Revision Notes

Class – 11 Physics
Chapter 11 - Thermal properties of matter

1. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

This topic discusses various thermal phenomena and how a matter behaves when
subjected to the flow of thermal energy. We are specifically concerned in

• Thermal Expansion.
• Heat and Calorimetry

• Transfer of Heat

1.1 Temperature and Heat

Temperature: Temperature is a relative measure of a body's hotness or coldness.

SI Unit: Kelvin (K)

Commonly used unit:  C or 

F

Conversion: t  K  = t   C + 273.15

Heat: Heat is a type of energy flow that occurs

(i) between two bodies or

(ii) between a body and its surroundings as a result of a temperature difference.

SI unit: Joule (J)

Commonly used unit: Calorie (Cal)

Conversion: 1 cal = 4.186 J

• Heat is always transferred from a higher temperature system to a lower temperature

system.

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1.2 Measurement of Temperature
Principle: Thermometric properties are observed as temperature changes and
compared to certain reference situations.

• Generally, the reference situation is ice point or steam point.

1.2.1 Celsius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scale

In Celsius Scale In Fahrenheit Scale

Ice point  0  C Ice point  32  F

Stream point  1000  C Stream point  212  F

It implies that 100 divisions in Celsius are equivalent to 180 divisions in Fahrenheit.
t f  32 t
Hence, = c
180 100

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Note: Recreated the above diagram.

1.2.2 Absolute Temperature Scale

It is kelvin scale
Ice point  273.15 K

Steam point  373.15 K

When compared to the Celsius scale, the number of scale divisions in both scales is
t c  0 C t  273.15
the same. = k
100 100

• The Kelvin scale is known as an absolute scale because it is nearly impossible to

go beyond 0 K on the negative side.

Note: Recreated the above diagram

1.2.3 Thermometers
A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of any system.
Liquid in Glass thermometers, Platinum Resistance Thermometers, and Constant
Volume Gas Thermometers are a few examples.

• The Liquid in Glass thermometer and the Platinum Resistance thermometer

provide uniform readings for ice point and steam point but vary for different liquids
and materials.

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• A constant volume gas thermometer provides the same readings regardless of
which gas is used. It is based on the fact that at low pressures and constant volume,
P  T for a gas.

• All gases collide to absolute zero at zero pressure.

x Constant (k)
 K T
x

Linear Expansion L Coefficient of linear

  T
L expansion: It rises
in length per unit
length per degree
increase in
temperature.

A Coefficient of area
  T
A expansion: It rises
Area expansion in area per unit area
per degree increase
in temperature.

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 V Coefficient of
  T
V volume expansion:
Volume Expansion It rises in volume
per unit volume per
degree increase in
temperature.

Note: Recreated the above diagram.

Units of  ,  ,   / 
C or / K

In general, as the volume changes, the density changes as well.

•  is generally higher for metals than  for nonmetals

•  is nearly constant at high temperatures but varies with temperature at low

temperatures.

1.3 Thermal Expansion

Most materials, it has been observed, expands when heated and contract when
cooled. This expansion is multidimensional.

It has been demonstrated experimentally that a fractional change in any dimension

is proportional to a change in temperature.

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Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a function of temperature.
• For ideal gases,  is inversely related to the temperature at constant pressure.
nRT
V=
P

V T
 =
V T


  =
T

Water, on the other hand, contracts when heated from 0  C to 4  C and thus its
density rises from 0  C to 4  C . This is known as anomalous expansion.

3
• In general   3  = 
2

Proof: Consider a cube of length l that expands equally in all directions when its
temperature rises by a small  T;

We have l   l T

Also

V  (l l )3 l 3

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 l 3  3l 2 l  3l l 2  l 2 l 3

 3l 2 l ... 1

In Equation (1) we ignore 3l l 2 & l 3 as l is very small as compared to l.

So,
3V
V = l
l

 V 2
 3V   T  Using l  l  2
 

V
= 3  T
V

 = 3

Similarly, we can prove for area expansion coefficient of thermal expansion is

prevented inside the rod by rigidly fixing its ends, then the rod acquires a
compressive strain due to external fones at the ends. The corresponding stress set up
in the rod is called thermal stress.
F
Hence, thermal stress   Y  L  L0  / L0 where Y is Young's modulus of the given
A
material.

