PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor

PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor
Electrical drives

Electric drives are mostly used in position and speed control systems. The motors can be
classified into two groups namely DC motors and AC motors (Fig. 4.1.3). In this session
we shall study the operation, construction, advantages and limitations of DC and AC
motors.

3.1. DC motors

A DC motor is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy) into rotation of an
element (mechanical energy). These motors can further be classified into brushed DC
motor and brush-less DC motors.

3.1.1 Brush type DC motor

A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided into two parts, a
pair of brushes and horse shoes electromagnet as shown in Fig. 4.1.4. A simple DC
motor has two field poles namely a north pole and a south pole. The magnetic lines of
force extend across the opening between the poles from north to south. The coil is
wound around a soft iron core and is placed in between the magnet poles. These
electromagnets receive electricity from an outside power source. The coil ends are
connected to split rings. The carbon brushes are in contact with the split rings. The
brushes are connected to a DC source. Here the split rings rotate with the coil while the
brushes remain stationary.
 Fig. 4.1.4 Brushed DC motor

The working is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in
a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's
left-hand rule.
A direct current in a set of windings creates a magnetic field. This field produces a force
which turns the armature. This force is called torque. This torque will cause the armature
to turn until its magnetic field is aligned with the external field. Once aligned the
direction of the current in the windings on the armature reverses, thereby reversing the
polarity of the rotor's electromagnetic field. A torque is once again exerted on the rotor,
and it continues spinning. The change in direction of current is facilitated by the split ring
commutator. The main purpose of the commutator is to overturn the direction of the
electric current in the armature. The commutator also aids in the transmission of current
between the armature and the power source. The brushes remain stationary, but they are
in contact with the armature at the commutator, which rotates with the armature such that
at every 180° of rotation, the current in the armature is reversed.
3.1.2 Brushless DC motor

Fig. 4.1.5 Brushless DC motor

A brushless DC motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings.
The rotor can be of ceramic permanent magnet type. The brushes and commutator are
eliminated and the windings are connected to the control electronics. The control
electronics replace the commutator and brushes and energize the stator sequentially. Here
the conductor is fixed and the magnet moves (Fig. 4.1.5).
The current supplied to the stator is based on the position of rotor. It is switched in
sequence using transistors. The position of the rotor is sensed by Hall effect sensors. Thus
a continuous rotation is obtained.
Advantages of brushless DC motor:
• More precise due to computer control
• More efficient
• No sparking due to absence of brushes
• Less electrical noise
• No brushes to wear out
• Electromagnets are situated on the stator hence easy to cool
• Motor can operate at speeds above 10,000 rpm under loaded and unloaded conditions
• Responsiveness and quick acceleration due to low rotor inertia

Disadvantages of brushless DC motor:

• Higher initial cost
• Complex due to presence of computer controller
• Brushless DC motor also requires additional system wiring in order to power the
electronic commutation circuitry

AC motors
AC motors convert AC current into the rotation of a mechanical element (mechanical
energy). As in the case of DC motor, a current is passed through the coil, generating a
torque on the coil. Typical components include a stator and a rotor. The armature of rotor
is a magnet unlike DC motors and the stator is formed by electromagnets similar to DC
motors. The main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed is more difficult
to control in AC motors. To overcome this limitation, AC motors are equipped with
variable frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a reduced
power quality.

Fig. 4.1.6 AC motor working principle

The working principle of AC motor is shown in fig. 4.1.6. Consider the rotor to be a
permanent magnet. Current flowing through conductors energizes the magnets and
develops N and S poles. The strength of electromagnets depends on current. First half
cycle current flows in one direction and in the second half cycle it flows in opposite
direction. As AC voltage changes the poles alternate.
AC motors can be classified into synchronous motors and induction motors.

Synchronous motor

Fig. 4.1.7 Synchronous AC motor

A synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency of

the system. It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque, and
hence is suited for applications that start with a low load. It has two basic electrical parts
namely stator and rotor as shown in fig. 4.1.7. The stator consists of a group of individual
wounded electro-magnets arranged in such a way that they form a hollow cylinder. The
stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency supplied.
The rotor is the rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group of permanent
magnets arranged around a cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles. The
rotor is mounted on the motor shaft. The main difference between the synchronous motor
and the induction motor is that the rotor of the synchronous motor travels at the same
speed as the rotating magnet.The stator is given a three phase supply and as the polar-
ity of the stator progressively change the magnetic field rotates, the rotor will follow
and rotate with the magnetic field of the stator. If a synchronous motor loses lock with
the line frequency it will stall. It cannot start by itself, hence has to be started by an aux-
iliary motor.
3.2.2 Induction motor

Induction motors are quite commonly used in industrial automation. In the synchronous
motor the stator poles are wound with coils and rotor is permanent magnet and is
supplied with current to create fixed polarity poles. In case of induction motor, the stator
is similar to synchronous motor with windings but the rotors’ construction is different.

