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Performance analysis of boiler in thermal power plant

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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF BOILER IN THERMAL POWER PLANT

P.Papireddy & Dr. S. Ananth & Mr. Vikash Kumar

PG Student, Professor, Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engg. Malla Reddy College of Engineering Maisammaguda, Dhulapally, Kompally,
Secunderabad, Telangana-500100, India.

ABSTRACT: In India, coal is the dominant source of energy generation. Efficiency of any conventional coal fired unit
ranges from 34-38%. This paper presents the efficiency calculation of boiler, turbine and condenser of a 210 MW unit.
The study focuses on evaluation of various parameters like dry flue gas loss, wet flue gas loss, moisture in fuel and
hydrogen, condenser back pressure, turbine cylinder efficiency, soot formation, etc. and some optimization techniques
are mentioned to minimize the same. The benefits of these techniques are considerable fuel saving, emission reduction,
heat rate improvement, cost minimization, increased equipment life cycle, etc. Cost analysis through heat rate
deviation has been done to determine annual fuel savings. Lastly various critical parameters are mentioned for
further improvement of plant performance

Keywords: Coal fired power plant, rankine cycle, boiler efficiency, turbine efficiency, condenser efficiency, heat rate

I. INTRODUCTION F & A means the amount of steamGenerated from

A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a water at 100 0C to saturated steam at 100
means forCombustion heat to be transferred into This condensate is then sent back to boiler
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The through boiler feed pump via low pressure and
hot water or steam under pressure is then usable high pressure heaters.
for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a
useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to
a process. When water is boiled into steam its
volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a
force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder.
This causes the boiler to be extremely dangerous
equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches its
gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat is
transferred from one body to another by means of
radiation, which is the transfer of heatfrom a hot
body to a cold body without a conveying medium,
convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying
medium, such as air or water and conduction,
transfer of heat by actual physical contact,
molecule to molecule.
Boiler Specification: The heating surface is any
part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of
combustion on one side and water on the other.
Any part of the boiler metal that actually It works on the principle of modified rankinecycle.
contributes to making steam is heating surface. The function of thermal power plant is to generate
The amount of heating surface of a boiler is steam in boiler which is used to drive turbine and
expressed in square meters. The larger the heating generator mounted on the same shaft to produce
surface a boiler has, the more efficient it becomes. electricity. The exhaust from low pressure turbine
The quantity of the steam produced is indicated in is condensed in condenser and the resultant
tons of water evaporated to steam per hour. condensate is extracted through condensate
Maximum continuous rating is the hourly extraction pump.
evaporation that can be maintained for 24 hours. The CEA in India uses power station heat rate as a
proxy for calculating plant efficiency. The heat
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rate of a power plant is the amount of chemical burning fossil fuels is used for industrial
energy that must be supplied toproduce one unit processes, environmental heating or to expand
of electrical energy. Some of the heat rate factors gases in a cylinder and push a piston. Boilers,
that affect power plant performance are ageing of furnaces and engines are important users of fossil
machine, coal quality, plant load factor, operating fuels. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, meaning they
margins, initial plant design, etc are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen.
The basic purpose of a boiler is to turn water into When fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide
steam, in this case saturated steam. This operation (CO2) and water (H2O) are the principal chemical
sounds relatively simple but is actually more products, formed from the reactants carbon and
complicated. Other components and processes hydrogen in the fuel and oxygen (O2) in the air.
