Course Content

• Introduction
• Laplace Transform/State Space/Z Transform
• Mathematical Modeling and Development of Transfer Functions of Chemical
Processes (Input-Output Models), Dynamic Behavior of First, Second (and Higher)
Order Systems, Linearization of Non-Linear Models
• Development of Close Loop Control Systems and its Block equivalent
• Stability analysis and Design of Feedback-Controlled Systems and Their
Performance Evaluation (qualitative and quantitative), Model based and Plant
Based
- Conventional: ZN, Cohen – Coon, BODE
- Advanced: IMC,……………
- MIMO
- Non Linear

4
 Recommended Books

• Donald R. Coughanowr and Steven E. LeBlanc. Process Systems

Analysis and Control. McGraw-Hill, 2008
• Dale E. Seborg, Thomas F. Edgar, and Duncan A. Mellichamp. Process
Dynamics and Control. 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2004.
• Carlos A. Smith, and Armando Corripio. Principles and Practice of
Automatic Process Control. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
• William L Luyben. Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for
Chemical Engineers. 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1996
• George Stephanopoulos. Chemical process control. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984

5
Marking Pattern (Weightage in Grading )

Mid Sem- 30 Marks

End Sem - 50

Quiz, Term Paper, Assignment – 15

Attendance - 05
 What is Model?
• It is prototype/replica of any real system
• Model system can’t show exact behavior of
real system
 Mathematical Model
• Mathematical equivalent of real system
• Fundamental and quantitative way to understand and analyze
complex systems and phenomena
• Complement to Theory and Experiments, and often Intergate
them
• Becoming widespread in: Computational Physics, Chemistry,
Mechanics, Materials, …, Biology
• It is not possible to develop exact mathematical equivalent of
even simple systems
• More accuracy More complexity Difficult to understand
and solve
• Model complexity can be greatly reduce by taking suitable
assumptions without compromising with accuracy

Classical Example: Boundary Layer Theory

Mathematical Model

Mathematical modeling involves teamwork

 Mathematical Model
Complements, but does not replace, theory
and experimentation in scientific research.

Experiment Theory

Computation
 Mathematical Model Development
• Fundamental Model
 Based on fundamental principles
• Momentum balance – Newton’s law of motion
• Energy balance – Fourier’s law of heat conduction
• Mass balance – Fick’s law of diffusion
 Not system specific
• Once you have developed, it will be applicable to all similar systems
 Difficult to develop for complex systems
• Biological systems
• Weather forecasting
 Not as accurate as empirical models

• Semi empirical Model

 Fundamental models are corrected with database/experience
 Many equations we study in core engineering branches are
semi empirical
 Practical equation with reasonable accuracy
 Mathematical Model Development
• Empirical Model/Data Based Model
 Not based on fundamental principles
 Data is converted into form of equation
 More data == More accuracy
 System specific
 Development procedure is fixed
 Accuracy depends on database and type of model selected
 Very accurate

