A Personal Quest

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Running head: A PERSONAL QUEST 1

A Personal Quest: Searching for the Neural Correlates Underlying the Active and Passive Brain

According to the Method of Dr. Roger Vittoz

Anthony Sully

Columbia College of Missouri

4/3/17
A PERSONAL QUEST 2

Abstract

While living in France, I came across a method of psychotherapy known as the Vittoz Method,

named after Dr. Roger Vittoz (1863-1925). Having experienced healing thanks to Vittoz

exercises, I have always had a desire to understand the Method through the lens of modern

science. In this paper, I seek to discover “how” the Vittoz Method works, by reviewing literature

on mindfulness techniques (an approximation of certain Vittoz exercises) and their relationship

with the human brain, hoping to better understand the neural mechanisms underlying the Vittoz

Method.

Keywords: Vittoz Method, mindfulness, default mode network, task positive network,

cerebral control, literature review


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A Personal Quest: Searching for the Neural Correlates Underlying the Active and Passive Brain

According to the Method of Dr. Roger Vittoz

While living in France, I came across a unique method of psychotherapy known as the

Vittoz Method (pronounced vee-toes), so-called after the name of its founder, the Swiss

psychotherapist Dr. Roger Vittoz (1863-1925). The method is still relatively known throughout

France and Europe, but never became known in the United States. Dr. Vittoz was ahead of his

time; without any of the modern technology available to us today, his insights into the brain and

its place in human healing still seem relevant today. I personally developed an interest in the

Vittoz Method because I experienced firsthand its power of healing and unification in my own

life. Vittoz transformed my life, and I plan to employ therapeutic techniques from the Vittoz

Method in my future clinical practice.

The core intuitions of Dr. Vittoz are laid out in the only work he ever formally wrote,

Traitement des Psychonevroses par la Reeducation du Controle Cerebral (1907/1999);

translated, the title is Treatment of Psychoneuroses by the Reeducation of Cerebral Control. As

the title suggests, Dr. Vittoz believed that the majority of diverse symptoms classified under the

umbrella term “neuroses”—depression, obsessions, confusion, daydreaming, thoughts moving in

all directions at once, anxiety, anguish, phobias, hyper-emotivity, scruples, complexes

(culpability, inferiority, etc.), inability to concentrate, nervous tensions of all sorts, etc.—were

caused primarily by a lack of cerebral control. For Vittoz, neurotic conditions were the result of

a brain that had become “passive,” where the “unconscious” brain had gotten the upper hand

over the “active,” or “conscious” brain (Vittoz, 1907/1999). Dr. Vittoz believed that the first

step in healing persons affected with such conditions was to begin with the brain, and

specifically, to give back control to the conscious brain over the unconscious brain. When the
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brain is in control of itself, of its thoughts, the person is no longer subject to and dominated by

thoughts and emotions that render him or her miserable.

To this end, Dr. Vittoz devised a method to train the brain to become conscious, rather

than unconscious. Though it does not appear that Dr. Vittoz had any knowledge of Eastern

practices (he was a devout Christian), he created a method of self-healing that has much in

common with what are known today as mindfulness practices. The Vittoz Method, like modern

mindfulness practices, involves exercises of conscious receptivity to one’s internal and external

environment, exercises of conscious breathing, exercises of focused mental attention, exercises

of deliberate and intentional choosing, etc. The simple exercises of Dr. Vittoz were created to

train the person—and specifically, the person’s brain—to live life consciously. One cannot

conquer one’s intrusive and negative thoughts and feelings when one is dominated by them, their

“victim.” Give the person back control over their thoughts, and the person is now free to do

something about them, if they are still there at all.

Dr. Vittoz never lived to see a technology capable of validating his Method, and I have

often wondered how his Method would hold up to the scrutiny of modern science. While to my

knowledge no scientific studies have been done on the Vittoz Method, a wealth of studies have

been done on the topic of mindfulness therapies and their relation to the brain. This paper will

limit itself to one core aspect of the Vittoz Method: using current knowledge of the brain, as

well as current research on mindfulness therapies, I will seek to find the possible neural

correlates of Vittoz’ concepts of “active” and “passive” brain, and whether the development of

cerebral control is truly a path of personal well-being.