such as the dearator and economizer are The simplest example of hydrocarbon fuel
necessary to help the overall operation run more combustion is the reaction of methane (CH4), the
efficiently. The boilers utilized on campus are of largest component of natural gas, with O2 in
the stack drum type, which means there are theair.
drums within the boilers stacked one above the When this reaction is balanced, or stoichiometric,
other. In these particular boilers there are two each molecule of methane reacts with two
drums. The upper drum is called a steam drum molecules of O2 producing one molecule of CO2
and is where saturated steam leaves the boiler. and two molecules of H2O. When this occurs,
While the lower drum is called the mud drum and energy is released as heat. The combining of
is where liquid feed water enters. It is also where oxygen (in the air) and carbon in the fuel to form
sediment carried into the boiler settles. Tubes carbon dioxide and generate heat is a complex
called risers and down comers are used to connect process, requiring the right mixing turbulence,
the two drums. sufficient activation temperature and enough time
All of the energy required within the boiler is for the reactants to come into contact and
produced by the combustion of a fuel. The burner combine.
acts very similar to the gas stove at home, just Unless combustion is properly controlled, high
more complicated. It is comprised of a wind box, concentrations of undesirable products can form.
igniter, fuel manifold and/or atomizing gun, Carbonmonoxide (CO) and soot, for example,
observation port and flame safety scanner. result from poor fuel and air mixing or too little
Currently the boilers can burn either fuel oil or air. Other undesirable products, such as nitrogen
natural gas. Fluctuating prices of fuel can raise or oxides (NO, NO2), form in excessive amounts
lower the cost to produce steam. Having the when the burner flame temperature is too high. If
choice between two different fuels gives the a fuel contains sulphur, sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas
option of burning the lower cost fuel. is formed. For solid fuels such as coal and wood,
Operation of the boiler begins with feed water ash forms from incombustible materials in the
entering the mud drum where it is heated. The fuel.
combustion of fuel within the furnace provides the Kumar et al. has used three sides instead of one
required energy which is imparted by a side roughened duct & found that augmentation in
combination of convection and radiation. A two- Nu & f was respectively to be 21-86 % & 11-41 %.
phase water mixture forms within the riser and They also reported augmentation in thermal
begins to ascend to the steam drum due to its efficiency of three sides over one side roughened
decreasing density. Boiling to 100% quality in the duct to be 44-56 % for varying p/e and 39-51 %
tubes is undesirable because water vapour has for varying e/Dh.
different heat transfer characteristics than liquid
water. This can lead to high wall temperatures and II. METHODLOGY
eventual tube burnout. Once it reaches the steam Performance of Boiler
drum the majority of saturated vapour will be Boiler is an enclosed pressure vessel
removed from the two-phase mixture; there by where heat generated by combustion of fuel is
increasing the remaining mixtures density. The transferred to water to become steam. Boiler
increase in density will initiate its descent in the efficiency is defined as the heat added to the
down comers back to the mud drum. This natural working fluid expressed as a percentage of heat in
circulation continuously allows for aconstant flow the fuel being burnt
of saturated steam exiting the boiler. Direct Method
Combustion occurs when fossil fuels, such as The energy gain of the working fluid
natural gas, fuel oil, coal or gasoline, react with (water and steam) is compared with the energy
oxygen in the air to produce heat. The heat from content of the boiler fuel.
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𝑕𝑔 − 𝑕𝑓 ∗ 𝑄 Theoretical air requirement=
𝜂= ∗ 100
𝑞 ∗ 𝐺𝐶𝑉 [ 11.6 ∗ C + 34.8 ∗ H2 − O2 8 + (4.35 ∗ S)
Where, =
100
hg– Enthalpy of saturated steam in kCal/kg of 𝑘𝑔
of fuel
steam 𝑘𝑔

hf – Enthalpy of feed water in kCal/kg of water

Q – Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in Excess air supplied
kg/hr. O2%
= ∗ 100
q– Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr 21 − O2%
GCV – gross calorific value of the fuel in kCal/kg of Actual mass of air supplied/kg of fuel (AAS)=
fuel 𝐸𝐴
1+ *Theoritical air
100

1) Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas

m∗cp ∗(Tf −Ta )

= ∗ 100
GCV of fuel

Where;
m = mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg 0C)

