ISO 14040 Life Cycle Assessment (LAS) as a tool for

effective environmentally friendly waste management

in the Food Industry

P.Muredzi
School of Industrial Sciences and Technology
Harare Institute of Technology, Ganges Rd, Belvedere
Box BE 277, Harare, Zimbabwe
[email protected]

Abstract—. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an analytical tool  marketing (e.g. implementing an ecolabelling
for the systematic evaluation of the environmental aspects of a scheme, making an environmental claim, or
product or service system through all stages of its life cycle. producing an environmental product
The food production industry requires large inputs of
declaration).
resources and causes several negative environmental effects.
The food production systems are oriented and optimized to
satisfy economic demands and the nutritional needs of a For practitioners of LCA, ISO 14044 details the
rapidly growing world population. Environmental issues, requirements for conducting an LCA. LCA addresses the
however, have not been given much attention. This review environmental aspects and potential environmental
article discusses Life Cycle Assessment (LAS) as a tool for impacts (e.g. use of resources and the environmental
effective environmentally friendly waste management in the consequences of releases) throughout a product's life
Food Industry and gives case studies and recommendations for
cycle from raw material acquisition through production,
the industry.
use, end-of-life treatment, recycling and final disposal
Keywords-Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), framework, analysis (i.e. cradle-to-grave). There are four phases in an LCA
study:
I. INTRODUCTION
The increased awareness of the importance of a) The goal and scope definition phase,
environmental protection, and the possible impacts b) The inventory analysis phase,
associated with products both manufactured and c) The impact assessment phase, and
consumed, has increased interest in the development of d) The interpretation phase.
methods to better understand and address these impacts.
One of the techniques being developed for this purpose is The scope, including the system boundary and level of
life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA can assist in detail, of an LCA depends on the subject and the intended
use of the study. The depth and the breadth of LCA can
 identifying opportunities to improve the differ considerably depending on the goal of a particular
environmental performance of products at LCA. The life cycle inventory analysis phase (LCI phase)
various points in their life cycle, is the second phase of LCA. It is an inventory of
 informing decision-makers in industry, input/output data with regard to the system being studied.
government or non-government organizations It involves collection of the data necessary to meet the
(e.g. for the purpose of strategic planning, goals of the defined study The life cycle impact
priority setting, product or process design or assessment phase (LCIA) is the third phase of the LCA.
redesign), The purpose of LCA is to provide additional information
 the selection of relevant indicators of to help assess a product system’s LCI results so as to
environmental performance, including better understand their environmental significance. Life
measurement techniques, and cycle interpretation is the final phase of the LCA
procedure, in which the results of an LCI or an LCIA, or

