Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—

An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics

Paul Klipfel*
Consultant Geologist, 4861 Ramcreek Trail, Reno, NV 89509

ABSTRACT

Sediment-Hosted-Vein deposits (SHV) constitute a family of gold-bearing vein

deposits that occur worldwide, but are found primarily in Asia. This family of
deposits includes some of the world’s largest gold deposits such as Muruntau, Sukhoy
Log, Baleyskoe, Maysky, and Kumtor in Asia, as well as Bendigo and Ballarat and
many smaller gold vein deposits in Victoria, Australia. Other smaller deposit examples
occur in Nova Scotia (Canada), Nome (Alaska) and in pre-Cordillera rocks of South
America. These deposits are united by common characteristics which include Late
Proterozoic to early Paleozoic passive-margin shale-siltstone host rocks; extended
crust as basement to the host rocks; multiple episodes of deformation of which fold-
thrust tectonism is the most significant; Au±As, Sb, W metal suite; neutral, low to
moderate salinity hydrothermal fluid chemistry; minimal to moderate grade meta-
morphism; active plutonic magmatism at or near the time of mineralization; and
occurrence within a field of multiple deposits commonly in association with large
placer fields.
Remarkably, this list of characteristics is virtually identical to the major charac-
teristics that define Carlin type deposits. However, there are a few significant differ-
ences that set Carlin type deposits apart. These include the absolute and relative
timing of mineralization, carbonate content of host rocks, and the role of decalcifica-
tion. If these distinctions are considered to be local variations on a grander theme,
Carlin and SHV type deposits share some important characteristics that may have
contributed to their genesis. Namely, the passive margin sedimentary sequence and its
underlying extended crust appear to be most important. Under compressional tecton-
ism, faults in extended basement are reactivated and contribute to the fold-fault pat-
terns created in the overlying sedimentary rocks and also likely provide significant
pathways for deep-sourced hydrothermal fluids and magma.
Understanding the importance of these regional to local scale characteristics and
the fact that they are common to some of the greatest gold deposits in the world pro-
vides a unique set of exploration criteria. The application of these criteria in the
search for both types of deposits may be important.
Key Words: Carlin, sediment-hosted-vein, gold, passive-margin, characteristics

*E-mail, [email protected]

Klipfel, Paul, 2005, Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics, in Rhoden, H.N., Steininger, R.C., and
Vikre, P.G., eds., Geological Society of Nevada Symposium 2005: Window to the World, Reno, Nevada, May 2005, p. 79–91.

79
80 Paul Klipfel

INTRODUCTION vein deposits in order to distinguish them from the fine, micron-
scale, sediment hosted disseminated mineralization typical of
One of the more intriguing aspects of Carlin type mineral- Carlin type deposits. Other descriptive names, such as turbidite-
ization is its arguably unique occurrence in the Great Basin of hosted, shale-hosted, or mesothermal vein, while appropriate
the western US. Attempts to apply a “Carlin” model in the terms, do not characterize SHV deposits consistently or accu-
search for other examples of this type of mineralization in other rately. SHV deposits are not consistently hosted by shale or tur-
parts of the world have met with mixed success. Gold mineral- biditic sediments. Likewise, the terms mesothermal and orogenic
ization associated with carbonate rocks of southern China (Li cover a broader range of deposits than those that occur as veins
and Peters, 1998, Rui-Zhong et al., 2002) and the Mesel deposit hosted in passive margin sediments.
in Indonesia (Turner, et al., 1994, Turner, et al., 2002) come For the purposes of this contribution, SHV deposits are
closest to being kindred deposits. However, unlike other types described because most readers are likely to be unfamiliar with
of metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits, such as epithermal, this type of deposit. However, SHD deposits are not described
porphyry, iron formation, massive sulfide and diamond, which here due to the voluminous literature that already exists on the
exhibit consistent characteristics in a wide range of geographic topic and assumed familiarity of readers with Carlin type
and geologic settings, it has proved difficult to identify Carlin deposits. Recent summaries of SHD deposits include Cline,
style mineralization elsewhere in the world. et al., 2005 (in review) and a comprehensive overview of the
This paper explores the possibility and proposes that Carlin Carlin trend (Thompson et al., 2002).
type deposits are a subset of a broader class of sediment-hosted
gold deposits that exhibit consistent, reproducible, and predic- SEDIMENT-HOSTED VEIN DEPOSITS
tive characteristics as a group. To develop this line of reasoning,
key characteristics of both sediment-hosted disseminated This term is applied to a family of deposits that occur
(SHD) Carlin type and sediment-hosted vein (SHV) gold throughout the world (Figure 1), but are poorly known and
deposits are compared. Local details of a particular deposit may understood. They are most prolific in both size and number in
deviate from the general characteristics presented here, but Asia. Many are in the former Soviet Union with geologic, geo-
these are attributed to local variations as opposed to fundamental chemical, and geophysical information usually in Russian and
differences in deposit type. difficult to obtain. The work here is based on personal visits to
This work derives in large part from research on sediment- some of these deposits and review of available reports in English
hosted deposits conducted between 1996 and 2000 as part of an and Russian.
evaluation of giant gold deposits of the world sponsored by Included in this group of giant gold deposits are Muruntau
Placer Dome. Characteristics of these deposits and exploration (80M oz), Sukhoy Log (20M oz), Amantaytau, Daugiztau,
techniques for finding them were developed as part of a propri- Kumtor, Bakirchik, Olympiada, Nezhdaninskoe, Natalka, and
etary research program with Placer Dome that used the model Maysky in Asia. In Australia, the numerous deposits of the Vic-
for identification of several projects, but discontinued this effort torian gold fields include Bendigo, Ballarat, Fosterville and
when corporate exploration strategies changed in 2000. Since Stawell. In New Zealand, the Otago Schist Belt hosts Macraes
then, the author has continued to expand on this work, some of Flat and numerous small deposits. In South America, pre-
which was first made public at the 2004 Prospectors and Devel- Cordillera rocks of Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina host many small
opers Association of Canada Conference. to medium deposits with past production from pre-conquest
time. In North America, numerous small to medium deposits
SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD DEPOSITS occur in the Meguma Terrane of Nova Scotia and in the south-
ern half of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Sediment-hosted gold deposits historically have been These deposits are united as a group by having in common
grouped into three broad categories according to their major their tectonic setting, host rocks, alteration style, metal content,
characteristics. These are: 1) paleoplacer/ hydrothermal/ modi- fluid chemistry, and to some extent by the absolute and relative
fied paleoplacer deposits of the Witwatersrand basin and smaller timing of formation. A comprehensive review of each of these
but arguably similar deposits elsewhere in the world (e.g. deposits is beyond the scope of this presentation, but a sum-
Tarkwa, Ghana; Jacobina, Brazil); 2) calcareous siltstone-hosted mary of the principal characteristics that are common to this
Carlin deposits; and 3) a loose grouping of other deposits which class of deposit is given below.
previously have been called turbidite-hosted, slate-belt, shale-
hosted, mesothermal deposits. Most recently these deposits have Tectonic and Structural Setting
been included under the broad banner of orogenic deposits.
Deposits of categories 2 and 3 are considered here. All of these deposits are hosted by regionally extensive,
The most striking difference between the second and third thick sedimentary sequences which are interpreted to have been
group is that mineralization in the later occurs primarily as deposited on extended continental crust as passive margin
veins. For this reason, this group is called here sediment hosted assemblages. This depositional setting is very specific and by
Figure 1. Sediment-Hosted Vein deposits (SHV) and Sediment-Hosted Disseminated (SHD) Carlin type deposits are located throughout the
Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics

world. SHV deposits 1. Muruntau (80 M oz), Daugiztau (8.4 M oz), Amantaytau (~5 M oz). 2. Kumtor (>7 M oz). 3. Bakirchik (8.2 Moz). 4.
Olympiada (8 M oz). 5. Sukhoy Log (20 Moz). 6. Nezhdaninskoe (16 M oz). 7. Kolyma-Magadan area; Natalka (6.7 M oz). 8. Maysky, 9 M oz.
9. Inner Mongolia; numerous small to medium deposits. 10. Victorian Goldfields including Bendigo (>20 M oz), Ballarat, Fosterville, Stawell,
and many small deposits. 11. Macraes Flat (5.2 M oz). 12. Seward Peninsula; numerous small to medium deposits; extensive beach placers. 13.
Meguma Terrane deposits; numerous small to medium deposits. 14. Pre-Cordillera belt including Pataz district, Minas Azules, Incahuasi, and
numerous small to medium deposits. SHD Deposits 15. numerous giant and large deposits of the Carlin and Eureka-Battle Mountain trends.
16.Chuan-Shan Gan region. 17. Dian-Gui-Qian region. 18. Mesel
81
82 Paul Klipfel

definition requires several other features to be present as part of of these were deposited in Neoproterozoic to mid-Paleozoic
the crustal architecture that forms continental passive margins. time with Cambrian-Ordovician sediments the most common.
These include proximity (≤200 km) to a continental or cratonic One exception is the Otago schist belt of New Zealand where
margin. Such a margin is commonly hidden beneath more sediments were deposited in the Permo-Triassic.
recent cover sequences, but can be demonstrated to exist by Siltstone and shaley-siltstone dominate the regional assem-
gravity, magnetic or isotopic methods. The extended crust on blage. Shale generally occurs as thin to thick layers intercalated
which the passive margin sediments are deposited commonly with siltstone but locally may be the dominant assemblage. Car-
contains volumetrically minor amounts of MORB (Mid Ocean bon content is commonly highest in proximity to mineralization
Ridge Basalt) or MORB-like basalt emplaced as incipient and it is unclear whether this phenomenon is partly responsible
oceanic crustal material prior to development of a full oceanic for localizing mineralization or if it is a product of the mineral-
basin with a spreading center (Figure 2a). This setting is spe- izing process.
cific and does not include deposits at convergent or transform Volcanic and carbonate rocks (e.g. massive limestone) are
plate margins where mineralization may be hosted by local generally rare and where present, constitute a volumetrically
sedimentary assemblages among a wide range of other rock small portion of the entire stratigraphic assemblage. Some silt-
types (e.g. gold vein deposits of southeast Alaska). These stone and shale layers can be calcareous as at Sukhoy Log. The
deposits may show similar vein and fluid characteristics but carbonate content may relate to the age of deposition. For
occur in a significantly different setting. example, Neoproterozoic to Ordovician sequences contain
All of these deposits occur in rocks that have undergone sparse carbonates whereas later ones may display a greater
multiple episodes of deformation with fold-thrust deformation abundance. Evaporites are virtually absent from regional
producing the dominant structural and deposit-hosting features assemblages.
(Figure 2c and 2d). Other deformation events produce minor All SHV deposits occur in rocks that have undergone weak
modifications, offsets and fabrics. Folds typically display mod- to moderate regional metamorphism with upper greenschist
erate to tight interlimb angles and can be upright to recumbent. rank being the maximum metamorphic grade. Local areas of
Reverse faults may form where upright, tight interlimb angles higher temperature may be present as in the heart of the Murun-
limit the stress that can be absorbed through continued folding. tau deposit, or in various metamorphic-structural domains of
Thrust faults and duplex stacking occurs where fold axial the Otago Schist Belt of New Zealand. Local thermal aureoles
planes form at low to moderate angles. These features typically of higher-grade metamorphism occur around some plutons.
produce structural traps for mineralization. Late-stage crenula-
tion with attendant orthogonal fracturing is common, and in Mineralization and Alteration
most cases modifies the deposit. However, in a few examples,
such as Muruntau and possibly in Victoria, crenulation features SHV deposits consist of gold in quartz veins, minor stock-
host-mineralized veins. works, and in some cases, disseminations in wall rocks between