This can be simplified into Y (T ) / L0 .

Practical applications include railway tracks, metal tyres on cart wheels, bridges, and
a variety of other structures.

1.4 Heat and Calorimetry

When two systems at different temperatures are linked together, heat flows from the
higher temperature to the lower temperature until their temperatures become the
same.

The principle of calorimetry states that heat lost by a body at higher temperature
equals heat gained by a body at lower temperature, ignoring heat loss to
surroundings.

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When heat is applied to anybody, either its temperature or its state changes.

1.4.1 Change in temperature

On heating, when the temp changes, then
Heat supplied  change in temp (T)
 amount of substance  m / n 
 nature of substance  s / C 

 H = ms  T

Here,

m is the mass of body,

s is specific heat capacity per kg,

 T is change in temp

or  H = nC  T

Here, n is the number of moles, C is the Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole,
 T is the change in temp.

Specific Heat Capacity: The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of
a substance's unit mass by one degree.
Units

SI  J / KgK SH2O e  = 1 cal / g C

Common  Cal / g C SH2O ice  = 0.5 cal / g C

Molar Heat Capacity: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mole of a substance by one degree.

Units
SI  J / mol K

Common  Cal / gc

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Heat Capacity: The amount of heat needed to raise a system's temperature by one
degree.

 H = ST

where S is heat capacity.

Units
SI  J / K

Common  Cal / C

• For H 2O , the specific heat capacity varies, but only slightly.

• Materials with a higher specific heat capacity require a large amount of heat for a
given temperature.

1.4.2 Change in state

On heating, when the phase changes then the heat supplied is directly related to the
amount of substance which changes the state (M) and the nature of substance (L)

H = mL

Where L is the latent Heat of process

• Latent Heat: The amount of heat required to change the state of any substance per
mass.
Units
SI  J/Kg
Common  Cal/g

• The change in state always occurs at a constant temperature.

For example
Solid Liq Lf
Liq Gas Lv
Lf = Latent Heat of fusion
L v = Latent heat of vaporization

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• If a material is not at its B.P. or M.P, heating will cause the temperature to change
until a specific state change temperature is reached.

For Example: If water is initially at 50  C at 1 atm pressure in its solid state, then
on heating

Step 1: Make a temperature change to the first to 0  C

Step 2: The ice melts to H2O  l  while the temperature remains constant.

Step 3: The temperature is inverted to 100  C.

Step 4: H2O  l  boils to steam while the temperature remains constant.

Step 5: Increase the temperature further.

Note: Recreated the above diagram.

• The slope is inversely related to the heat capacity.

• The length of the horizontal line totally depends upon mL for the process.

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1.4.3 Pressure dependence on melting point and boiling point
• Melting point decreases with increasing pressure for some substances and increases
for others.

• Melting point increases with increasing temperature. The above results can be seen
using phaser diagrams.

Line AO is the sublimation curve, line OB is the fusion curve, line OC is the
vapourisation curve, point O is triple point, point C is critical temperature

Triple Point: The pressure and temperature combination at which all three states of
matter (solids, liquids, and gases) coexist. Its value is 273.16 K and 0.006 atm for
H 2 O.

The combination of pressure and temperature beyond which a vapour cannot be

liquified is referred to as the critical point. The corresponding temperature and
pressure are referred to as the critical temperature and critical pressure.

• The phasor diagram shows that the melting point of H2O decreases as pressure
increases. The concept of regulation is based on this.

• Regulation: The phenomenon of refreezing water that has melted below its normal
melting point due to the addition of pressure. Cooking on mountains is difficult due
to the pressure effect on melting point, whereas cooking in a pressure cooker is
easier.

1.5 Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer.

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• Conduction
• Convection

• Radiation

1.5.1 Conduction
Thermal conduction is the process by which thermal energy is transferred from the
hotter to the colder part of a body or from a hot body to a cold body in contact with
it without the transfer of material particles.

The rate of heat energy flowing through the rod becomes constant at steady state. It
is given by,

Q = kA
 TC - TD 
L

This is the rate for rods with a uniform cross-section.

Here, Q is rate of heat energy flow, A is area of cross-section, TC and TD are

temperature of hot end and cold end respectively, L is length of the rod, K is
coefficient of thermal conductivity.