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 both, are summarized and discussed as a basis for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) defines
conclusions, recommendations and decision-making in LCA as the:
accordance with the goal and scope definition. There are
cases where the goal of an LCA can be satisfied by Process to evaluate the environmental burdens associated
performing only an inventory analysis and an with a product, process or activity by identifying and
interpretation. This is usually referred to as an LCI study. quantifying energy and materials used and wastes released to
This International Standard covers two types of studies: the environment; to assess the impact of those energy and
life cycle assessment studies (LCA studies) and life cycle material uses and releases to the environment; and to identify
inventory studies (LCI studies). LCI studies are similar to and evaluate opportunities to effect environmental
LCA studies but exclude the LCIA phase. LCI studies are improvements. The assessment includes the entire life cycle of
not to be confused with the LCI phase of an LCA study. the product, process or activity, encompassing extracting and
Generally, the information developed in an LCA or LCI processing raw materials; manufacturing; transportation and
study can be used as part of a much more comprehensive distribution; use, re-use, maintenance; recycling; and final
decision process. Comparing the results of different LCA disposal (EPA, 1994).
or LCI studies is only possible if the assumptions and
The main focus of LCA is to determine the environmental
context of each study are equivalent. Therefore this
impacts of the system under study in the areas of ecological
International Standard contains several requirements and
well-being, human health and resource depletion (Tansey and
recommendations to ensure transparency on these issues.
Worsley, 1995). ISO 14041 is entitled ‘Life Cycle Assessment
LCA is one of several environmental management
– Goals and Definition/Scope and Inventory Analysis’ and is
techniques (e.g. risk assessment, environmental
intended to describe the special requirements and guidelines
performance evaluation, environmental auditing, and
for the preparation, conduct and critical review of the life
environmental impact assessment) and might not be the
cycle inventory analysis. The most widely accepted LCA
most appropriate technique to use in all situations. LCA
structure is the one suggested by SETAC as described in Table
typically does not address the economic or social aspects
1.0. The term ‘life cycle analysis’ is often employed for the
of a product, but the life cycle approach and
analysis stage of a life cycle assessment. Goal definition (ISO
methodologies described in this International Standard
14040) is perhaps the most important component of LCA. The
can be applied to these other aspects.
inventory (ISO 14041) is an analysis, qualitative and/or
quantitative, of the resources used and the emissions generated
II. DESCRIPTION in the life cycle. The impact assessment (ISO 14042) can be
divided into classification, characterization and valuation
Every day in the marketplace, people make choices that affect, (Andersson et al., 1994). The assessed impacts fall into three
directly or indirectly, the environment. Manufacturers choose broad categories: human health, ecological health and resource
from among different materials, suppliers or production use (Tansey and Worsley, 1995). Characterization is the
methods. Consumers, for their part, either choose among aggregation of inventory data within the impact categories by
products or whether to use a product at all. Those who would the use of equivalency factors (Andersson et al., 1994). It is a
like to make environmentally responsible choices need reliable largely quantitative step that analyzes the relative contribution
information which is frequently related to life cycle of the multiple inputs or outputs by category (Tansey and
assessment (LCA) (http://www.tc207.org/articles/). LCA Worsley, 1995). Valuation can be carried out either
considers the environmental aspects and the potential impacts qualitatively or quantitatively by expert panels or by
of a product or a service system throughout its life – from raw comparison of environmental loading profiles, respectively
material acquisition through production, use and disposal (Andersson et al., 1994; Boudouropoulos and Arvantioyannis,
(from cradle to grave). This information is very important and 1999). Interpretation (ISO 14043) stands for conclusions
can be of great help in identifying ways to improve based on the assessment and suggestion of improvement
environmental aspects of a product at various stages in its life actions
cycle, to support decision-making in industry, governmental or
non-governmental organizations. It can substantially help the Table1.0. Structure of LCA suggested by the Society of
selection of various indicators of environmental performance Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)
Source: Andersson et al., 1994, Tibor and Feldman, 1997
(EP) and (with proper precautions) to promote the marketing
of products or services (EPA, 1994). The Society for

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Analysis Goal definition and scooping
Inventory analysis
Assessment Impact assessment, which is
divided into:
Classification
Characterization
Valuation
Improvement analysis

International Standards are playing a critically important role

in all industries for national production, international
terminologies, safety and health protection, measurements,
analysis, quality control and environmental protection,
particularly in the energy field, where standards for the
interfaces in energy flows are indispensable, such as electric
connectors, fuelling devices, calibration methods and
electrical safety. Besides the specific standards for petroleum,
coal, nuclear and hydro-power, hydrogen and the vast field of
electricity, the energy standards series ISO 13600 allows the in the context of the German packaging ordinance. On the
characterization, analysis and comparison of all energy other hand, it is increasingly applied by companies for the
systems and soon will issue a global energy statistics and identification of environmental weak spots in products and for
planning matrix for the transition to environmentally sound product development (Grotz and Scholl, 1996; Oosterhuis et
sustainable economics. These standards allow integrated al., 1996; Rubik, 1997; Scholl and Nisius, 1998). LCA
resource planning, including all new renewable options, such methodology has become well known and accepted in both
as the increasingly important direct and indirect solar energy, Europe and the USA and is a procedure used to quantify
co-generation, hybrid systems, small decentralized units, bio- inputs and outputs related to a product or an activity system. It
energy, ambient temperature use by heat pumps and may be used to assess environmental performances of
substitutions of muscle-powered systems or vice versa, industrial and consumer goods from the very beginning of
besides the more efficient production and use of conventional their production to the end of their use, both for internal (e.g.
finite and renewable energy-sources (Grob, 2003). The total improvement of product performances) and external uses (e.g.
cost of their emissions, their net gray, i.e. re-usable embedded communication or marketing) (Vigon and Jensen, 1995). LCA
energy, can be determined, total and relative efficiencies can is a process:
be calculated and their life cycles and risks can be assessed
with this new standard tool in conjunction with the many to evaluate environmental burdens related to products,
existing and emerging standards on specific energy systems or processes or activities, to identify potential impacts on the
parts thereof (Figure 1.0) environment coming from energy or material consumptions, to
identify and to evaluate possible product improvements
Figure1.0: Factors affecting the total cost of emissions (SETAC, 1993).
(adapted from Grob, 2003)