2) Percentage heat loss due to unburnt carbon in

bottom ash =

Total ash collected

kg of fuel burnt ∗ GCV of bottom ash
=
GCV of fuel
∗ 100
Indirect Method or Heat Loss Method:
The efficiency is the difference between the losses 3) Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of
and the energy input. moisture present in fuel
The main advantage of indirect method is that the
errors obtained from this method do not make 𝑀 ∗ {584 + 𝑐𝑝 ∗ 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎 }
any major change in the efficiency. = ∗ 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Thus if boiler efficiency is 90% an error of 1% in
Where,
direct method will result in significant change is
M – kg of moisture in 1kg of fuel
efficiency, i.e.
Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam
90C ± 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9
(0.45 kcal/kg)0C
Whereas in indirect method, 1% error in
* 584 is the latent heat corresponding to the
measurement of losses will result in;
partial pressure of water vapour.
Efficiency = 100 – (10 ± 0.1)
= 90 ± 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
4) Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of
Accountable losses in coal fired boilers are:
water formed due to H2 in fuel
 Heat loss due to dry flue gas as
sensible heat (L1) 9 ∗ 𝐻2 ∗ {584 + 𝑐𝑝 ∗ (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎)
 Un-burnt losses in bottom ash as = ∗ 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
carbon (L2).
Where,
 Heat loss due to moisture in the coal
H2 – kg of H2 in 1 kg of fuel
(L3).
Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam
 Heat loss due to moisture from
(0.45 kcal/kg 0C)
burning of hydrogen in coal (L4).
 Heat loss due to moisture in air (L5). 5) Percentage heat loss due to moisture present
 Heat loss due to incomplete in air
combustion of carbon (L6) AAS ∗ humidity factor ∗ cp ∗ (Tf − Ta)
 Loss due to surface radiation and = ∗ 100
GCV of fuel
convection (L7).
198 IJRAR- International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews Special Issue
4th International Conference on Trends in Information, Management, Engineering and Science
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Where, Performance of Turbine
Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam Table 2 Heat rate deviation of different
(0.45 kcal/kg 0C) parameters

6) Percentage heat loss due to incomplete

combustion

Where,
L5 = % Heat loss due to partial conversion of C to
CO
CO = Volume of CO in flue gas leaving economizer
(%)
CO2 = Actual Volume of CO2 in flue gas (%)
C = Carbon content kg / kg of fuel

7) Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other

unaccounted loss
Unaccounted losses include losses from boiler Performance of Condenser
casing to surrounding, loss due to combination of Condensers are devices in which cooling water is
carbon and water, heat carried away in ash, losses used to condensate the exhaust steam from the
due to un-burnt volatile matter, heat loss due to steam turbine.
bottom seal water. Radiation loss depends on the The primary objective of a condenser is to
effectiveness of the boiler casing insulation. maintain a very low back pressure on the exhaust
In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of side low pressure turbine. This enables the steam
10 MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses to expand to a greater extent which results in an
could amount to between 1% and 2% of the gross increase in available energy for converting into
calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW mechanical work. [Shende M.B. et al, 2015].
boiler, values between 0.2% to 1% are typical. The Following formula is used for calculating
loss may be assumed appropriately depending on condenser efficiency:
the surface condition. Condenser efficiency = rise in temperature of
cooling water[Saturation temp corresponding to
Boiler efficiency (η) = 100 – (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5+ 6 + the absolute pressure in the condenser]-[inlet
7) temp of cooling of water
Table1 Losses in boiler by indirect method Steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts
thermal energy from pressurized steam, and
converts it to useful mechanical work. The steam
turbines are split into three separate stages, High
Pressure (HP), Intermediate Pressure (IP) and
Low Pressure (LP) stage, which are mounted on
the same shaft along with generator. [Kumar et al,
2013].
Turbine efficiency is defined as the ratio of
mechanical work output in kcal (or KJ) to the total
heat available across the turbine in kcal (or kJ)
expressed as a percentage.
Following formulas are used for calculating
turbine efficiency
1) Total accountable losses+ Design heat rate=
Unit heat rate
2) Accountable losses of turbine + Design turbine
heat rate= Turbine heat rate
3) Turbine cycle efficiency
860
= ∗ 100
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
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in solving the highest priority problems first so as
to minimize the amount of fuel consumption.
Cost of heat rate deviation = heat rate
deviation*net generation* fuel cost
An increase in heat rate results in increasing the
fuel consumption whereas any decrease in heat
rate results in reduction of fuel requirement for
producing a given number of KWH of energy. Heat
rate also plays a key role in any purchasing
decision, be it fuel, oil, or any equipment, etc.
Table 4Cost of heat rate deviation
Sl. Particulars Unit UHR Loss Cost of heat rate
No. (Kcal/kWh) deviation (Rs)
1. Partial loading % 0 0
LPT.exhauststeam Deg C
2. Temp Cond.
backpressure Ksc -2 -34.06
III. EFFICIENCY CALCULATION 3. D.M. make up T/Hr -11 -187.33
Step- 1) 4. Final F.W. temp. Deg C 0 0
DTCHR of 210 MW is 2021 kcal/kwh.
GTCHR=24+2021
In above table, cost of heat rate deviation of each
= 2045 kcal /kwh
parameter has been calculated where,
Step-2)
860 Net generation= gross generation-auxiliary power
Turbine 𝜂 = ∗ 100 consumption
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Turbine ƞ= 42.05% = 195.41MW
Step -3) Fuel cost = Rs 610/ton or Rs 87.2/106 kcal
UHR=GTCHR/Boiler Efficiency -ve sign of heat rate deviation indicates the better
=2045/86.53 performance of plant and +ve sign indicates poor
=2363 kcal/kwh performance of plant.
Step -4) From table, we get cost of heat rate deviation= Rs -
Condenser ƞ 1038.83
= Rise in cooling water temperature (-) sign indicates the cost saving in fuel.
LPT exhaust temp – Inlet temp. ofc.w Annual cost of heat ratedeviation
= 0.7219 = heat rate fuel cost ∗ unit rating
Step-5) ∗ PLF ∗ hrs in a year
860 87.2
Plant ƞ= ∗ 100 =2452* 6 ∗ 210 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1.01 ∗ 8760
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 10
= 35.9% =Rs 397,266,299.9 /yr
87.2
=2452* 6 ∗ 210 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1.01 ∗ 8760
IV. COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS 10
Heat rate is helpful in determining how =Rs 271,399,749.5 /yr
efficiently any unit is being operated, as lower is If 1% heat rate is reduced then annual cost of fuel
the heat rate higher will be the operational would be
efficiency. For identifying the performance of Annual cost of heat rate deviation
87.2
either any unit or unit equipments, heat rate =2452* 6 ∗ 210 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1.01 ∗ 8760 ∗ 0.01
10
deviation is used instead of heat rate. This heat =Rs 3,972,662.99 /yr
rate deviation can be converted into cost for Annual cost of heat rate deviation
calculating annual fuel cost. Cost calculation using 87.2
2452* 6 ∗ 210 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1.01 ∗ 8760 ∗ 0.69
heat rate instead of heat rate deviation is often 10
= 2,713,997.49 /yr
overlooked in a thermal power plant.
This is the annual saving in fuel cost just by 1%
Heat rate deviation in helpful in
improvement in heat rate.