Literature Review

The Existence of a Passive Brain


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The existence of a “passive” brain was only recently discovered in neuroscience. A

seminal study in 2001 by Raichle et al. discovered a network in the brain that became known as

the default mode network. Researchers were intrigued by the fact that in many studies involving

either positron-emission tomography (PET) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),

increased activity in certain parts of the brain could be found when a subject was engaged in

some specific task. This was not surprising: why shouldn’t there be an increase in brain activity

when it is engaged? However, the researchers also noticed that when certain brain areas began

to “activate” during various activities, other areas seemed to decrease their activity

(“deactivate”) simultaneously. Further, while the areas activated by task performance were

relatively specific to the task involved, the areas that were deactivated tended to be the same,

regardless of the task involved. The researchers thus wondered if there might be a sort of

“baseline” state of neuronal activity that could be found within the brain, when the brain was not

engaged in any specific activity.

The Raichle et al. study (2001) consisted of 49 adults, divided into three groups. Two

groups were studied while they rested, awake but with their eyes closed. A third group was

studied while resting but with eyes open, watching a twitching crosshair on an otherwise blank

television monitor. PET scans monitored brain activity while the participants rested, and found

that in all three groups, including the group with eyes open, the same areas of the brain showed

consistent activity. Having eyes open or closed had no effect on the measured activity, which

was intriguing given that one might expect visual areas to be specifically activated in the eyes-

open group relative to the eyes-closed groups. Counterintuitively, though the participants were

doing “nothing,” implicated areas of the brain were far from doing nothing; rather, they were

most active when the subject was doing nothing, and it was these areas of the brain that tended to
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deactivate when specific activities began. The researchers believed they had discovered a sort of

baseline of neuronal activity within the brain; a network of areas in the brain that activated when

the brain was at rest: a “default mode” of the brain.

The areas of the brain known to be implicated in the default mode network (DMN)

include the inferior, lateral, and medial parietal cortex, the dorsal and ventral medial prefrontal

cortices (mPFC), the precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), parts of the medial and lateral

temporal cortices, as well as emotion-related areas such as the amygdala and the hippocampus

(Sheline et al., 2008). Following the Raichle et al. study (2001), numerous studies have been

done to better understand its functions. Mason et al. (2007) linked the DMN to the well-known

phenomena of mind wandering and daydreaming. Their research showed that the DMN was

active in the presence of stimulus-independent thought (SIT), or thoughts that come to mind

which are unprovoked by or irrelevant to current environmental stimuli. They also revealed that

the DMN can be engaged even when a person is active: if the activity is familiar to the person

and performed with ease, SITs tend to increase; whereas if the activity is novel or requires focus,

DMN activity is inhibited. This explains why our mind often wanders when we are doing

something familiar or tedious, like folding laundry, and does not tend to wander if we are being

chased by a vicious dog. Greicius and Menon (2004) further note that certain individuals who

exhibit stronger DMN activity (heavy daydreamers) need greater stimulation to deactivate DMN

activity; “normal” stimulation is insufficient to rouse them from their thoughts.

DMN activity is not only associated with daydreaming. As Guo et al. (2014) notes, the

DMN is implicated in many types of SIT: self-referential thought of all kinds, thinking about

one’s past or future, and taking perspective on one’s life. Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, and

Schacter (2008) also note the DMN’s association with episodic and autobiographical memory as
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well as contemplating the beliefs and intentions of oneself or others. The common denominator

among these diverse functions of the DMN is clear: the self. Self-referential and autopilot-like

thought appears to be either caused by or sustained by the DMN.