III. GENERAL ANALYSIS

The ‘from cradle to grave’ perspective, which LCA can take

into account, makes it possible to judge and improve
environmental performances over the entire life cycle, as well
as appraise embodied improvements at particular levels.
Nevertheless, depending on the specific requirements of a
company, LCA may also be used in a limited perspective
(‘from process to process’), which can be of particular interest
should the company wish to analyze carefully a limited part of

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the whole life cycle, the one under its own control (De Monte  Designing new products
et al., 2005). As regards the potential applications of LCA,
Azapagic (1999) from Hospido et al. (2003) put forward the  Choosing among a number of comparable products
main uses as follows: (LCA part 1)

 Identification of environmental improvement Figure 3.0.: Phases and applications of an LCA (ISO
opportunities 14040, 1997)

 Strategic planning or environmental strategy

development

 Product and process optimization, design and

innovation

 Environmental reporting and marketing.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an analytical tool for the

systematic evaluation of the environmental aspects of a
product or service system through all stages of its life cycle. A
graphical description of LCA methodology based on the
principles of ISO 14040 is shown in Figure 2.

Figure2: Phases and applications of an LCA (ISO 14040,

1997)

Pennington et al. (2004) recently compiled a review on

the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase, focusing
on the key attributes of the supporting models and
methodologies. These models and methodologies provide
LCA practitioners with the factors they need for
calculating and cross-comparing indicators of the
potential impact contributions associated with the wastes,
the emissions and the resources consumed that are
attributable to the provision of the product in a study. ISO
14042, entitled ‘Life Cycle Assessment – Impact
Assessment (LCIA)’, proposes to provide guidance on the
impact assessment phase of LCA. This phase of LCA is
aimed at evaluating the significance of potential
environmental impacts using the results of the life cycle
inventory analysis (Haklik, 1998). The environmental
The main applications of LCA are in:
load unit taken from the natural resource or substance
 Analysing the origin of problems related to a effect index multiplied by the amount of the substance
particular product used or released produces a total environmental load
value (ELV) for the particular product or process (Kuhre,
 Comparing improvement variants of a given product 1995). Because of the inherent subjectivity in impact

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 assessments, the most critical requirement for their canning industries and one
producer of packaging
conduct will be disclosure, so that decisions and Fruit Germany Comparison of processed Ott, 1992
assumptions can be clearly described and reported Yogurt products from ordinary and
(Haklik, 1998). LCIA consists of both mandatory and ecological agriculture
Bread, beer Germany Comparison of processed Ott, 1992
optional elements, as illustrated in Figure 3.3 (ISO 14042, and Cheese products from ordinary and
2000): ecological agriculture

Tomatoes Switzerland Comparison of seven Hahn, 1992

(A) and hydroponic systems and
Cucumbers eight ordinary production
 Selection of the impact categories of interest, the systems (under glass, In
tunnels, and outdoor
indicators per impact category and the underlying production)
models (a procedure also considered in the initial Tomatoes Switzerland Comparison of seven Cysi and
different ways of Reist, 1990
goal and scope phase of an LCA) producing Tomatoes under
glass
 Assignment of the inventory data to respective Potatoes Switzerland Investigation of seven Jolliet, 1993
combinations of thermal,
impact category. Impact categories include climate mechanical and chemical
change, stratospheric ozone depletion, photo-oxidant potato topping
formation (smog), eutrophication, acidification, Milk Chain Sweden The total use of energy and Sonesson
Supply packaging materials seems and Berlin,
water use and noise. to be crucial to the 2003
outcome. More knowledge
The food production industry requires large inputs of of the amount of wastage
in households is required,
resources and causes several negative environmental effects. both in absolute numbers
The food production systems are oriented and optimized to and as influenced by the
type of packaging
satisfy economic demands and the nutritional needs of a Ketchup Sweden Six alternative sub- Anderson
rapidly growing world population. Environmental issues, Production systems, including and
packaging, processing and Ohlsson,
however, have not been given much attention. There are many transportation, were 1999
difficulties in conducting life cycle studies of food products. modelled and simulated.
Ideally, a complete study should include agricultural The environmental impact
categories included were
production, industrial refining, storage and distribution, energy use, global
packaging, consumption and waste management, all of which warming, acidification,
eutrophication, photo-
together comprise a large and complex system (Koroneos et oxidant formation and the
al., 2005). generation of radioactive
waste. It was concluded
that the contribution to
LCA Studies on Foods acidification can be
reduced significantly and
Table 2.0. LCA Studies on Foods; Source: I.S. the environmental profile
of the product can be
Arvanitoyannis 2008 improved for either the
type of tomato paste
Product Country Effects Reference currently used or a less
(Food) concentrated tomato paste
Peas, bread The Environmental impacts Kooijman, Milk Spain Different sub-systems were Hospido
and milk Netherlands from packaging in 1993 Production identified and thoroughly et al., 2003
product proportion to other parts of studied – farms, fodder
the supply system factories and dairies – and
Margarine The Two margarines and two Vis et al., even through the collection
Netherlands low-fat products were 1992 of their inventory data took
investigated, concentrating place throughout one
on the fat components and complete year, some values
packaging were found to vary
Bread and Denmark Qualitative study with a Pederson, considerably. Raw milk
Meat very broad definition of 1992 production, specifically the
environmental parameters agricultural phase, and
Canned Austria Application of the Institute IOW Wien, packaging manufacture
cooked for Okologische 1992 have been identified as the
Products Wirtschaftsforschung’s crucial elements. Other
eco-balance system. The aspects such as formulation
study involved four of animal food at farms