Examples
 Simple curve fitting
 Least square fitting (single and multi variable)
 Neural network based model (black box model)
 Mathematical Model Development
Fundamental models can be developed at different
levels in the system according to system characteristics
 Molecular Level
 Molecular theory of gases
 To validate any theory or postulate
 More common with theoretical people
 Micro Level
 Shell balance approach
 Applied for non uniform system
 Macro Level
 Applied for uniform systems
 Simple in nature
 Steady State vs. Dynamic Models
 Mathematical Model Development
Step 1: To understand the real system / situation – To decide
which modelling approach and level at which the model should
be developed
Step 2: To identify the Input and Output Variables (Manipulated
variable in control system)
Step 3: To take suitable assumptions to make model simple
Step 4: To identify the boundaries of the model
Step 5: To write the model equations
Solution of Mathematical Model
• Without solution mathematical model is useless
• Empirical approach provide direct solution
• How to get the solution in case of fundamental model?
 Conventional solution
 Not possible for all models
 Numerical Solution
 Problem of accuracy and computers are required
 Numerical Solution
– Newton Rapshon
– Euler, RK, RKG, FD,FEM, FVM
– Software packages – Fluent, Aspen, MATLAB, MATCHCAD, EXCEL
Special technique – Laplace Transform
Application of Mathematical Models
•Climate modeling
- Weather forecasting
- Weather forecasting on the basis of
app
• Biology – Power of Enzyme
• Control System
-Most basic form of AI
- Driver less car
• Environment
• Seismology
• Material research
• Drug design
• Manufacturing/Product Design
• Medicine
NEED OF CONTROL SYSTEM IN CHEMICAL PLANTS
SUPPRESS THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL DISTURBANCES
Feedback is more common?
Advantages of Feedforward?
FEEDBACK AND FEEDFORWARD LEVEL CONTROL
ENSURING THE STABILITY OF THE PROCESS
CONTROLLING THE OPERATION OF A UNSTABLE
CSTR
OPTIMIZING THE PERFORMANCE OF A CHEMICAL REACTOR
Design Elements of a Control System
• Define Control Objectives
• What are operational objectives that control system is
called upon to achieve?
• Select Measurements
• What variables should we measure in order to
monitor the operational performance of a plant or
process?
• Select Manipulated Variables
• What are possible manipulated variables that can be
used to control the process/plant?
• Select Control Configuration
• What is best control configuration for a given chemical
process control situation?
Define Control Objectives
What are operational objectives that control
system is called upon to achieve?
Select Measurements
What variables should we measure in order to monitor the
operational performance of a plant or process?

Different measurements in FEEDBACK and

FEEDFORWARD.
Select Manipulated Variables
What are possible manipulated variables that can
be used to control the process/plant?
Select Control Configuration
What is best control configuration for a given chemical
process control situation?
Need of secondary
measurement?
 Feed forward arrangement
Again need conc. Analyzer
required.
Costly and very slow?
Unable to achieve the goal.

Scope for secondary measurement?

 The French Newton
Pierre-Simon Laplace

• Developed mathematics in
astronomy, physics, and
statistics
• Began work in calculus
which led to the Laplace
Transform
• Focused later on celestial
mechanics
• One of the first scientists to
suggest the existence of
black holes
 Differential Equations:
Laplace Transform
Methods
The Laplace transform was developed
by the French mathematician by the
same name (1749-1827) and was widely
adapted to engineering problems in the
last century. Its utility lies in the ability
to convert differential equations to
algebraic forms that are more easily
solved. The notation has become very
common in certain areas as a form of
engineering “language” for dealing with
systems.
57
 Differential Equation

Steps
involved in Transform differential
using the equation to
algebraic equation.

Laplace
transform.
Solve equation
by algebra.

Determine
inverse
transform.

Solution

58
Laplace Transformation

F (s)   f (t )e dt
 st
0

L[ f (t )]  F (s)

1
L [F (s)]  f (t )
59
 Basic Theorems of
Linearity
L[Kf (t )]  KL[ f (t )]  KF (s)
L[ f1 (t )  f 2 (t )]  L[ f1 (t )]  L[ f 2 (t )]
 F1 (s)  F2 ( s)
The Laplace transform of a product is
not the product of the transforms.

L[ f1 (t ) f2 (t )]  F1 (s)F2 (s)
60
Advantages and Limitations of Laplace
Transform
ADVANTAGES
•It’s very simple and provide quick solution

•After converting into Laplace domain the Diff equation

converted into algebraic equation. It’s very simple to
manipulate algebraic equation which is not possible with
differential form of equation.

•Writing model in form of Transfer Function

LIMITATIONS
•Provide solution of real systems (t>0). Past incidences
are also important and decide the behavior of system.