Although not always readily apparent, most SHV deposits veins. Veins can be massive quartz, but typically contain vari-
occur within or in proximity to a shear zone or other significant ous amounts of carbonate and sulfide. Some veins are banded
crustal scale structure. The intersection of these structures with or “ribboned,” with quartz intercalated with wall rock and/or
transverse cross structures appears to be a key to localizing carbonaceous material (Figure 3a). These occur most com-
mineralizing fluids. These features may not be identifiable in monly where there has been flexural slip or tectonism before or
the field but usually can be seen in regional gravity and mag- during vein formation. Veins are commonly folded or exhibit
netic data. rotated tips indicating synkinematic origin (Figure 3a and b).
SHV deposits occur in anticlines and structural highs. SHV deposits typically contain multiple vein stages with a prin-
Hydrothermal fluids migrate upward along reverse or thrust cipal stage being auriferous. Other non-gold-bearing veins typi-
faults, axial planar fractures, and bedding plane slip surfaces to cally crosscut the gold-stage veins. A few deposits like
form veins in anticlinal hinge zones and fractures of anticlinal Muruntau show multiple gold-bearing stages of vein formation.
fold columns. Anticlines generally posses moderate to tight fold Sulfide content is generally low, with arsenopyrite and stib-
limbs with wavelengths on the order of 3 to 10 km. Fold axes nite being most common. Traces to minor amounts of W, Bi,
can be traced along strike for many kilometers if subsequent and Te sulfides can be present also. In a few deposits (e.g.
deformation has not disrupted the pattern. Muruntau), U occurs in trace amounts. Minor Cu, Pb, and Zn
sulfides exist in a few deposits, but most show a distinct paucity
Host Rocks of these metals. In fact, where SHV deposits are present, there
are no base metal deposits in the vicinity unless they are hosted
All SHV deposits occur in thick (≥5 km), monotonous, by a different lithologic assemblage or were formed at a time
regionally extensive (103–106 km2), dominantly siliciclastic different to the SHV deposits.
shale-siltstone assemblages interpreted to be passive continen- Limited fluid inclusion and stable isotope work indicates
tal margin sediments derived from the adjacent continent. Most that these deposits were formed at temperatures between 200°C
 Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics 83

Figure 2. This sequence of diagrams shows the extension and compression phases of a passive margin setting that results in mineralization. A). Con-
tinental crust undergoes extension. Normal faults occur in the upper crust. Plastic attenuation occurs in the mid to lower crust. With progress, nor-
mal faults and blocks rotate to a recumbent position. Incipient oceanic crustal basalt (MORB or MORB-like) intrudes the thinned crust (dark green).
B). Once an oceanic basin and a spreading ridge is formed, oceanic crust, extended continental crust, overlying sediment, and the adjacent continent
all travel in the same direction. This is a period of tectonic quiescence except for growth faults that propagate upward into the sediment from block-
bounding normal faults in the underlying extended crust. C). Compressional deformation. Fold-thrust deformation causes crustal shortening and
thickening. Inversion of existing faults contributes to the formation of anticlinal fold traps and the faults serve as fluid pathways. Lower crust is
depressed, heated and may melt to form magma if conditions are right. Increased P and T conditions may also generate hydrothermal fluids through
dehydration reactions (light blue arrow). This fluid rises upward through the crust along initial normal faults that rotate and steepen during compres-
sional deformation. D). Under different circumstances, thrust deformation may dominate over fold deformation as in the Great Basin. Crustal thick-
ening may occur and may produce magma and hydrothermal fluid. However, if the crustal thickening and isostatic depression are inadequate to
produce fluids and magma, no plutons or gold deposits will form. E). Temperature-depth plot showing oceanic and continental geotherms along with
dry and wet melting curves. If a parcel of rock on the geotherm (gray spot) is forced downward isostatically (yellow arrow) to some depth, it will seek
thermal equilibrium on the geotherm (red spot). If a melting curve is crossed en route to the geotherm, melts will be produced.