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 and emission from boilers integrated manner,
at dairies are also decisive providing complementary
when improvement actions insights to those of
are to be set up regulatory/process-oriented
Beer Greece The impact categories most Koroneos et methodologies
affected by the beer al., 2005 Canned Spain The system under study Hospido
Production are the earth Tuna included landing at et al., 2006
toxicity or heavy metals harbour, Transport to the
and the Category of smog factory, processing inside
formation. Bottle the factory, Final product
production, followed by distribution to markets and
packaging and beer use in households. The
production are found to be results show that
the sub-systems that processing accounted for
account for most of the the greatest percentage in
emissions all the impact categories,
Wild Norway The fishing phase for the Ellingsen except human toxicity
caught And cod and the feeding phase and potential. Inside the
farmed for both salmon and Aanondsen, factory, the production and
Salmon chicken dominate for all 2006 transportation of tinplate
Environmental impacts was identified as the most
considered. Chicken is significant contributor and,
most energy effective consequently,
followed by salmon and improvement actions were
cod, which proposed and evaluated,
are almost on the trawling such as an increase in the
is around 100 times larger percentage of the recycled
than the land area needed tinplate
to produce the chicken feed
for production of the 0.2kg
fillet. There is potential for IV. ACTUALISATION
improvement of
environmental
performance, both for LCA Case Studies Reported – Dairy Processing
salmon farming and cod
fishing, especially when it
comes to energy use The dairy sector has been extensively studied from the
Danish fish Denmark Energy consumption is a Thrane, perspective of LCA in Norway: milk production (Hogaas,
Products key factor contributing to 2006
the environmental burden 2002); Sweden: milk production focused on the farm level
for all investigated fish (Cederberg and Mattson, 2000) and semi-hard cheese (Berlin,
products. The
(quantitative) LCA
2002); and Germany: milk production, with a special interest
suggests that the on impacts associated to agriculture (Cederberg and Mattson,
environmental hotspot for 2000; Haas et al., 2001). Although all dairy products are
flatfish is the fishing stage.
The same applies to cod, essential for the everyday nutritional regime, milk production
Norway lobster, shrimp has been chosen in this work as the most representative due to
and prawn. Generally,
however, the use and retail its outstanding position as an important staple food. In fact,
stages are also important, most citizens consider consumption of milk in infancy,
while the processing stage
only represents an childhood and throughout adult life, as a prescription for good
important impact potential health. Regarding the different types of milk, skimmed milk
for certain types of fish
products (pickled herring,
(0.5% fat), semi-skimmed milk (1.5–1.8% fat) and whole milk
canned mackerel and (3.5% fat) are the most important ones (Hospido et al., 2003).
mussels) The life cycle of milk production included in the analysis by
Fish The Impacts such as climate Pennington
Netherlands change, stratospheric et al., 2004 Hospido et al. is shown in Figure 4.
ozone depletion, photo-
oxidant formation (smog),
eutrophication,
acidification, toxicological
stress on human health and Figure 4: Schematic flow chart of the life cycle of milk.
ecosystems, the depletion The main stages of the process are represented in blocks;
of inputs associated with industrial processes in triangles;
resources and noise. The
need exists to address these
inputs from LCA databases in continuous circles; impacts
product-related associated in discontinuous circles (adapted from Hospido
contributions more et al., 2003)
holistically and in an

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 milk supply chain. All models are static, i.e. the emissions
and use of energy change linearly with changes in the
flow, no economies of scale are assumed.