•Not possible to solve Non Linear Differential Eq or

Linear Diff Equation with variable coefficients
Figure 10-2. Illustration of the unit step
function.

u (t )

0 t

62
Example 10-1. Derive the Laplace
transform of the unit step function.


F (s)   (1)e dt
 st
0

 st 
e  e  1 0
F ( s)    0    
s  0  s  s

63
Example 10-2. Derive the Laplace
transform of the exponential function
t
f (t )  e
 
F ( s)   e e dt   e
 t  st  (  s ) t
dt
0 0

e 
 ( s  ) t
e 0
   0
( s   )  0 ( s   )
1

s 
64
 The French Newton
Pierre-Simon Laplace

• Developed mathematics in
astronomy, physics, and
statistics
• Began work in calculus
which led to the Laplace
Transform
• Focused later on celestial
mechanics
• One of the first scientists to
suggest the existence of
black holes
 Differential Equations:
Laplace Transform
Methods
The Laplace transform was developed
by the French mathematician by the
same name (1749-1827) and was widely
adapted to engineering problems in the
last century. Its utility lies in the ability
to convert differential equations to
algebraic forms that are more easily
solved. The notation has become very
common in certain areas as a form of
engineering “language” for dealing with
systems.
89
 Differential Equation

Steps
involved in Transform differential
using the equation to
algebraic equation.

Laplace
transform.
Solve equation
by algebra.

Determine
inverse
transform.

Solution

90
Laplace Transformation

F (s)   f (t )e dt
 st
0

L[ f (t )]  F (s)

1
L [F (s)]  f (t )
91
 Basic Theorems of
Linearity
L[Kf (t )]  KL[ f (t )]  KF (s)
L[ f1 (t )  f 2 (t )]  L[ f1 (t )]  L[ f 2 (t )]
 F1 (s)  F2 ( s)
The Laplace transform of a product is
not the product of the transforms.

L[ f1 (t ) f2 (t )]  F1 (s)F2 (s)
92
Advantages and Limitations of Laplace
Transform
ADVANTAGES
•It’s very simple and provide quick solution

•After converting into Laplace domain the Diff equation

converted into algebraic equation. It’s very simple to
manipulate algebraic equation which is not possible with
differential form of equation.

•Writing model in form of Transfer Function

LIMITATIONS
•Provide solution of real systems (t>0). Past incidences
are also important and decide the behavior of system.

•Not possible to solve Non Linear Differential Eq or

Linear Diff Equation with variable coefficients
Figure 10-2. Illustration of the unit step
function.

u (t )

0 t

94
Example 10-1. Derive the Laplace
transform of the unit step function.


F (s)   (1)e dt
 st
0

 st 
e  e  1 0
F ( s)    0    
s  0  s  s

95
Example 10-2. Derive the Laplace
transform of the exponential function
t
f (t )  e
 
F ( s)   e e dt   e
 t  st  (  s ) t
dt
0 0

e 
 ( s  ) t
e 0
   0
( s   )  0 ( s   )
1

s 
96
State Space Analysis
Write TF and State Space Model of II Order Process
Write TF and State Space Model of II Order Process
ELEMENTARY MATRIX
ALGEBRA
 Conservation Rule
[Rate of quantity in the system] – [Rate of quantity out
of the system] – [Rate of consumption of quantity in
the system] + [Rate of generation of quantity in the
system] = [Rate of change of quantity in the system]

Quantity may be momentum, energy or mass

Modeling and Dynamics – A case study
Transient Temperature – Energy Balance Problem
Due to operator mistake
Unsteady state balance
Modelling and Response of Ist Order Systems
Modelling difficulties
Modelling of Mercury Manometer
 Physical significance of time constant?

Advantage of writing in terms of deviation variable

Example 4.2. A thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady-state
temperature of 90°F. At time t = 0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature bath
maintained at 100°F. Determine the time needed for the thermometer to read 98°F.
More Examples of First Order Systems

Liquid level system

Assuming resistance is linear

Steady State Gain
LINEARIZATION
Response of First Order Systems in Series
Response of Non Interacting System
Dynamic Response of Interacting System
Dynamics of Second Order System