identifying the problem in any equipment or
Some the areas where heat rate improvement can
auxiliary, and its magnitude is helpful in assigning
result in tremendous improvement of overall heat
priority level to these problems. Since, heat rate
rate are mentioned below.
deviations can be converted into cost, it is helpful
 By giving heat rate awareness training
to operation staff:- 0.5% to 1%
200 IJRAR- International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews Special Issue
4th International Conference on Trends in Information, Management, Engineering and Science
Organized by Malla Reddy College of Engineering, Secunderabad-500100.
 Heat rate information availability to operation. It’s another reason is air leakage across
plant personnel:- 0.5% to 1.5% air heater seals. The rate of air leakage varies with
 By proper utilization of controllable the square root of the differential pressure across
losses information by operation staff:- the air heater.
0.75% to 1% Wet flue gas loss optimization
 By conducting routine testing Losses due to moisture in fuel, hydrogen in fuel
program at regular intervals:- 0.7% to and moisture in combustion air depends on final
2% gas outlet temperature. These losses decrease
 By increasing the routine monitoring slightly with fall in boiler output.
of feed water heater performance:- Power plant waste heat can be used to remove
0.3% to 0.6% moisture before pulverization process which can
 By optimizing soot blower operation:- provide heat rate and emission benefits,
0.7% reducemaintenance cost and it will also be
reducing cooling water makeup requirement.
Maximum improvement in heat rate ranges Carbon in ash loss optimization
from approximately 3 to 5% for this unit. This This loss depends on the fineness of pulverized
could save annual cost of fuel from Rs fuel, excess air and combustion condition. If
8,141,992.48 /yr to Rs 13,569,987.48 /yr (for combustion is not monitored properly the loss
2015-16 financial year). which is normally about 1% may be as high as 4-
5%. Some of the causes of high carbon content in
V. DISCUSSION ash are coarse grinding, mal adjustment of flame,
Dry flue gas loss optimization unequal loading of different mills, incorrect
The dry flue gas loss depends on two factors. They primary air temperature, etc.
are excess air and air heater gas outlet
temperature.
Excess air control
For every 1% reduction in excess air there is
approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency. Excess air is
monitored by CO2 and O2 measurements at air
heater inlet.
Air infiltration should be controlled to limit this
loss. Various methods like oxygen analyzers, draft
gauges and stack damper control can be used to
calculate readings of excess air.
5.1.2 Air heater gas outlet temperature
optimization:-
It should be lowest from overall efficiency point of
view, whereas should be high on account of
corrosion problem.
For Indian coals having low percentage Turbine efficiency optimization
(approx(0.5%)) of Sulphur, this specified Turbine cylinder efficiency is around 85%, 92%
temperature is of the order . A rise in air heater and 80-85% for HP, IP and LPT respectively. Some
gas outlet temperature reduces boiler efficiency of the losses that occur in stem path are loss due
by some of the causes of his gas outlet to solid particle erosion of moving blades, solid
temperature are lack of soot blowing, high excess particle erosion and roughness of diaphragm
air, low final feed water temperature, improper blades and damage of the fins of shaft blades.
combustion, poor milling, air in leakage before the Optimization of these losses can help in turbine
combustion chamber, etc. Though in the short run, cylinder efficiency improvement. It can be done by
low air heater gas outlet temperature improves taking measures like increasing the turbine exit
efficiency; in the long run it can result in low annulus area, lowering the kinetic energy of the
boiler efficiency because of deposition on its steam as it leaves the last stage blade, steam
elements and corrosion. blowing should be done after boiler Overhauling,
Most obvious cause of low air heater gas outlet Replacement of all Tip Seals, Inter stage & Gland
temperature is lighting and firing a cold boiler. Its Seals in every capital overhauling, Strict & vigilant
remedy is to bypass the air heater until the gas control on water chemistry, using additives in feed
temperature is high enough to permit normal
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water to reduce surface tension due to formation Steam temperature control
of water droplets, etc. One of the techniques used to prevent
Condenser vacuum optimization excessively high steam temperatures at the inlets
Heat loss from thermal power plant is mainly due to the high pressure and intermediate pressure
to heat rejection through the condenser. A turbines is to spray liquid H2O into the steam.
difference of 5% in cooling water inlet Referred to as attemperating spray, these liquid
temperature changes unit heat consumption by flows are taken from the turbine cycle and result
around 1%. It can be done by following ways: in an increase in heat rate.
 High cooling water inlet temperature Consequently, attemperating spray flow