Figure 5: LCA in future milk supply chains in Sweden

(adapted from Sonesson and Berlin, 2003)

In this analysis, six categories have been considered

(global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion,
acidification, eutrophication, photo-oxidant formation and
depletion of abiotic resources) as well as a flow indicator,
energy consumption; on the contrary, others such as eco-
and human toxicity and land use were not analyzed. In a
qualitative way, they considered that potential damage
over those categories should not be very significant if the
nature of emissions (with the exception of pesticides at The subsystems involved are as follows:
the agricultural phase) and the Galician land
 Truck transport
characteristics (low population density and low industrial
character) are borne in mind. Among these six categories,
 Car and van transport
three have been reported as significant: eutrophication,
acidification and global warming. Several actions focused  Dairies
on these categories (specifically on eutrophication
potential (EP) and acidification potential (AP)) have been  Retail
proposed and the percentages of reduction have been
measured. However, it is necessary to indicate that there  Households
is an action that, although it cannot be quantified, had to
be pointed out due to its importance on global warming  Energy system
potential (GWP). Methane emitted by cows on farms is
 Production of packaging material
responsible for more than 30% of greenhouse gas
emissions, so it has an outstanding weight. The elements  Production of drinking water
involved at animal feed turned out to be accountable for
an important percentage of all the impact categories at the  Waste management (Sonesson and Berlin, 2003).
farm level. In addition, the item ‘impacts associated with
milk production’, which includes emissions to air as well Within dairies, more products and more frequent deliveries to
as to water, were identified as responsible for certain retailers probably result in less efficient dairies. The effects
categories (GWP and PCOP). The milk supply chain are also noticeable in distribution, retailing, home transport
model consists of two main parts: a background and a and wastage within households. The model used in this study
foreground system (Figure 5). The actual handling of could still be improved to reflect fully the strong trends in this
dairy products is the foreground system. However, to direction and provide reliable indications of their effects on
supply the foreground system with such necessary inflows environmental impacts. The total use of energy and packaging
as packaging material, water and energy in various forms, materials seems to be crucial to the outcome. More knowledge
and also to take care of its residues, background systems of the amount of wastage in households is needed, both in
are necessary. The results from a simulation thus include absolute numbers and as influenced by the type of packaging.
emissions from both background and foreground systems In future studies, it might be interesting to include agriculture
as well as all use of primary energy carriers caused by the in the analysis since different future scenarios will probably

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also affect the structure of agriculture. In this study, sampling station. Obviously, raw material components would
agricultural patterns would probably differ in the large-scale be less valuable than components lost in products at other
scenario and in the green IT-wave scenario and thus would stages prior to the finished good value. For example, product
have different impacts on the environment X might be worth 20 cents/kilogram as raw product when the
worth of components with carbohydrates is 5 cents/ kilogram,
15 cents/kilogram for the protein fraction and 10
V. DISCUSSION cents/kilogram for fat content. Further up-line in processing,
when product is cooled and concentrated, the protein and fat
Nowadays, there is an increasing awareness that today’s life content are increased. In fact, the kilogram value might double
style should aim at more sustainable production schemes in to 30 cents for protein and 20 cents for fat losses with little
conjunction with limited use of renewable resources and change in carbohydrate value. When product loss occurs at
minimal environmental impact on land, water and air this step more loss value needs to be applied to components
(Environment in http://www.tc207.org/articles/). All processes sent to floor drains. This kind of an evaluation process quickly
have to be envisaged as potential resources since their by- shows that a firm needs to begin paying strict attention at key
products provide the primary material for a subsequent
steps to maximize product yield. All losses are vital, but we
process in a continuous regenerative loop (Tansey and
Worsley, 1995). Life cycle assessment, though not a brand are perfectly safe in thinking more money will be lost in
new tool any more, is still able to analyze and assess the finished goods or partially finished products than for raw
environmental impacts associated with a product, process or material in a food processing sequential step operation. Here
service by multiattribute product evaluations. The importance are the things that need to be done:
of LCA as an environmental decision support tool continues to
increase rapidly. A distinction between the objective and  Establish a loss sampling station.
subjective elements of LCA is bound to take place in order to
clarify the structure of the method and be of great help to the  Gather and test representative samples of loss
decision-making. Goal definition and scoping as well as
materials sent to drains.
interpretation of the inventory results would benefit most from
decision analytic approach and methods. In these phases,
 Assign dollar values to different components.
subjectivity and the overall goal of the process have a major
impact. The important dimensions of the decision problem
could be presented in a value tree and this could be exposed to  Provide unit operation supervisors loss information
general discussion and modification before deciding the actual promptly so corrective actions might be taken to
content and scope of the study. Pertinent answering of the improve operations. On the other hand, the data may
prioritization questions at an early stage of the study is well confirm to people that the operation is being
anticipated to help greatly the decision-makers in terms of carried on with success. This too is vital for people to
identifying both the real decision alternatives and the concrete know.
environmental problems closely linked with the product’s
environmental impacts thus providing the required inventory  Inventory wastage with the same vigour you would
data. Valuation referring to values is another subjective issue
and is closely linked to preference data (Miettinen and do for other items in your shift or day accounting
Hamalainen, 1997). system.