• A second-order system can arise from two first-order systems in series, as we

saw in previous discussions.
• Some systems are inherently second-order, and they do not result from a
series combination of two first-order systems.
• Inherently second-order systems are not so common in chemical engineering
applications.
• Most second-order/higher- order systems that we encounter will result from
the addition of a controller to a first-order process.
• Let’s examine an inherently second-order system and develop some
terminology that will be useful in our analysis of the control of chemical
processes.
Dynamics of Manometer
In summary, it is evident that is a measure of
the degree of damping, or the oscillatory
character, and is a measure of the period, or
speed, of the response of a second-order
system.
Solution
a) Percentage Overshoot = 25.4

b) Rise time= 1.0842

c) Maximum Value Y(t)=12.54

d) Ultimate Value of Y(t)=10

e) Period of oscillation=3.427
Dynamics of Second Order System

• A second-order system can arise from two first-order

systems in series, as we saw in previous discussions.
• Some systems are inherently second-order, and they do
not result from a series combination of two first-order
systems.
• Inherently second-order systems are not so common in
chemical engineering applications.
• Most second-order/higher- order systems that we
encounter will result from the addition of a controller to
a first-order process.
• Let’s examine an inherently second-order system and
develop some terminology that will be useful in our
analysis of the control of chemical processes.
In summary, it is evident that is a
measure of the degree of damping, or
the oscillatory character, and is a
measure of the period, or speed, of
the response of a second-order
system.
DEVELOPMENT OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

In block diagram representations of control systems, the

variables selected are deviation variables, and inside each block
is placed the transfer function relating the input-output pair of
variables. Finally, the blocks are combined to give the overall
block diagram.
Process
Consider first the block for the process. This block will be seen
to differ somewhat from those presented in previous chapters
in that two input variables are present; however, the procedure
for developing the transfer function remains the same.
How to write Block Equivalent of the
Process Model
Stirred-tank heater model.

( a ) Determine the response of the

outlet temperature of the tank to a
step change
in the inlet temperature from 60 to 70
C.
( b ) Determine the response of the
outlet temperature of the tank to a
step increase
in the heat input of 42 kW.
( c ) Determine the response of the
outlet temperature of the tank to a
simultaneous
step change in the inlet temperature
from 60 to 70 C and a step increase in
the heat input of 42 kW.
Controller and Final Control Element
For convenience, the blocks representing the controller and the
final control element
are combined into one block. In this way, we need be concerned
only with the overall
response between
The relationship forthe error in the temperature
a proportional controller is and the heat
input to the tank. Also, it
is assumed that the controller is a proportional controller.
Transfer Function of Control Valve
Controllers

Proportional Controller
Proportional Integral Controller (PI)
Proportional Derivative Controller (PD)
Proportional Integral Derivative
Controller(PID)
ON OFF CONTROLLER
Piping and Instruments Diagram / Symbols
The Instrument Society of America (ISA)
produces a standards document [ISA-5.1-
1984-(R1992)] “Instrument Symbols and
Identification” that establishes a uniform
means of designating instruments, control
systems, and sensors used for
measurement and control in a process.

Figure 9A–1 shows an example of a level

control loop for a process tank. The
operation is as follows. The tank level is
measured using a sensor, perhaps a
differential pressure
cell, indicated by the bubble containing LE
on the diagram. The sensor is connected to
a level transmitter, LT, that sends an
electrical signal (4 to 20 mA) to a level
indicating
controller LIC. Level alarms high and low,
LAH and LAL, “monitor” the signal from the
level transmitter and indicate an alarm
situation if necessary. Notice from the
symbols (the line through the bubble) that
LIC, LAH, and LAL are all located in the
control room, while LE and LT are mounted
in the field.

The level indicating controller determines

the necessary signal to send to the valve,
based on the current level in the tank, the
Close Loop Transfer Function
DIRECT APPROACH
Block Diagram of a Chemical Reactor Control
System
DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM

A liquid stream enters tank 1 at a volumetric flow rate F cfm and contains reactant
A
at a concentration of c 0 mol A /ft 3 . Reactant A decomposes in the tanks
according to the irreversible chemical reaction
A→B
The reaction is first-order and proceeds at a rate

where r A rate of formation of A, (mol A )/(ft3 · time)

c concentration of A, mol A /ft3
k reaction rate constant (a function of temperature),
time 1 ( k 1 ≡ tank 1, k 2 ≡ tank 2)

The reaction is to be carried out in a series of two continuous stirred-tank reactors.