Some of the examples of conduction which we experience in our day to day life are
being burnt after touching a stove. Your hand is being cooled with ice. By putting a
red-hot piece of iron into the water, it is brought to a boil.

Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity: It is defined as the amount of heat conducted

in unit time during a steady state through a unit area of any cross-section of a
substance under a unit temperature gradient, with the heat flow being normal to the
area.

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Units

SI  J / mSk or W/mK

• The greater the thermal conductivity, the faster heat energy flows for a given
temperature difference.

• Metals have higher thermal conductivity than nonmetals.

• Insulators have a very low thermal conductivity. As a result, heat energy cannot be
easily conducted through air.

• The concept of equivalent thermal conductivity of the composite rod can be used
for combinations of rods between two ends kept at different temperatures.

K eq is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the composite.

• The term
 TC - TD  is known as temperature Gradient.
L

Temperature Gradient: Temperature Gradient refers to the decrease in temperature

per unit length in the direction of heat energy flow.

Units SI  K/m
• The term Q is the rate of flow of heat energy can also be named as heat current

• The term  L / KA  is known as thermal resistance of any conducting rod.

Thermal Resistance: It is defined as the medium's obstruction of the flow of heat

current.

Units SI  K/W

1.5.2 Convection:
Thermal convection is the process by which heat is transferred from one point to
another by the actual movement of heated material particles from a higher
temperature location to a lower temperature location.

• Forced convection occurs when the medium is forced to move by means of a fan
or a pump. Natural or free convection occurs when a material moves due to
differences in density in the medium.

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• Examples of forced convection are circulatory system, cooling system, and heat
connector of an automobile

• Examples of natural convection are trade winds, sea breeze/land breeze, monsoons,
and tea burning.

1.5.3 Radiation
It is a method of heat transmission in which heat travels directly from one location
to another without the use of an intermediary medium.

• This radiation of heat energy takes the form of EM waves.

• These radiators are emitted as a result of their temperature, similar to how a red-
hot iron or a filament lamp emits light.

• Everybody both radiates and absorbs energy from its surroundings. The amount of
energy absorbed is proportional to the color of the body.

•Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black

body within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
environment (an idealized opaque, non-reflective body). It has a specific spectrum
of wavelengths that are inversely related to intensity and are only affected by the
body's temperature, which is assumed to be uniform and constant for the sake of
calculations and theory.

Stefan’s Law of Radiation:

Stefan's Law states that the radiated power density of a black body is directly related
to its absolute temperature T raised to the fourth power.

Newton's Law of cooling:

d
According to Newton’s Law of cooling, the rate of loss of heat, that is,  of the
dt
body is directly related to the temp difference.
Now,
ds
- = k  T2 - T1   4
dt

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Here, k is a positive constant which depends on the area and nature of the surface of
the body.

Suppose a body of mass m, specific heat capacity s is at temperature T2 & T1 be the

temperature of surroundings if dT2 the fall of temperature in time dt.

The amount of heat lost is given by,

dcs = msdT2

Therefore, the rate of loss of heat is given by

dcs dT2
= ms 5
dt dt

From Equation 4 and 5

dT2
ms = k  T2  T1 
dt
dT2 k
=- dt
 T2  T1  ms
= -Kdt

Here,
k
K
ms

On integrating,
log  T2  T1  = -Kt + C
T2 = T1 + C1e kt 6

The equation (6) allows us to calculate the time it takes a body to cool through a
given temperature range.
• For small temperature differences, the rate of cooling due to conduction,
convection, and radiation combined is proportional to the temperature difference.

• Approximation: If a body cools from Ta to Tb in t times in a medium with a

temperature of T0 , then

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  T  Tb 
 Ta  Tb  =K  a  T0 
 2 

• Newton's law of cooling can be studied experimentally.

Configuration: A double-walled vessel (v) with water contained between two walls.

Inside the double-walled vessel is a copper calorimeter (c) containing hot water. Two
thermometers threaded through the carbs are used to measure the temperature T2

of H 2O in the calorimeter T of water in between the double walls.

Experiment: The temperature of hot water in the calorimeter at equal time intervals.

As a result, A line graph is drawn between log  T2 T1  and time (t). The graph is
observed to be a straight line, as predicted by Newton's law of cooling.

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