VI. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS Life Cycle Assessment

Waste Management Reporting the results of LCA must be impartial and complete.
Objective reporting is made to a third party; the requirements
What is being recommended is that multi-station sampling of the standard should cover at least the following aspects:
points from different unit operations gather composite samples
of representative flows discharged per shift in food processing  general aspects;
areas for analytical purposes. These samples need to be tested
 defining the purpose and scope;
for COD or BOD, plus those components specific to the
foodstuff being processed. If we assume the raw material
 life cycle inventory analysis;
produced into a food contains carbohydrate, fat, proteins, and
minerals besides water, then the different components have  life cycle impact assessment;
variable values depending on the ingredient source at the

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  life cycle interpretation; Integration of companies from various parts of the world in
production and distribution of ordinary products (salad, fruit, ,
 Critical analysis. etc..) is a globalized phenomenon. Of course, transportation is
no longer a problem, technology on a bed of closed-circuit
Critical analysis is essential and it can be made by an water, organic loading is widely controlled. Disputes of GM
independent internal expert LCA study or by an external food technology have social implications in employment in
expert analysis that will give an Analysis statement. SR EN overcrowded areas. To gain access to these disputes the only
ISO 14041 standard - Definition of the purpose, scope and way is to implement LCA management systems. So we have
inventory analysis – establishes requirements and procedures the technical data and even the possibility of participating in
for setting up and training the purpose and scope definition for the dialogue provided by the policy in the field.
a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and for the development,
interpretation and reporting cycle inventory analysis Life In recent years there has been accumulated a large volume of
(ICV). The product-system is detailed here and the final communications on LCA studies, and almost each of them
product is indicated next to intermediates, auxiliary inputs, claims fairness. To speak a common language we should
uncontrolled emissions, data quality, sensitivity analysis, relate strictly to the implementation of the reference standards
uncertainty analysis, etc. For Life Cycle Inventory analysis, SR EN ISO 14040 series and procedures and records required
the “system product” which is composed of “units of product” by them. It is good to make implementation a consultant may,
must be defined more clearly. It is essential that function, by Curriculum Vitae, evidence that leads directly to people
functional unit and reference flow to be clearly defined and to and businesses. Vision is needed for overall management,
determine the boundaries of the original system. Inventory linking the action system - product assembly and parts (sub-
Analysis is made according to the logical scheme of Figure 6. systems) components. LCA requires that analysis be made by
independent experts, preferably external, to ensure objectivity.
Figure 6: Simplified procedures for the analysis of Objectivity ensures correct conclusions that will lead to
inventory
finding that waiver decisions on economic and environmental
grounds, a number of other systems - a product which actually
represents the chain of companies and business, technical
facilities, capital and workers with families and local
communities. There are no acknowledged and accredited
certification bodies of referential standards SR EN ISO 14040
series, still their application can solve the problem out – by
developing a dialogue between stakeholders and consulting
firms, creating regional accreditation bodies for our benefit.

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Berlin, J. (2002a). Environmental life cycle assessment

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VII. CONCLUSION

Boudouropoulos, I. and Arvanitoyannis, I.S. (2000).

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