Chapter one

1. Direct Current Circuits:

Electric current in any conductor is due to the movement of electrons. Each electron
has a charge and the electric current is the rate of flow of this charges q then:

dq
i
dt

1.1. Direct Current

In our study of electrical circuits, we mainly deal with two kinds of currents:
i) Direct current
ii) Alternating current

A direct current is a unidirectional current whereas an alternating current alternates in

direction. In the case of alternating current the current also may change from instant
to instant. As shown in the figure (1.1).

Alternating Current

1.5

i (A)

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5
T1 2 2.5 3 T2 3.5 4

time (s)

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Fig (1.1) Alternating current

The current is in one direction say positive for 0 to T1 and of opposite direction say
negative for T1 to T2 second.
This means that the current has changed direction during the period of T2 sec.

1
 The direct current is unidirectional. This may be of constant magnitude as in
Fig.(1.2.a)or there may be slight variation in the instantaneous value in the current as
shown in Fig. (1.2.b)

I I

time time
(a) (b)
Fig. (1.2) Direct Current

a) Direct current with b)Direct current with

constant magnitude, slight variation in
it can be obtained by the magnitude,
direct current batteries it can be obtained by
DC Generators

The current unit is Ampere [A] (André Marie Ampere a French physicist 1775-1836)

1.2. Ohm's Law (George Simon Ohm German Mathematician 1787-1854)

Ohm's Law is the most fundamental in the field of electrical engineering.

Experimentally, Ohm found that the electric current in any given conductor is
proportional to the voltage (potential difference) applied across the conductor
so Ohm's Law can be stated as:" the electric current in a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across the conductor."

That means,

I α V ; I = G ·V,

Where G is the constant of the proportionality and is called conductance of the

element. The conductance of an element suggests its ability to conduct electric
current. The above equation can be written as:

V=R·I

Where R= 1/G is the resistance of the element.

Resistance of an element suggests its ability to resist the flow of current.
The unit of resistance is ohm [Ω].

2
From the previous we can get the following:

The current I = V/R [A]

The voltage V=I·R [V]

The resistance R = V/I [Ω]

Abbreviations:

T Tera 1012
G Giga 109
M Mega 106
K Kilo 103
d Deci 10-1
c centi 10-2
m mili 10-3
μ micro 10-6
n nano 10-9
p Pico 10-12

If we keep the same resistance R in the circuit but vary the voltage, the current will
be varying see Fig. (1.3).
I
12 V

10 V
Bulb
8V
6V
4V
R = constant
2V

Fig. (1.3)
R=3 Ω
I = [6V/3Ω] = 2 A

Example 1.1:
A heater with a resistance of 8 Ω is connected across 120V.How much is the current
I?
Solution:

I = V/R = 120/8=15 A

3
Example 1.2:

Less I with more R

A small light bulb with a resistance of 2400 Ω is connected across the same voltage
120 V. calculate the current?

I = V/R = 120/2400=0.05 A

1.3 Resistance and resistivity of a conductor

The resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors:

1) the material of the conductor

2) the length of the conductor (directly)
3) the cross-sectional area of the conductor (inversely)
4) the temperature
 
Rα a)
a A
or

Rρ b) 
a A
Fig. (1.4)
a) Conductor with smaller ℓ larger a  low R
b) Conductor with larger ℓ smaller a  greater R

Where ρ is the constant of the proportional and called resistivity of the material
- from the above equation we can get the unit of the resistivity so:
R  a Ω  m2
ρ   Ωm
 m

Resistivity of some material

Aluminum 2.8 x 10-8 Ωm

Copper 1.72 x10-8 Ωm
Iron 9.8 10-8 Ωm
Nickel 7.8 10-8 Ωm

4
Example 1.3:
The resistance of a conductor 1mm2 cross-section and 20 m long is 0.364 Ω. Determine
the resistivity of the conducting material.

