December 6,

2021

FUNDAMENTALS OF
METAL FORMING
Dr. Thamir Al-Dulaimi

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

Dr. Thamir Al-Dulaimi 1
 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

➢ Overview of Metal Forming

➢ Material Behavior in Metal Forming
➢ Temperature in Metal Forming
➢ Strain Rate Sensitivity
➢ Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

Dr. Thamir Al-Dulaimi December 6, 2021 2
Metal forming processes
➢ Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes in
which the material is deformed plastically to take the
shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such
deformation are called die, punch etc. depending on the
type of process.

➢ Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of

the workpiece material is required.

➢ Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming

General classification of metal forming processes

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Classification of Basic Bulk Forming Processes
➢ Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting
in massive shape change. The surface area-to-volume of
the work is relatively small. Mostly done in hot working
conditions.

➢ Rolling: In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab

or plate is compressed between two rotating rolls in the
thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced. The
rotating rolls draw the slab into the gap and compresses it.
The final product is in the form of sheet.

➢ Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two dies

containing shaped contours. The die shapes are imparted
into the final part.

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➢ Extrusion: In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed
into the die opening to take the shape of the die hole as its
cross section.

➢ Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that

the workpiece is pulled through the die opening to take
the cross-section.

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Classification of Basic Sheet Forming Processes
➢ Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming
and cutting operations performed on metal sheets,
strips, and coils. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the
starting metal is relatively high. Tools include punch, die
that are used to deform the sheets.

➢ Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to give a bend

shape (angle shape) usually in a straight axis.

➢ Deep (or cup) drawing: In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet
into a hollow or concave shape like a cup, is performed by stretching
the metal in some regions. A blank-holder is used to clamp the blank
on the die, while the punch pushes into the sheet metal. The sheet is
drawn into the die hole taking the shape of the cavity.

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➢ Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing action.

shearing: (1) as punch first contacts sheet, and (2) after cutting.
Force and relative motion in these operations are indicated by F and v.

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

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Temperature in Metal Forming

➢ Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and power at elevated temperature
➢ Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
✓ Cold working
✓ Warm working
✓ Hot working

➢ Cold Working

✓ Performed at room temperature (RT) or slightly above.

✓ Many cold forming processes are important for mass production operations
✓ Minimum or no machining usually required.
✓ These operations are near net shape or net shape processes.

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➢ Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working:

(1) Closer tolerances can be achieved;

(2) Good surface finish;
(3) Because of strain hardening, higher strength and hardness is seen in part;
(4) Grain flow during deformation provides the opportunity for desirable directional properties;
(5) Since no heating of the work is involved, furnace, fuel, electricity costs are minimized,
(6) Machining requirements are minimum resulting in possibility of near net shaped forming.

➢ Disadvantages:

(1) Higher forces and power are required;

(2) Strain hardening of the work metal limit the amount of forming that can be done,
(3) Sometimes cold forming-annealing-cold forming cycle should be followed,
(4) The work piece is not ductile enough to be cold worked.
Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”
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➢ Warm Working
✓Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below recrystallization temperature

✓Dividing line between cold working and warm working often expressed in terms of melting point:

0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

➢ Advantages of Warm Working

✓ Lower forces and power than in cold working
✓ More intricate work geometries possible
✓ Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

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➢Hot Working
✓Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization temperature.

✓Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on absolute scale.

✓In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.

✓Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level.

➢ Why Hot Working?

✓ Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far more than possible with cold working or
warm working.

✓ Why?
❖ Strength coefficient is substantially less than at room temperature
❖ Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically)
❖ Ductility is significantly increased
Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”
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➢ Advantages and Disadvantages of Hot Working

✓Advantages:
(1) significant plastic deformation can be given to the sample,
(2) significant change in workpiece shape,
(3) lower forces are required,
(4) materials with premature failure can be hot formed,
(5) absence of strengthening due to work hardening.

✓Disadvantages:
(1) shorter tool life,
(2) poor surface finish,
(3) lower dimensional accuracy,
(4) sample surface oxidation
Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”
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Stresses in Metal Forming

➢ Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive

✓ Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion

➢ However, some forming processes

✓ Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
✓ Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
✓ Still others apply shear stresses
Stress–strain curve indicating location of average flow
stress Yf in relation to yield strength Y and final flow
stress Yf .

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

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Flow Stress

➢ For most metals at room temperature, strength increases

when deformed due to strain hardening

➢ Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required

to continue deforming the material
𝒀𝒇 = 𝑲𝜺𝒏

where 𝒀𝒇 = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a

function of strain
Stress–strain curve indicating location of average flow
stress Yf in relation to yield strength Y and final flow stress
Yf .

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Material Behavior in Metal Forming

➢ Desirable material properties:

✓ Low yield strength and high ductility
➢ These properties are affected by temperature:
✓ Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is raised
➢ Other factors:
✓ Strain rate and friction
➢ Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material is plastically
deformed
➢ In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve:
𝝈 = 𝑲𝜺𝒏
✓ where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent
✓ Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true strain

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➢ Average flow stress determined by integrating the flow curve
equation between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest
𝑲𝜺𝒏
𝒀𝒇 =
𝟏+𝒏

where 𝒀𝒇 = average flow stress; and 𝜺= maximum strain

during deformation process

➢ For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature.

➢ Both strength and strain hardening are reduced at higher temperatures

➢ In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

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Strain Rate Sensitivity
➢ Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic material, with strain
hardening exponent n = 0
➢ The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress, once that stress is reached
➢ However, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation, especially at elevated
temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

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➢ What is Strain Rate?

✓ Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of deformation v

✓ Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other movement of the equipment
✓ Strain rate is defined:
𝒗
𝜺ሶ =
𝒉
where 𝜺ሶ = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed

✓ Evaluation of strain rate depends on:

❖ Workpart geometry
❖ Variations in strain rate in different regions of the part
✓ Strain rate can reach 1000 𝒔−𝟏 or more for some metal forming operations

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

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➢ Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

✓ Flow stress is a function of temperature

✓ At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain rate
❑ As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation increases
❑ This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity

➢ Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

𝒀𝒇 = 𝑪𝜺ሶ 𝒎

where C = strength constant (similar but not equal

to strength coefficient in flow curve equation), and
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent
(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.
(b) Same relationship plotted on log–log coordinates.

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➢ Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity

✓ Increasing temperature decreases C, increases m.

✓ At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost

negligible. Flow curve is a good representation of
material behavior.

✓ As temperature increases, strain rate becomes

increasingly important in determining flow stress.

Effect of temperature on flow stress for a typical metal. The

constant C indicated by the intersection of each plot with the
vertical dashed line at strain rate=1.0, decreases, and m (slope
of each plot) increases with increasing temperature.
Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”
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➢ Friction in Metal Forming
✓ In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
❑ Metal flow is retarded causing residual stresses and sometimes defects in the product;
❑ Tool wear can lead to loss of dimensional accuracy, resulting in defective parts and
requiring replacement of the tooling;
❑ Forces and power are increased.
✓ Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working.

➢ Lubrication in Metal Forming

✓ Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many forming operations to reduce harmful
effects of friction.

✓ Benefits:
❑ Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear;
❑ Better surface finish;
❑ Removes heat from the tooling.
Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”
Dr. Thamir Al-Dulaimi December 6, 2021 21
➢ Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

✓ Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)

✓ Hot working or cold working
✓ Work material
✓ Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
✓ Ease of application
✓ Cost

Metal Forming/M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”

Dr. Thamir Al-Dulaimi December 6, 2021 22