Self-Referential Thought and Unhappiness

Is self-referential thought a bad thing? Isn’t it a good idea to think about oneself, so as to

take stock of one’s life? While a certain degree of self-reflection can be beneficial, numerous

studies have demonstrated a correlation between self-focus and negative emotional states. An

important example of self-focused thought which is noxious to well-being is ruminative thought,

a dysfunction which Ramel, Goldin, Carmona, and McQuaid (2004, p. 434) define as “passively

focusing one’s attention on a negative emotional state like depression, its symptoms, and

thinking repetitively about the causes, meanings, and consequences of that state.” Hamilton et

al. (2011) found that a ruminative response style is highly correlated with maintaining a

depressed individual in his or her depression, and their research using fMRI demonstrated that

individuals suffering from major depressive disorder (MDD) suffered from a “dominant” DMN

in which passive, self-focused, negative thought patterns significantly exceeded conscious, task-

positive mental operations.

Sheline et al. (2008) performed a study which attempted to find a link between self-

referential thought and the DMN in persons suffering from depression. Participants diagnosed

with MDD as well as non-depressed controls were asked to both passively and actively look at

negative and neutral pictures while their brains were scanned using fMRI. While looking

“passively,” participants had merely to describe what they saw and how they felt about it. When

looking “actively,” participants were asked to reappraise the pictures and reframe them in either

a more positive (or negative) light. Researchers found significantly more activation of the DMN
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in patients with MDD; they also found a significantly reduced ability to modulate their emotional

response when asked to reappraise a negative picture with a positive perspective. Researchers

concluded that a core aspect of MDD involves a pathological inability of the DMN to regulate

self-focus appropriately.

Is mind-wandering always negative? This is unlikely, or else evolution would not have

preserved the DMN in its current function. Daydreaming and introspection have undoubtedly

led to many of the great human inventions and discoveries throughout the centuries.

Nevertheless, as Harvard researchers Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) concluded, a wandering

mind tends to be an unhappy mind. Having created a smartphone application allowing people to

track their minute-by-minute happiness levels, as well as whether they were daydreaming or

present, they found that unhappier moments strongly correlated with daydreaming moments.

Task-Positive Network, Attention, and Active Brain

While the DMN involves areas of the brain that become active when the brain is at rest

and unengaged in an activity, a second, anti-correlated network of brain areas has been shown to

exist that is “activated” when the brain is attentive and focused on some specific task. This task-

positive network (TPN) consists of the intraparietal sulcus and frontal eye fields (known as the

dorsal attention system), as well as the dorsal-lateral prefrontal regions, the insula, and the

supplementary motor area (Fox et al., 2005); it is known to be involved in “executive function,

attention, and working memory” (Hamilton et al., 2011, p. 327). The TPN is anti-correlated with

the DMN because when the TPN is activated, the DMN is deactivated, as multiple studies have

shown (Fox et al., 2005).

Among the many functions of the TPN, one of particular interest to this paper is the

TPN’s capacity of attentional control. Malinowski (2013) notes three interrelated attentional
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functions within the TPN: alerting (right frontal and right parietal cortices, thalamus), orienting

(superior parietal cortex, temporal parietal junction, frontal eye fields, superior colliculus) and

executive control (anterior cingulate cortex, lateral ventral cortex, prefrontal cortex, and basal

ganglia). Jha, Krompinger, and Baime (2007) further reduce these functions to a two-fold

schema of concentration and receptivity. “Concentration” is a form of top-down attentional

orienting whereby voluntary (executive) attention is given to stimuli we need to pay attention to,

and this is carried out primarily by a bilateral dorsal frontoparietal system. “Receptivity” is a

form of bottom-up processing of salient sensory stimuli, carried out by a right-lateralized ventral

frontoparietal system. These dorsal and ventral systems combine to form a network of executive

attention that is activated when the brain is consciously focused, whether upon some object or a

task to be performed, and it is an essential part of the TPN.