and 400°C by near-neutral fluids with low to moderate salinity the climate is suitable for erosion, transport and deposition of
and enriched in CO2, CH4, and N. gold in streams and rivers. Some of the largest placer fields in
Most SHV deposits occur in groups, commonly with one Asia and Australia are associated with these deposits. Some
or more large deposits in a field of numerous smaller ones; thus placer gold occurs with all SHV deposits. The famous Creta-
their formation is interpreted to be the product of regional scale ceous to early Tertiary Deep Leads and later conventional
events. They erode to form extensive placer deposits provided placer deposits of the Victorian goldfields are derived from
84 Paul Klipfel

Figure 3. A). Deformed quartz veins in carbonaceous shale; Muruntau, Uzbekistan. B). Layer parallel quartz-carbonate-sulfide veins folded
and offset along sulfide-rich vein-filled thrust surfaces indicated by blue-gloved hand; Sukhoy Log, Russia. C). Large euhedral pyrite in
slightly altered shale; near Sukhoy Log, Russia. D). Quartz veinlets in weathered sericite and carbonate-altered siltstone; Minas Azules,
Argentina. E). Weathered quartz-carbonate-sulfide vein in altered siltstone showing envelope of disseminated arsenopyrite; Bendigo, Vic-
toria. F). Quartz-carbonate-sulfide vein in weathered sericite and carbonate-altered foliated shale; Incahuasi, Argentina.
 Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics 85

auriferous veins of SHV type mineralization. The Lena District edge previously has been postulated as a key factor in localizing
of Siberia which surrounds Sukhoy Log and other similar but SHD deposits of the Great Basin (Cunningham, 1988).
smaller deposits has produced >22M oz of placer gold during Both types of deposits occur in rocks that have undergone
the 150 years of production. Extensive, but low grade placer multiple episodes of deformation with fold-thrust deformation
deposits along the eastern flank of the Andes are largely derived being the principal structural event. In the Great Basin, this event
from countless small vein occurrences of SHV type in pre- is the Antler Orogeny and is primarily a thrust event with minor
cordillera rocks. The famous and productive beach placers of folding. It occurred in mid-late Paleozoic time, as do comparable
Nome, Alaska derive from a myriad of veins and small to events for most SHV type deposits. It is intriguing that the origin
medium deposits in that terrain. of the fold thrust deformation is enigmatic and a point of contro-
One of the interesting aspects of SHV deposits is the appar- versy for both SHV and Carlin deposits. In the western US, col-
ent widespread regional infiltration of host rocks by hydro- lision of exotic terranes and/or crustal shortening related to
thermal fluid. However, this alteration can be very subtle and arc-continent interaction are cited as agents for this fold-thrust
its field recognition difficult (Figures 3 and 4). Carbonate alter- event (Miller, et al., 1992). Alternative models such as borderland
ation (calcite, siderite, ankerite) is the most prominent and collapse also have been proposed (Snyder, 2000). While arc-con-
widespread. Carbonate as flakes, intergrain matrix, envelopes tinent interaction between the northern Sierras-Klamath arc and
around veins, and porphyroblasts are various manifestations of North American plate is most widely accepted, the origin of the
carbonate alteration. Sericite alteration is also common, partic- Antler Orogeny remains enigmatic. In a similar manner the ori-
ularly in narrow envelopes around quartz or quartz-carbonate gin of fold-thrust deformation for SHV deposits commonly lacks
veins (Figure 4c). Sericitic alteration weathers to clay and can a requisite arc, terrrane, or collision at the appropriate time, and a
be mistaken for argillic alteration in some environments. Propy- “hit and run” collision interpretation is commonly invoked. For
litic alteration may occur over broad areas also. Typically, Carlin deposits, subsequent episodes of fold-thrust deformation
weathering of altered shale and siltstone produces subtle pastel (Sonoma, Elko, Sevier, and Laramide orogenies), pre-Basin and
colors—khaki, mauve, yellow brown after sulfide, and choco- Range extension, and Basin and Range extension are additional
late brown after Fe-Mg-carbonate, or a sandy-colored bleached regional superposed deformation events, consistent with the mul-
appearance (Figure 4). Sulfide is commonly introduced with tiple deformation events characteristic of SHV deposits.
alteration leaving fine to large euhedral pyrite scattered Mineralization in both types of deposits is spatially associ-
throughout the host rock, particularly in envelopes around veins ated with structural elements of this fold-thrust event, including
(Figure 3d). Arsenopyrite and stibnite also can occur in proximal proximity to a major structure and the intersection of transverse
zones around veins. structures. For Carlin deposits, the most significant feature of
The localization of mineralization in anticlines, along axial this sort is the Roberts Mountain thrust and related splays. The
planar features, and in structures related to the principal fold- Carlin and Eureka-Battle Mountain trends themselves may also
thrust deformation event along with cross-cutting relations be deep crustal breaks. Northeast cross structures may provide
clearly indicate that mineralizing processes were synkinematic local focusing of mineralization (Teal and Jackson, 2002).
through post-peak deformation. Late stage mineralization and Anticlines are important to both types of deposits as traps
veining crosscut main event features. For most SHV deposits, for hydrothermal fluids and deposition of gold (Presnell, 1990;
this main event occurred in mid to late Paleozoic time (Hercynian Teal and Jackson, 2002). In the case of SHD deposits, anticlines
in Eurasia or equivalent name for other continents). For younger are postulated to be, in part, the product of basin inversion
deposits, the story is the same, but took place in another time— along initial normal faults that formed during sedimentation.
Jurassic in the case of New Zealand. These anticlines may be segmented by other later events and
difficult to recognize. In SHV deposits, folds and reverse faults
COMPARISON OF SHV AND CARLIN DEPOSITS are interpreted to propagate upward from reversal of fault
movement along former normal faults in the extended continen-
It is striking that SHV and Carlin deposits share many of tal basement (Figure 2b).
the same characteristics. There are also some important differ- In several SHV deposits, dikes, sills, specific strata or tec-
ences (Table 1). tonic features may have acted as a “cap” and contributed to
trapping of fluids and mineralization. In SHD deposits, western
Tectonic and Structural Features assemblage chert and shale above a thrust fault may have
behaved as a “capping” feature in a similar manner.
Both types of deposits occur near paleo-continental margins There are effectively no significant differences in style of
in regionally extensive passive margin sedimentary assemblages tectonic or structural setting between SHV and SHD type
deposited over attenuated continental crust (Stewart, 1980; Teal deposits with the partial exception of overprinted Basin and
and Jackson, 2002). In the Great Basin, SHD deposits lie imme- Range extensional deformation for SHD deposits. It is intriguing
diately east of the buried Precambrian continental margin as that late-stage normal faulting is also present in some of the ter-
inferred by the Sr isotopic data—the 0.706 line. This cratonic ranes that host SHV deposits (e.g. Otago Schist Belt).
86 Paul Klipfel

