field
compacted soils be equal
to or greater than a
given percentage of the
maximum dry unit weight,
which typically 90% - 100%

Where R = Relative Compaction

COMPACTION: Specifications for Field Compaction
For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms of the
required relative density Dr or the required relative compaction.

Where Dr = Relative Density

Where R = Relative Compaction

Lee and Singh (1971) devised a correlation between R and Dr for granular soils based on the
observation of 47 soil samples:
COMPACTION: Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
 COMPACTION: Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Sand cone method

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a
metal cone attached at its top. The jar is filled with uniform
dry Ottawa sand. The combined weight of the jar, the cone,
and the sand filling the jar is determined (W1). In the field, a
small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been
compacted. If the weight of the moist soil excavated from the
hole (W2) is determined and the moisture content of the
excavated soil is known, the dry weight of the soil can be
obtained as:
 COMPACTION: Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Sand cone method

After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is inverted and placed over
the hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole and the cone. After that, the combined
weight of the jar, the cone, and the remaining sand in the jar is determined (W4), so:

where W5 = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone

The volume of the excavated hole can then be determined as:
 COMPACTION: Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Sand cone method

The values of Wc and γd(sand) are determined from the calibration done in the laboratory. The dry unit
weight of compaction made in the field then can be determined as follows:
 COMPACTION: Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation D-2167)

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for
the sand cone method; a test hole is made and the moist weight of
soil removed from the hole and its moisture content are
determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined by
introducing into it a rubber balloon filled with water from a
calibrated vessel, from which the volume can be read directly. The
dry unit weight of the compacted soil can be determined by using:
 COMPACTION: Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Nuclear Method
Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the
compacted dry unit weight of soil. The density meters operate
either in drilled holes or from the ground surface. It uses a
radioactive isotope source. The isotope gives off Gamma rays that
radiate back to the meter’s detector. Dense soil absorbs more
radiation than loose soil. The instrument measures the weight of
wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water present in a unit
volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be
determined by subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit
weight of soil.