Mindfulness and Well-Being: TPN vs. DMN

In recent years, the psychological community has given much attention to the therapeutic

possibilities of meditation and mindfulness interventions (MI) in helping people overcome

psychological difficulties of the widest variety. These techniques of Buddhist origin are

manifold, and can include anything from transcendental meditation and chanting to yoga and

Quigong. For the purposes of this paper, I will limit myself to the two basic facets highlighted

by Teper and Inzlicht (2013) as comprising the core of most mindfulness-based stress reduction

programs (MBSR): awareness of present-moment experience (through receptive attention to

one’s surroundings, one’s breath, etc.) and emotional acceptance (through non-judgmental

observation of one’s thoughts and feelings, cultivating attitudes of love and compassion towards

oneself and others, learning to accept things outside one’s control, etc.). The positive effects of

such practices are well-documented; MBSR has been shown to relieve a variety of conditions,
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including anxiety (Zeidan, Martucci, Kraft, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2014), depression (Sheline et

al., 2008), ruminative thoughts (Hamilton et al., 2011), and mood disorders of various types

(Farb, Anderson, & Segal, 2012).

While the relationship between MBSR and well-being is fascinating, for this paper I

would like to focus on an even more fundamental relationship: the relationship between MBSR

and attention. In understanding why MBSR has such a powerful impact on so many diverse

forms of malaise, its relation to attention may be a key factor: “The primary psychological

domain mediating and affected by meditative practice is attention” (Cahn & Polich, 2006, p.

200).

As mindfulness deliberately seeks to attend to and regulate one’s thoughts and emotions,

many studies have sought to understand the impact of MBSR on attention and executive control.

What effects, if any, does mindfulness have on the TPN? A 2013 study by Teper and Izlicht

sought to answer this. Researchers used electroencephalography (EEG) to record activity in the

anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) while both experienced mediators and meditation-naïve controls

completed a Stroop task. The Stroop task is known to require executive control, as participants

must concentrate in order not to make errors; ACC activity was specifically chosen due to its

known correlation with control. Another factor measured by researchers was error-related

negativity (ERN), a neurophysiological response that occurs when an error has been made,

causing that brief “oops” reaction we have when we have missed a question on a test. Results

found that experienced meditators significantly outperformed controls on the Stroop task, but for

intriguing reasons: meditators had a heightened ERN relative to controls, which led researchers

to speculate that mindfulness leads to both greater sensitivity to errors (error-noticing was more

pronounced) as well as a greater ability to regulate ERN and continue calmly accomplishing
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one’s task. Mindfulness seemed to give meditators an edge on the Stroop task not only due to

greater attention capacity but also a greater ability to “let go” of mistakes and not allow oneself

to become flustered by them.

This increase in attention and control, as might be expected, has been shown to have

repercussions in the DMN. Brewer et al. (2011) used fMRI to study the DMN in experienced

meditators. They found that the primary nodes of the DMN—the medial prefrontal and posterior

cingulate cortices—were deactivated during the act of meditation. They also found interesting

phenomena specific to the type of meditation involved, such as Loving-Kindness meditation

deactivating the amygdala, which is associated with fear and other negative emotions. Finally,

researchers found that in experienced meditators, increased functional connectivity was found

among areas involving cognitive control: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortices, dorsal anterior

cingulate, and the ACC. These areas showed greater connectivity during meditation and even

outside meditation, in a resting state, findings which have been replicated in other studies

(Garrison, Zeffiro, Scheinost, Constable, & Brewer, 2015). This implies that the effects of

mindfulness transform the brain in a more global way, and Brewer et al. (2011) suggests that one

of the primary means by which meditation increases cognitive well-being is through a reduction

in mind-wandering. If a wandering mind is an unhappy mind, perhaps a present mind is a happy

mind.

To this effect, the study by Farb et al. (2012) showed that one of the primary means by

which MBSR aids patients with depression is in giving them tools to increase cognitive control,

whereby they can lessen automatic negative affective processing; by better regulating emotions,

persons suffering from depression can find the space to reappraise themselves more objectively

and positively. Other studies have demonstrated this link between cognitive control and well-
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being by the reduction of activity associated with the DMN (Ramel et al., 2004; Malinowski,

2013).