The tanks are maintained at different temperatures. The temperature in tank 2 is
to be greater than the temperature in tank 1, with the result that k 2 , the reaction
rate constant in tank 2, is greater than that in tank 1, k 1 .

We will neglect any changes in physical properties due to chemical reaction.

The purpose of the control system is to maintain c 2 , the concentration of A

leaving tank 2, at some desired value in spite of variations in the inlet
concentration c 0 . This will be accomplished by adding a stream of pure A to tank
1 through a control valve.

We wish to produce a block diagram for the process so that we can simulate its
response to changes in inlet concentration.
Stirred-tank heater model.

( a ) Determine the response of the

outlet temperature of the tank to a
step change
in the inlet temperature from 60 to 70
C.
( b ) Determine the response of the
outlet temperature of the tank to a
step increase
in the heat input of 42 kW.
( c ) Determine the response of the
outlet temperature of the tank to a
simultaneous
step change in the inlet temperature
from 60 to 70 C and a step increase in
the heat input of 42 kW.
Controller and Final Control Element
For convenience, the blocks representing the controller and the
final control element
are combined into one block. In this way, we need be concerned
only with the overall
response between
The relationship forthe error in the temperature
a proportional controller is and the heat
input to the tank. Also, it
is assumed that the controller is a proportional controller.
Transfer Function of Control Valve
Controllers

Proportional Controller
Proportional Integral Controller (PI)
Proportional Derivative Controller (PD)
Proportional Integral Derivative
Controller(PID)
ON OFF CONTROLLER
Piping and Instruments Diagram / Symbols
The Instrument Society of America (ISA)
produces a standards document [ISA-5.1-
1984-(R1992)] “Instrument Symbols and
Identification” that establishes a uniform
means of designating instruments, control
systems, and sensors used for
measurement and control in a process.

Figure 9A–1 shows an example of a level

control loop for a process tank. The
operation is as follows. The tank level is
measured using a sensor, perhaps a
differential pressure
cell, indicated by the bubble containing LE
on the diagram. The sensor is connected to
a level transmitter, LT, that sends an
electrical signal (4 to 20 mA) to a level
indicating
controller LIC. Level alarms high and low,
LAH and LAL, “monitor” the signal from the
level transmitter and indicate an alarm
situation if necessary. Notice from the
symbols (the line through the bubble) that
LIC, LAH, and LAL are all located in the
control room, while LE and LT are mounted
in the field.

The level indicating controller determines

the necessary signal to send to the valve,
based on the current level in the tank, the
Close Loop Transfer Function
DIRECT APPROACH
Block Diagram of a Chemical Reactor Control
System
DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM
A liquid stream enters tank 1 at a volumetric flow rate F cfm and contains reactant A
at a concentration of c 0 mol A /ft 3 . Reactant A decomposes in the tanks according to the
irreversible chemical reaction
A→B
The reaction is first-order and proceeds at a rate

where r A rate of formation of A, (mol A )/(ft3 · time)

c concentration of A, mol A /ft3
k reaction rate constant (a function of temperature), time 1 ( k 1 ≡ tank 1, k 2 ≡ tank 2)
The reaction is to be carried out in a series of two continuous stirred-tank reactors.
The tanks are maintained at different temperatures. The temperature in tank 2 is to be greater
than the temperature in tank 1, with the result that k 2 , the reaction rate constant in tank 2, is
greater than that in tank 1, k 1 .
We will neglect any changes in physical properties due to chemical reaction.
The purpose of the control system is to maintain c 2 , the concentration of A leaving tank 2, at
some desired value in spite of variations in the inlet concentration c 0 . This will be accomplished
by adding a stream of pure A to tank 1 through a control valve.
We wish to produce a block diagram for the process so that we can simulate its response to
changes in inlet concentration.