Solution:
Given:
a =1mm2 =1x 10-6 m2;  = 20 m; R=0.346 Ω ρ =?
Now

 R  a 10  6  0.346
Rρ  ρ   1.7310 8 Ω m
a  20
Which type of material is it????

1.4 Resistances in series connection

If the resistances R1, R2, R3, etc... are connected in series as shown in Fig.(1.5), the total
resistance RT or the equivalent resistance Req. is given by:
R1 R2 R3
RT =R1+R2+R3+ ---
Where RT is equal to the sum of all series resistances V1 V2 V3

V=V1+V2+V3 I RT I

V=IR1+IR2+IR3 V
Fig. (1.5)
-As seen from above, the main characteristics of
series circuits are:

i) same current flow through all parts of the circuit

ii) different resisters have their individual voltage drops,
iii) Voltage drops are additive V= V1+V2+V3+…
iv) applied voltage equals the sum of the different voltage drops
v) resistances are additive RT =R1+R2+R3+ --

I
I
=
R1=2Ω
R1=2Ω V=10 v
V=10 v
R2 =3Ω

Fig. (1.6 a) Fig. (1.6 b)

Example (1.4): find the current flow in the circuits shown in fig. (1.6 a & b)
5
Example (1.5):
Three resistances of ohmic value 5, 8 and 12 ohms are connected in series as shown in
fig. (1.5). A voltage of 100 V is applied across the series combination.
Determine the current and the voltage drops across each resistance.
V 100 100
I    4A
R 5  8  12  25
T

V  I  R  4  5  20 V
1 1
V  I  R2  4  8  32V
2
V  I  R  4  12  48 V OR V  V  (V  V )  100  52  48 V
3 3 3 1 2

1.5 Resistances in Parallel connection

Three resistances, as joined in Fig.(1.7) are said to be in parallel .

In this case:
i) p.d. across all resistances is the same
ii) current in each resistance is different and given by ohm's law and
iii) the total current is the sum of the three separate currents I1 R1

V V V
II  I  I    I2 R2
1 2 3 R1 R2 R3
V I3 R3 I
now I  where V is the applied voltage and R I
R T
is the total resistanceof the parallel combinatio n
Fig.1.7
V V V V 1 1 1 1 V
    or   
R R R R R R R R
1 2 3 1 2 3
also G  G  G  G
1 2 3

The main characteristic of a parallel circuits are:

i) Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit
ii) Different resistances have their individual currents
iii) Branch currents are additive
iv) Equivalent resistance RT is less than any branch resistance

6
 - When three resistances are connected in parallel (as shown in Fig. 1.7) the total
resistance will be:

1 1 1 1 1 R R R R R R
     1 2 2 3 3 1
R R R R R R R R
T 1 2 3 T 1 2 3
R R R
R  1 2 3
T R R R R R R
1 2 2 3 3 1

- for 4 resistances in parallel:

R R R R
- RT  1 2 3 4
R R R R R R R R R R R R
1 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 1 4 1 2

- special case of two branches:

For two resistances are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. (1.8), the equivalent
resistance will be: R1=60 Ω
1 1 1
  I1
R R R
1 2
1 R1  R 2 I2

R R R I R2 = 30 Ω I
1 2
R R
R 1 2
R R Fig.1.8
V
1 2
Also their product divided by their sum (if they are not equal).

Example 1.6:
If R1 = 60Ω and R2 = 30 Ω find the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit as shown
in Fig. (1.8)?