Discussion

In this paper, I have sought to discover possible neural mechanisms underlying the

method of reeducation of cerebral control developed by Dr. Roger Vittoz, a form of therapy

which I have experienced and which I would like to better understand. As I know of no

scientific studies done directly on the Vittoz Method, I have used a close approximation that has

received much attention by researchers: meditation and mindfulness practices. Further, as

Vittoz therapy is aimed specifically at the brain, I used modern studies of the brain to see if

mindfulness has been shown to have an effect on cognitive control and well-being. The studies I

found gave me several promising avenues for understanding the Vittoz Method.

The first is Vittoz’ proposal of an existence of two related and mutually exclusive modes

of cerebral functioning: an “active” or “conscious” brain, and a “passive” or “unconscious”

brain (Vittoz, 1907/1999, p. 15-16). The conscious brain is aware of itself and its surroundings,

it is in control of itself and decides deliberately what it wants to do. The unconscious brain is out

of control; it is not aware of where it is or what it is thinking about, it is assailed by thoughts

coming from who-knows-where and which can lead to negative psychological states.

My studies on the DMN and the TPN have shed much light on this phenomenon as Vittoz

understood it. Indeed, Vittoz’ conception of a passive brain corresponds well to what we know

of the DMN, a network of brain areas that are active when a person is “inactive.” The DMN

does tend to be associated with mind wandering and rumination, or “passive” thought outside

one’s control. Further, Vittoz’ intuition that passive thought often leads to negative

psychological states has been verified by modern psychology, as this paper has shown.
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One of Dr. Vittoz’ central ideas is that neurotic states are primarily caused by

insufficiencies of cerebral control, (being in conscious control over one’s thoughts and

emotions). In other words, states like anxiety are sometimes caused when conscious thought

begins to be dominated by passive thoughts that one is unable to withstand. This seemed to be

verified by research like the Hamilton et al. study (2011) which showed that a major factor in

maintaining MDD was an insufficiency of TPN dominance over the DMN; depressed patients

were locked into their depressive state in part due to being unable to control their ruminating,

negative self-appraisals. Unable to control or halt their negative thoughts, they remain locked in

a vicious circle doomed to increase their depression.

Thankfully, Vittoz’ belief that it is possible to learn to take back control over one’s brain

has also been verified by scientific research. Vittoz intuitively recognized, long before modern

science would empirically demonstrate it, that one could not be both mentally present and absent

at the same time; the two are exclusive. Whether one is actively receiving a sensory stimulus via

the senses, attending to one’s breath, or accomplishing an exercise of mental focus, one’s mind

cannot ruminate when one is mentally engaged. This Vittozian principle finds validation in what

we know of the anti-correlated nature of the DMN and TPN, and how they mutually inhibit each

other. An active TPN deactivates the DMN, and when TPN activation lowers beyond a certain

threshold, the DMN takes back control.

Conclusion

Dr. Vittoz felt that he was on to something important when he first created his Method, so

many years ago. Facing a wave of psychoanalysts like Freud, who tried to heal patients through

endless introspection, Vittoz had a contrary intuition: that it was precisely this endless focus on

self that was rendering people sick. He tried to forge a different path, a path of simplicity which
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brought people back to the basics of being human. Taking people out of their heads and into the

moment, giving them back control over themselves; teaching people a cyclical path of possessing

oneself to give oneself, of losing oneself to find oneself.

Dr. Vittoz always lamented that the science of his time was unable to corroborate so

many of his intuitions that he knew were true, but couldn’t demonstrate scientifically. Until

writing this paper, I, too, knew the value of the Vittoz Method in my own experience, but didn’t

have the tools to explain how it works. This paper has been a personal quest to help me

understand the underlying mechanisms of the Vittoz Method, and I look forward to using my

new findings in my future work as a Vittoz therapist.


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