Fig. 4.1.8 Induction motor rotor

Rotor of an induction motor can be of two types:

• A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots.
The bars can be of copper or aluminum. These bars are fitted at both ends by
means end rings as shown in figure 4.1.8.
• A wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. The rotor is
wound for as many numbers of poles as the stator. The three phases are wired
internally and the other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with
brushes resting on them.

Induction motors can be classified into two types:

• Single-phase induction motor: It has one stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor.
It operates with a single-phase power supply and requires a device to start the
motor.
• Three-phase induction motor: The rotating magnetic field is produced by the
balanced three-phase power supply. These motors can have squirrel cage or
wound rotors and are self-starting.

In an induction motor there is no external power supply to rotor. It works on the principle
of induction. When a conductor is moved through an existing magnetic field the relative
motion of the two causes an electric current to flow in the conductor. In an induction
motor the current flow in the rotor is not caused by any direct connection of the
conductors to a voltage source, but rather by the influence of the rotor conductors cutting
across the lines of flux produced by the stator magnetic fields. The induced current which
is produced in the rotor results in a magnetic field around the rotor. The magnetic field
around each rotor conductor will cause the rotor conductor to act like the permanent
magnet. As the magnetic field of the stator rotates, due to the effect of the three-phase AC
power supply, the induced magnetic field of the rotor will be attracted and will follow the
rotation. However, to produce torque, an induction motor must suffer from slip. Slip is
the result of the induced field in the rotor windings lagging behind the rotating magnetic
field in the stator windings. The slip is given by,
𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 − 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑆=
𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
∗ 100% (4.1.4)
Advantages of AC induction motors
• It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable
• The operation is simple with less maintenance (as there are no brushes)
• The efficiency of these motors is very high, as there are no frictional losses, with
reasonably good power factor
• The control gear for the starting purpose of these motors is minimum and thus simple
and reliable operation

Disadvantages of AC induction motors

• The speed control of these motors is at the expense of their efficiency
• As the load on the motor increases, the speed decreases
• The starting torque is inferior when compared to DC motors
 Drives and Mechanisms
Stepper motors and Servo motors

1. Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in
steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop
position control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
• Permanent Magnet
o Employ permanent magnet
o Low speed, relatively high torque
• Variable Reluctance
o Does not have permanent magnet
o Low torque

1.1 Variable Reluctance Motor

Figure 4.2.1 shows the construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor
is made of soft steel and has four poles as shown in Fig.4.2.1. It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰
apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart. Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the
stator coils in sequence. It attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a
reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle. In the
non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator is an
electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent torque. This
type of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.

Fig. 4.2.1 Variable reluctance stepper motor

 1.2 Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor
In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet. Unlike the other stepping motors,
the PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to its
axis. Figure 4.2.2 shows a simple, 90⁰ PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying
current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the
changing magnetic fields. Although it operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a
relatively high torque characteristic. These are low cost motors with typical step angle
ranging between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.

Fig. 4.2.2 Permanent magnet stepper

Hybrid stepper motor

Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to provide features of
the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors together. The number of rotor pole pairs is equal
to the number of teeth on one of the rotor’s parts. The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating more poles
than the main poles windings (Fig. 4.2.3).
 Fig. 3 Hybrid stepper motor

Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the similar fashion as a permanent magnet
stepping motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive or negative direction. When a
winding is energized, north and south poles are created, depending on the polarity of the current
flowing. These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also the finer metal teeth
present on rotor. The rotor moves one step to align the offset magnetized rotor teeth to the corre-
sponding energized windings. Hybrid motors are more expensive than motors with permanent
magnets,but they use smaller steps,have greater torque and maximum speed. Step angle of a stepper
motor is given by

Advantages of stepper motors

• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses

Disadvantages of stepper motors

• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise
occur when running at high speed.

2. Servomotor
Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of rotation. A servo
motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a position sensing device. Servomotors
are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a mechanical system. The servomo-
tors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in Figure 4.2.4. A reference input is sent to the
servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the servomotor. A feedback device is mounted on the ma-
chine, which is either an encoder or resolver. This device changes mechanical motion into electrical
signals and is used as a feedback. This feedback is sent to the error detector, which compares the ac-
tual operation with that of the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the ampli-
fier, which will be used to make necessary corrections in control action. In many servo systems, both
(4.2.1)
 Fig. 4.2.4 Servo system block diagram

2.1 DC servomotors

DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and accelerate the
load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate components,
namely:

• DC motor
• gear assembly
• position-sensing device
• control circuit
2.2. AC servo motor
In this type of motor, the magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current
which further produce the torque. It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This
motor provides high precision control with the help of high resolution encoder. The stator
is composed of a core and a winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a
permanent magnet.

Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital signals, which are in
proportion of rotation of the shaft. The details about optical encoder have already
discussed in Lecture 3 of Module 2.

Advantages of servo motors

• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high speeds
• Work well for velocity control
• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation
• Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

• More expensive than stepper motors
• Require tuning of control loop parameters
• Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
• Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor
Harmonic Drive:

For speed reduction, standard gear transmission gives sliding friction and backlash.
Moreover, it takes more space. Harmonic drive due to its natural preloading eliminates
backlash and greatly reduces tooth wear. Harmonic drives are suitable for robot drives due
to their smooth and efficient action. The harmonic drive as shown in figure is made up of
three major elements: the circular spline, the wave generator and the flex spline. The circular
spline is a rigid ring with gear teeth machined on the inside diameter. The flex spline is a
flexible ring with the teeth cut on its outside diameter. The flex spline has fewer teeth (say 2
teeth less) than the circular spline. The wave generator is elliptical and is given input motion.
The wave generator is assembled into the flex spline the entire assembly of. Wave generator
and flex spline is placed into the circular spline such that the outer tooth of flex spline is in
mesh with the internal teeth of circular spline
SENSORS IN ROBOTS
Range finders or Range sensors

The distance between the object and the robot hand is measured using the range
sensors Within it is range of operation. The calculation of the distance is by visual
processing. Range sensors find use in robot navigation and avoidance of the obstacles in the
path. The - location and the general shape characteristics of the part in the work envelope
of the robot S done by special applications for the range sensors. There are several
approaches like, triangulation method, structured lighting approach and time-of flight
range finders etc. In these cases, the source of illumination can be light source, laser beam
or based on ultrasonic.
 This is the simplest of the techniques, which is easily demonstrated in the Figure. The
object is swept over by a narrow beam of sharp light. The sensor focussed on a small spot of
the object surface detects the reflected beam of light. If ‘ϴ’ is the angle made by the
illuminating source and b is the distance between source and the sensor, the distance c of
the sensor on the robot is given as

Structured Lighting Approach:

This approach consists of projecting a light pattern the distortion of the pattern to
calculate the range. A pattern in use today is a sheet of light generated narrow slit.As
illustrated in. Figure, the intersection of the sheet with objects in the work space yields a
light stripe which is viewed through a television camera displaced a distance B from the light
source. The stripe pattern is easily analysed by a computer to obtain range information. For
example, an inflection indicates a change of surface, and a break corresponds to a gap
between surfaces.

Specific range values are computed by first calibrating the system. One of the simplest
arrangements is shown in Figure, which represents a top view of Figure. In this, arrangement,
the light source and camera are placed at the same height, and the sheet of light is
perpendicular to the line joining the origin of the light sheet and the center of the camera
lens. We call the vertical plane containing this line the reference plane. Clearly, the reference
plane is perpendicular to the sheet of light, and any vertical flat surface that intersects the
sheet Will produce a vertical stripe of light in which every point will have the same
perpendicular distance to the reference plane. - The objective of. the arrangement shown in
Figure. is to position the camera so that every such vertical stripe also appears vertical in the
image plane. In this way, every point, the same column in the image will be known to have
the same distance to the reference plane.
Based on their working principle there are two types of range finders

1. ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER 2. LIGNT BASED RANGE FINDER

Ultrasonic Range Finder

Ultrasonic distance-measuring devices use a wide band frequency from a transducer, sending out
narrow beams of sound waves which bounce off an object. The return signal is picked up by a hand-
held receiver. Ultrasonic transducers are transducers that convert ultrasound waves to electrical
signals or vice versa.

Ultrasonic Range Finder transducers can both sense and transmit. These devices work on a principle
similar to that of transducers used

• in radar and sonar systems, which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes
from radio or sound waves, respectively.

• Active ultrasonic sensors generate high-frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is
received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval between sending the signal and receiving
the echo to determine the distance to an object.

• Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present
under certain conditions, convert it to an electrical signal, and report it to a computer.

Accuracy may affected by,

• Position of the receiver

• Out side sound waves/noise
• Noise generated by wind

Applications:-

• surveying,
• navigation,
• correcting aim of a projectile weapon for distance

light based range finder : (refer laser range finder)

Tactile sensors

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an
object. They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units
(VDUs) of CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9 shows the construction of piezo-electric
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a
soft film which transmits the vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer
which generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted
to the upper PVDF layer via soft film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the
upper PVDF layer. When some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets
affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch
displays.