 60 30  20 Ω
R1R 2
R
R1  R 2 90

- special case of equal resistances in the parallel connection:

If R is equal in all branches the equivalent resistance equals the value of one branch
divided by the number of the branches
value of one resistance
it means: R 
T number of resistances

7
Example 1.7:
Find the equivalent resistance I
In Fig (1.9)
60  60  60 R1 = 60Ω R2 = 60Ω R3 = 60Ω
R 
T 60  60  60  60  60  60

Fig 1.9.
216000 216000
   20 Ω (1.8)
3600  3600  3600 10800
or
value of one resistance 60
R    20 Ω
T number of resistances 3

1.6 series and parallel circuit

In fig. (1.10) R1 in series with R2, R3 is in parallel with R4 .However R2 is not in series
with R3 and R4.
R1 R2 A
The reason is the branch point A where the current
through R2 divides for R3 and R4 0.5 kΩ 0.5 kΩ
As a result, the current through R3 must be less than 1 kΩ
1 kΩ R3 R4
the current through R2; therefore R2 and R3 V=1.5V
cannot be in series they do not have the same current.
For the same reason, R4 also can not be in series with R1. Fig. (1.10)
To find the RT we add the series resistances and combine the parallel resistances
see Fig. (1.11).
Also:
R  R1  R2  0.5 kΩ  0.5 kΩ  1KΩ R1, 2
1, 2

1 kΩ
R 
 0.5 kΩ 1 kΩ
3,4 2
V=1.5V R3, 4
R  1 kΩ  0.5 kΩ  1.5 kΩ 0.5 kΩ
T
VT 1.5 V
I    1m A Fig. (1.11)
T RT 1.5 kΩ

8
Exercises
1) Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in fig. (1.12)? (Ans.50 Ω)

R1=15 Ω R2=4 Ω

R5=10 Ω R4=12 Ω R3=12 Ω

R6=30 Ω
Fig. (1.12)

2) The current in the 6 Ω resistance of the network shown in Fig.(1.13) is 2 A

Determine:
1) The currents in all the resistances,
2) The voltage across the network.

R2= 6 Ω
R1 = 4 Ω
2A

I1 R3= 3 Ω

Fig. (1.13) V

(Ans. RT. =6 Ω) I3 = 4A, I1 = I2+I3 = 6A, V2 = 6 x 2 =12 V= V3, V1= 6x4=24 V,

V=12+24=36 V

3) Determine the equivalent resistance between the points A and B of Fig. (1.14)?
(Ans.2. 88Ω)
R3= 12 Ω
R1= 6 Ω R4= 12 Ω
A R5= 12 Ω B

R2= 8 Ω R6= 4 Ω

R7= 5 Ω
Fig.(1.14)

9
1.7 Electric Power

When a voltage source of V volts drives a current of I amp through a resistance of ohms,
the power supplied by the voltage source is equals the product of amperes times volt.

- Power in watts = volts x amperes

- P = V x I Watts [W]

The power formula can be used in three ways:

- P = V x I [W]
- I = P/ V [A]
- V = P/I [V]

Which formula to used depends on whether you want to calculate P, I or V

Example (1)
A toaster takes 10A from the 120V power line. How much power is used?

P = V x I =120 x 10 = 1200 W

Example (2)
How much current flows in a 60-W bulb connected to 120V power line?

I = P/ V = 60/ 120 = 0.5 A

- relationship between watt and horsepower

1 hp = 746 watt or 0.746 kW

1.7.1 Power dissipation in resistance

The power generated by the source of applied voltage and consumed or dissipated in
the resistance in form of heat.
This can be written in the following form:

P= V x I put instead V ---I x R we get P = I R x I = I2 R

From the above equation we see that the power dissipated in the resistance in form of
heat is directly proportional to the square of the current

For another form substitute V/R for I we get

P= V x I = V x V/R = V2 / R
Also it can be stated that the power received by a resistance is proportional to the
square of the voltage across it

11
- summary

The power formulas can be written as follows:

P= V x I P= I2 R P = V2/R
Or I=P/V Or R=P/ I2 Or R = V2/P
Or V=P/I Or V = P R
Or I= P
R

Example (1)

Calculate the electric power (in different form) in the circuit shown in fig. (1.15)

I=2 A
Example (2)
How much current is needed for a 24 Ω resistance that
dissipated 600 W? R=6 Ω
V=12V
600
I= P =  25  5 A
R 24 Fig. (1.15)

1.8. voltage and Current Division law

1.8.1 Voltage Division law

- Any series circuit is a voltage divider.