leads to higher saturation temperature rates should be the minimum flow rates needed to
and corresponding rise in condenser control steam temperatures to the design levels. If
saturation pressure (i.e. lower condenser main steam and hot reheat steam were at lower
vacuum) for a design specified cooling than desired temperatures, while both main steam
water temperature rise and terminal and hot reheat attemperating sprays were in
temperature difference. Hence low inlet operation, then it will result in heat rate penalties
temperature values must be maintained. due to low steam temperatures and to use of
Reduced cooling water flow rate shall increase the attemperation when it was not needed. Thus an
cooling water temperature rise, which leads to upgrade to the steam temperature controls and
higher saturation temperature at design terminal perhaps repair of leaking flow control valves
temperature difference and corresponding would be needed to prevent this type of loss.
saturation pressure. Scaling and soot abatement
Condensate level in the hot well if gets more than Factors favoring soot formation are high
design value, will lead to improper heat transfer temperature and shortage of oxygen. Elevated
because it will cover some of the cooling water stack temperature indicates soot deposition as
tubes thereby making them unavailable for well as scaling on the water side. With every 22%
condensation. C increase in stack temperature, 1% efficiency loss
Internal and external tube deposit causes high occurs in boilers. Practices like periodic off-line
terminal temperature difference which can be cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces, boiler tube
minimized by on-line condenser tube cleaning and banks, economizers and air heaters are necessary
better de-mineralized water quality management to remove scaling and soot formation.
respectively.
Air ingress results in poor heat transfer co- VI. RESULTS
efficient which increases condensing temperature Following results have been concluded
in order to get heat across air barrier, this makes  5% change in excess air changes dry flue
the vacuum worst. It can be avoided by frequent gas loss by 1%.
leak detection test and effective steam sealing of  Radiation and convection losses are
low pressure turbine. around 0.4 to 1%
 A difference of 5% in cooling water
temperature changes the unit heat
consumption by 1%.
 Condenser vacuum should be maintained
at 0.89 to 0.9 ksc.
 By combustion optimization heat rate
reduction in the range of 0.5% to 1 % can
be achieved.
 By upgrading steam turbine generators
and enhancement of auxiliary component
can lead to improvement of 2 to 4%.
 By reducing steam, water and internal
leakage heat rate can be improved by
0.5%.
VII. CONCLUSION
Also following critical parameters must be
observed so as to further increase the plant
performance:
202 IJRAR- International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews Special Issue
4th International Conference on Trends in Information, Management, Engineering and Science
Organized by Malla Reddy College of Engineering, Secunderabad-500100.
 Main steam temperature and pressure Plant on System Based, IRJET, vol.2, issue.4,
should be increased july-2015
[5] Robert J.Tramel (2000), Heat rate
 Re-heater spray should be decreased
improvement guidelines for Indian Power
 Condenser vacuum should be decreased Plants, volume 1, 2United States Tennessee
 Turbine cylinder efficiency should be Valley Authority , June 2000
increased [6] Palo Alto (2014), Range and Applicability of
 Dry flue gas loss should be decreased heat rate improvements, EPRICA:2014,
 Un-burnt carbon percentage should be 3002003457
decreased [7] Vinchurkar A.G, Lakhe R.R and Shrivastava R.L
(2014). Energy efficiency analysis of thermal
 Moisture in fuel should be decreased
plant boilers, IJRME, vol 2,issue 3,May-June-
 Moisture in combustion air should be 2014.
decreased [8] Singh, S. P., Philip G., Singh S.K. (2014), Effect
 Heat rate should be decreased of condenser vacuum on performance of a
 Plant should be operated at full load for Reheat Regenerative 210 MW Fossil-Fuel
maximum efficiency. based Power Plants, IJETAE, vol 4,issue 1,Feb-
2014.
VIII. FUTURE SCOPE [9] Kumar, V., Prasad, L., Experimental
By regular heat rate improvement investigation on heat transfer and fluid flow of
program, efficiency can be increase to an extent. air flowing under three sides concave dimple
roughened duct. International Journal of
Following aspects can be further studied to
Mechanical Engineering and Technology
improve plant efficiency. They are- (IJMET), Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2017,
Air ingress deteriorates the heat transfer pp. 1083–1094, Article ID: IJMET_08_11_110.
coefficients. There by increasing the condensing [10] Kumar, V., Prasad, L., Thermal performance
temperature in order to get heat across air investigation of one and three sides concave
barrier. This makes the vacuum worse. dimple roughened solar air heaters.
Re heater pressure drop adversely affect the HPT International Journal of Mechanical
exhaust pressure, thereby affecting the IPT inlet Engineering and Technology (IJMET) Volume
pressure 8, Issue 12, December 2017, pp. 31–45, Article
ID: IJMET_08_12_004.
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