Figure 4. A). Weathered altered shale chips showing typical khaki and pastel colors of weathered altered shale in SHV deposits. B). Quartz-
carbonate-sulfide veinlets in sericite and carbonate-altered siltstone. C). Silty shale with fine quartz veinlet; sericite and carbonate alteration
envelope. D). Pink albite coats this vein margin fracture surface. E). Siderite/ankerite veining in altered shale weathers to a typical chocolate-
brown color. F). Weathered quartz-carbonate-sulfide veinlets cut altered siltstone. Brow coloration is due to weathering of finely dissemi-
nated pyrite. G). Weathered sericite and carbonate altered shale and siltstone host quartz veining along the axial plane of an anticline.
Headframe in background serviced mining of quartz veining along this anticline; Victorian Goldfields. H). Top of caved stope along crest of
an anticline; Victorian Goldfields.
 Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics 87

Host Rocks enriched in CO2, CH4, and N. Also, the base metal content of
both deposit types is relatively low. Despite these similarities,
Both types of deposits occur in early to mid-Paleozoic sedi- alteration styles are significantly different. SHV deposits show
mentary rocks. However, SHV deposits occur in shale-siltstone widespread carbonate ± pyrite-arsenopyrite alteration and minor
dominant assemblages generally lacking primary carbonate sericite alteration. SHD deposits show widespread decalci-
while SHD deposits of the Great Basin occur in silty dolomitic fication of host rocks, silicification, and argillization.
limestone or calcareous siltstone. When considering that the Both deposit types occur in clusters spread over a region.
underlying passive margin settings for both types of deposits This is believed to indicate that the processes of formation for
are similar, this difference could be attributed to variation in both deposit types originate over broad areas and are therefore
paleogeography, latitude, or relative depth of the sedimentary linked to crustal scale processes rather than specific local events
depositional environment. like intrusions.
The carbon content of host rocks tends to be greatest in Temperature of formation for both types of deposits is rela-
proximity to gold mineralization. This relationship is not under- tively low although temperatures for SHV deposits span a
stood, but in both deposit types, the presence of carbon may larger and hotter range (~160–220°C versus ~250–400°C). This
be a product of precursor or synchronous hydrothermal/hydro- difference is likely a function of depth of formation. It also
carbon events. If hydrocarbon predates gold mineralization, the presents a question: Why would fluids with similar chemistry
spatial association suggests that, at least in some cases, the car- deposit veins at one depth in one case and disseminated miner-
bon may have acted as an agent for precipitation of gold from alization at a shallower depth in a different instance?
hydrothermal fluids. In some cases, it appears as if the carbon Other characteristics that are somewhat different between
was deposited from fluid along with the gold. the two types of deposits include the metal association. The As,
The role of plutonism in the formation of both SHV and Sb and W association are common to both, but the Tl, Ba, Hg,
SHD deposits is a point of controversy. A spatial and broadly ±Ag association at Carlin is not observed in SHV deposits.
temporal association between plutonism and mineralization Likewise, U in some SHV deposits is not observed in SHD
occurs with many, but not all examples of both types of deposits. deposits.
In virtually all cases, the age of plutonism predates or postdates The most significant and important difference between
the age of mineralization by enough time to make a genetic con- SHV and SHD deposits is the absolute and relative timing of
nection between plutonism and mineralization unconvincing or mineralization. Mineralizing processes for all SHV deposits
difficult to demonstrate (Haeberlin, et al., 2004) although there occurred at or shortly after the time of principal deformation. If
have been many attempts to do so. Despite equivocal genetic this was true for SHD deposits, mineralization would have
connections with mineralization, the apparent spatial relationship occurred during the Antler Orogeny in late Devonian-early Mis-
is an indication of crustal processes that generate both magma sissippian time. Instead, Carlin mineralization arguably occurs
and mineralizing hydrothermal fluid. An important distinction in late Eocene time, long after fold-thrust deformation and dur-
between SHV and SHD deposits of the Great Basin is the associ- ing a period of volcanic activity and pre-Basin and Range
ation of the latter with late Eocene volcanism and emplacement extension.
of related dikes (Ressel, et al., 2000). This volcanic association Another significant difference between these deposit types
with mineralization has not been observed with SHV deposits. is the association of prolific placer deposits with SHV and the
Another difference between SHV and SHD deposits is the nearly complete lack of placer deposits around SHD. This is
regional association of stratiform barite in the vicinity of SHD explained by the grain size of the gold contained in each deposit
gold deposits. No similar association has been observed in SHV type. Free gold in quartz veins erodes to produce placer
deposits. This distinction could be a function of paleogeography, deposits whereas micron gold disperses into the environment
latitude, and relative depth of the sedimentary depositional without mechanical re-concentration.
environment.
The settings for SHV deposits show minimal to moderate DISCUSSION
regional metamorphism with higher temperature conditions
localized in the vicinity of the deposit, perhaps due to flow of The common characteristics shared by SHV and SHD
higher temperature fluids at that location. Importantly, SHV deposits are striking and intriguing. Yet, how could such dis-
mineralization is associated with peak to post-peak meta- tinctively different deposits hosted in rocks of similar age and
morphism whereas SHD deposits show no association with setting, but different composition, have in common such a
metamorphism at the current level of exposure. lengthy list of important characteristics (Table 1)?
It is proposed here that the passive margin sedimentary
Mineralization and Alteration sequence overlying extended continental crust and fold-thrust
deformation are key. In addition, it might be important for the
Both SHV and SHD deposits are formed by fluids that extended crust beneath the sediments to be Paleoproterozoic or
have a near neutral pH, low to moderate salinity, and are older, although it is not clear why this might be so. There are two
88 Paul Klipfel

TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT HOSTED VEIN AND SEDIMENT HOSTED DISSEMINATED GOLD DEPOSITS
SHV Carlin
Tectonic and Structural Setting
Passive continental margin for host All SHV deposits Passive continental margin for host All SHD type deposits
rock suite rock suite of the Great Basin
Proximity to continental or cratonic All SHV deposits Above or near inferred continental All SHD type deposits
margin margin as indicated by Sr isotopic data of the Great Basin
Multi-stage deformation; pre-; syn-; All SHV deposits Multi-stage deformation; pre-; syn-; All SHD type deposits
and post-mineralization (e.g. Caledonian, and post mineralization (e.g. Antler, of the Great Basin
Hercynian, local late-stage deformation Laramide, pre-Basin and Range,
events) Basin and Range)
Fold-thrust deformation is most All SHV deposits Fold-thrust deformation features are key All SHD type deposits
significant structural event of the Great Basin
Proximity to observed or inferred All SHV deposits Proximity to thrust features and inferred All SHD type deposits
crustal-scale structure crustal “breaks” (e.g. Carlin trend; of the Great Basin
Eureka-Battle Mountain trend)
Cross- or “transfer”-structures may be All SHV deposits Postulated cross structures may have Various SHD type
key regional localizers of mineralization played a role in localization of deposits of the Great
mineralization (e.g. deep (?) NE cryptic Basin
structures—Carlin trend)
Anticlines or structural highs as traps; All SHV deposits Broad anticlines and duplex structures Most SHD type
limb angles moderate to tight are traps; limb angles are open to deposits of the Great
moderate and may be segmented by Basin
later deformation
A capping unit or feature that can serve Several SHV Western assemblage rocks may act as Several SHD type
as an aquitard may be present deposits an aquitard for some deposits deposits of the Great
Basin
Host Rocks
Late Proterozoic to late Paleozoic age Most SHV deposits Late Proterozoic to late Paleozoic age All SHD type deposits
sedimentary host rocks sedimentary host rocks of the Great Basin
Carbon content is greater at mineralized Common to SHV Carbonaceous content of host rocks Important
site than in surrounding stratigraphy deposits may be key in some deposits characteristic in most
SHD type deposits
of the Great Basin
Monotonous shale-siltstone ± minor All SHV deposits Principal host rocks are silty dolomitic All SHD type deposits
carbonate limestone or calcareous siltstone of the Great Basin
Dominantly siliciclastic sediment; lack Most SHV deposits Significant portion of the host Most SHD type
of volumetrically significant other rock stratigraphic sequence contains deposits of the Great
types in stratigraphic column siliciclastic sediment; other rock types Basin
are common
Associated Rocks
Granitic plutonism approximately Most SHV deposits Volcanic magmatism, and/or All SHD type deposits
contemporaneous with mineralization; granitic plutonism approximately of the Great Basin
no unequivocal genetic connection with contemporaneous with mineralization;
mineralization no unequivocal genetic connection
with mineralization
Evaporates are conspicuously absent in All SHV deposits Stratiform barite common in vicinity of Most SHD type
regional stratigraphic assemblage mineralization deposits of the Great
Basin
 Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics 89

TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT HOSTED VEIN AND SEDIMENT HOSTED DISSEMINATED GOLD DEPOSITS
(continued)
SHV Carlin
Metamorphism
Low to upper greenschist rank; upper All SHV deposits Nil to weak metamorphism All SHD type deposits
GS rank is maximum regional P-T of the Great Basin
condition; local higher grade aureoles
may occur around plutonic rocks
Syn- (?) to delayed temporal association All SHV deposits Not applicable since metamorphism is All SHD style deposits
with peak metamorphism effectively not present of the Great Basin
Mineralization and Alteration
Near neutral, low to moderate salinity, All SHV deposits Near neutral, low to moderate salinity, All SHD type deposits
CO2-rich, CH4, N-bearing fluid elevated CO2, CH4, N-bearing fluid; of the Great Basin
early acidic (?)
Low to very low base metal content Most SHV deposits Low base metal content SHD type deposits of
the Great Basin
Large deposits occur among fields of Most SHV deposits Large deposits occur along belts; Most SHD type
smaller deposits smaller deposits may be present deposits of the Great
Basin
Temperature of formation = 200–400°C All SHV deposits Temperature of formation = 160–350°C All SHD type deposits
of the Great Basin
Carbonate (ankerite-siderite), sericite, All SHV deposits Decarbonatization, silicification, All SHD type deposits
quartz, ± albite, carbon (?), pyrite, argillization, jasperoid formation and of the Great Basin
arsenopyrite alteration assemblage; calcite veining; no tourmaline
tourmaline may be important alteration
mineral
As, Sb, W, U association; Bi, Te trace Most SHV deposits As, Sb, W, Hg association; Tl, Ba, Te, Most SHD type
element association ±Ag trace element association deposits of the Great
Basin
Native gold, free milling Most SHV deposits Very fine gold Most SHD type
deposits of the Great
Basin
Mineralizing event during and after main All SHV deposits Mineralizing event not during main All SHD type deposits
deformation event in Mid to late Paleozoic deformation event; it occurs significantly of the Great Basin
or other equivalent deformation time later during extension deformation and
synchronous volcanism
Associated with prolific placer fields Most SHV deposits Minor to no placer association Most SHD type
(climate and terrain deposits of the Great
dependant) Basin

Characteristics in common
Characteristics with slight differences
Characteristics with significant differences
90 Paul Klipfel

key aspects to a passive margin setting that seem to be impor- nental passive margin assemblages that have not undergone
tant. First is the role of the extended basement and second is the fold-thrust deformation host no SHV or SHD type deposits. To
manner in which fold-thrust crustal shortening occurs. the writer’s knowledge, this is true.
A passive margin sedimentary sequence rests on unstable, If the assertions made above are correct, then passive mar-
extended, broken continental crust (Figure 2a) that is analogous gin settings near paleocontinental margins that have undergone
to piano keys beneath sedimentary rocks. As passive margin fold thrust deformation ought to be prospective for either SHV
sediments are deposited and the unstable basement is loaded, or SHD Carlin-type deposits. The occurrence of one type or the
normal faults in the basement propagate upward to form syn- other might depend on whether carbonate was present. One test
depositional normal faults in the newly depositing sediment of this hypothesis is to compare the common characteristics of
(Figure 2b). These faults are apparent in SHD deposits as both SHV and SHD deposits to another area with mineraliza-
growth faults that now juxtapose different but related litho- tion already believed to be similar to Carlin type deposits—
facies. These faults ultimately play a critical role in localizing southern China.
mineralizing fluid paths and mineral deposition. Carlin-like gold deposits of southern China are hosted by
Fold-thrust shortening of attenuated crust and passive mar- Cambrian through Triassic carbonaceous shale and carbonate
gin sediments produces a chain of events also critical to both sedimentary rocks deposited on the extended margin of the
types of deposits, although the outcome is different for SHV Proterozoic Yangtze craton. Multiple deformation events have
and SHD deposits. Deformation produces crustal thickening, occurred including fold-thrust and extensional deformation.
which in turn creates isostatic instability. Lower crust and pos- Mineralization consists of sub-micron sized gold and micron-
sibly the underlying mantle are depressed (Figure 2c). As mate- sized arsenian pyrite. Gold mineralization is associated with
rial is pushed deeper into the earth, it heats in an effort to reach other deposits containing Hg, Sb, As, U, and Tl (Rui-Shong,
a temperature appropriate for that depth along the geothermal et al., 2002; Zhou, et al., 2002). These elements seem to be con-
gradient. If a given parcel of crust crosses a melting curve while sistent with a model that builds on the passive margin setting
following a path to thermal equilibrium, melts will be produced and fold thrust deformation for the generation of mineralizing
(Figure 2e). Rocks displaced by isostatic depression are also fluids as described above.
likely to produce fluid through dehydration reactions in accor-
dance with the concepts of orogenic deposits (Groves et al., SUMMARY
1998; Goldfarb, et al., 2001). Thus, crustal shortening and
thickening may produce both hydrothermal fluids and magma. SHV and SHD gold deposits have numerous characteris-
Mineralizing fluids will likely traverse upward through the tics in common. Perhaps most important is a passive margin
crust more rapidly than magma. This means that if fluid and tectonic setting and fold-thrust deformation. An array of struc-
magma are produced at the same time, mineralization ought to tural features is produced in this type of setting when it under-
occur at an earlier age than the pluton. This is consistent with goes fold-thrust deformation. In the lower crust, attenuated and
the observation that many plutons post-date mineralization. broken continental material provides pathways for fluid and/or
Regardless of timing, the mutual but independent formation of magma to reach mid crustal levels. Above this, faults propa-
magma and hydrothermal fluids allows for independent timing gated from the lower crust upward through the sediment pro-
and travel through the crust for each. Or alternatively, they may vide continued pathways. Anticlines or lithologic caps provide
interact to form a mixed crustal and magmatic-sourced fluid. the final traps for mineralizing fluids.
This conceptualization explains well the relationships The timing of this process depends upon when lower
observed for SHV deposits. However, if it were true for SHD crustal material is heated sufficiently to produce mineralizing
deposits of the Great Basin, we ought to see Mississipian gra- hydrothermal fluids and/or magma. For most SHV deposits,
nitic plutons and Carlin deposits of Paleozoic age. Neither is this occurred during and through the waning stages of the main
true. In an effort to resolve this significant difference, the fol- fold-thrust deformation event in the mid to late Paleozoic. Gold
lowing hypothesis is suggested. It is proposed here that Antler- deposits formed when the crust was shortened and thickened
stage crustal thickening occurred, but the thrust-style sufficiently by this event to depress lower crust into deeper
deformation produced inadequate crustal thickening and iso- regions where P-T conditions were suitable for creating fluids
static depression to produce magmas and mineralizing fluids at and melts.
that time. However, in Eocene time, this terrane had a second The Antler thrust deformation of the Great Basin does not
chance when somewhat thickened crust underwent extension and appear to have achieved this level of crustal thickening and con-
heating of the lower crust to produce the same phenomena— sequently failed to produce mineralizing fluids and magma at
magma and hydrothermal fluids—but at a later time and by Antler time. However, Eocene extension, producing heating of
slightly different mechanisms. Importantly, the same structural the lower crust, enabled formation of hydrothermal fluids and
elements that might have played a role in the Paleozoic but magma. This heating is believed to be the result of hot mantle
never had a chance then, served as the plumbing system for material coming in contact with the lower crust as the shallowly
Eocene fluids. A corollary to these observations is that conti- subducting Farallon Plate peeled away beneath the Great Basin
 Carlin and Sediment Hosted Vein Deposits—An Intriguing Case of Common Characteristics 91

exposing the lower crust to hotter mantle. Haeberlin, Y., Moritz, R., Fontbote, L., and Cosca, M., 2004, Carboniferous
The exploration implications are clear. To find SHV or orogenic gold deposits at Pataz, eastern Andean Cordillera, Peru: geo-
logical and structural framework, paragenesis, alteration and 40Ar/39Ar
SHD deposits, one must look first in passive margin sedimen-
geochronology, Economic Geology, v. 99, no.1, p. 73–112.
tary sequences. Secondly, the passive margin assemblage must Li, Z., and Peters, S.G., 1998, Comparative geology and geochemistry of sedi-
have undergone fold thrust deformation. Then a judgment call mentary rock-hosted (Carlin type) gold deposits in the People’s Repub-
needs to be made with respect to the degree of crustal thicken- lic of China and in Nevada, USA. U.S. Geological Survey Open File
ing that was imposed. Inadequate thickening results in no min- Report, 98-466.
Miller, E.L., Miller, M.M., Stevens, C.H., Wright,J.E., and Madrid, R., 1992,
eralization and no plutonism at that time. If another event is
Late Paleozoic paleogeographic and tectonic evolution of the Western
superposed on the terrane that could have provided adequate U.S. Cordillera, The Cordilleran Orogen: Conterminous U.W., The
P-T conditions for melting and formation of hydrothermal fluids, Geology of North America, v. G3, p.57–106.
then gold deposits might be present. Presnell, R., 1990, An anticline trapping model for Carlin-type disseminated
This working hypothesis explains the characteristics that gold deposits, in Gold ’90, Proceedings of the Gold ’90 Symposium,
Salt Lake City, Utah, p.21–23.
SHV and SHD type deposits have in common while addressing
Ressel, M.W., Noble, H.C.D., Trudel, W.S., 2000, Dike-hosted ores of the Beast
the distinctive difference in relative and absolute timing of deposit and the importance of Eocene magmatism in gold mineralization
deposit formation with respect to host rock and deformation of the Carlin Trend, Nevada, Economic Geology, v. 95, #7, p. 1417–1444.
age. The concepts presented here will be tested during the Rui-Zhong, H., Wen-Chao, S., Xian-W, B., Guang-Zhi, T., Hofstra, A.H., 2002,
search for other SHV and SHD type deposits and the hypothesis Geology and geochemistry of Carlin-type gold deposits in China, Min-
eralium Deposita, v. 37, p. 378–392.
adjusted accordingly.
Snyder, W., 2000, Collapsed borderland model for the Antler Orogeny, Geologi-
cal Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Annual Meeting, v. 32,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS no. 7, p.382.
Stewart, J.H., 1980, Geology of Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology
Placer Dome is to be acknowledged for initially undertak- Special Publication 4, 136 pp.
Teal, L., and Jackson, M., 2002, Geologic overview of the Carlin trend gold
ing this work and is thanked for allowing the information to be
deposits, in Gold Deposits of the Carlin Trend, ed. T. Thompson,
used in this publication. Gratitude is expressed to Dan McCoy, L. Teal, R. Meeuwig, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin
John Muntean, and two anonymous reviewers for their com- 111, p. 9–19.
ments, which have helped improve this paper. Thompson, T.B., Teal, L., Meeuwig, R.O., 2002, Gold Deposits of the Carlin
Trend, Nevada Bureau of Mines and geology Bulletin 111, 204 p.
Turner, S.J., Flindell, P. A; Hendri, D; Hardjana, I.; Lauricella, P. F.; Lindsay, R.
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