- The IR voltage drops are proportional parts of the applied voltage.
- The voltage division formula gives the series voltages even when the current is
unknown.
As shown is fig (1.16) we get;
R1 R2
V1+V2=V=I (R1+R2)
Therefore:
V1 R 1 V1 V2

V2 R 2
I
V1 R 1

V R1 R 2 V
Fig. (1.16)
V2 R2

V R1 R 2

11
Example (1)

Three 50 K Ω resistances R1, R2 and R3 are in series as shown in Fig.(1.17) A voltage of

180 V is applied across this series combination. How much is the IR voltage drop across
each resistance?
Solution:

From the voltage division law we get R1 = 50 KΩ R2 = 50 KΩ ─

VOC

V1/V=R1/ (R1+R2+R3) VE V3
V1
I 2

R R
 R1  50 1 2
V1 =   V   180  60 V I
ER
 R1  R 2  R3  150  VOC  I  R V  2
V2=V3=60 V 2 =180 V
R R
Fig. (1.17) 1 2
Example (2)

Calculate V1 in the given circuits by using the voltage division law.

R2=30 Ω
R1 =20 Ω R2 =50 Ω R1= 20 Ω
R3=60 Ω
V1 V2 V1
I V2
I

V = 70 V Fig. (1.18-b) V= 8 V
Fig. (1.18-a)
(Ans.20V). (Ans.4V).

1.8.2 Current Division law

The currents in the various parallel branches are inversely proportional to the
resistances.
In Fig. (1.19) two resistances R1 and R2 are joined in parallel across a voltage V. The
current in each branch, as given by ohm's law is R1 I1

I1=V/R1 and I2=V/R2 I

I2 R2
1
I
I R
1 1
I  1 But I = I1+ I2 and I2=I ─ I1 Fig. (1.19)
2 V
R
2
12
  
I R
 1  2  I R  R I  I  I R  I (R  R )
II R 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
1 1

I R R G
 1 2  I I  2 or I  I  1
I R R 1 R R 1 G G
1 2 1 2 1 2
similarly :

I R R G
2 1 I  I  1 or I  I  2
I R R 2 R R 2 G G
1 2 1 2 1 2
For two resistances in parallel, the ratio of the current in one branch to the total current
is equal to the ratio of the other resistance to the sum of the two resistances.

Example (1)
I1 R1=6Ω
Find I1 in the given circuit by using the current division law I=6A
(Ans.2A). R2=3 Ω
I2

I V2

Fig. (1.19) V
- For three resistances in parallel as shown in Fig.(1.20) we get by using current division
law:

I1 R 2R 3

I R1R 2  R 2 R 3  R 3R1 I 1 R1
similarly
I 2 R2
I2 R1R 3

I R1R 2  R 2 R 3  R 3R1 I I 3 R3 I

and
I3 R1R 2 Fig.1.20
V

I R1R 2  R 2 R 3  R 3R1

13
Example (2)
The current in the 10-Ω resistance of the circuit shown in Fig.(1.20) is 10A. Find the
current in the 5-Ω resistance by using the current division law. Calculate also the
power dissipated by the 5Ω resistance.(Ans. I1= 7.5 A, P = 281.25 W)

R2=5
I1
I=10 A R1=10 R3=30
I2 R =30
4

I I3 I

Fig.1.20
V

2. Network Theorems

Many types of electric circuits have components that are not in series not in parallel
or nor in series-parallel .for example a circuit may have more than one voltage
source, where the rules of series and parallel circuit can not be applied , and more
general methods of analysis become necessary. These methods include the
application of Kirchhoff's laws

2.1. Kirchhoff's laws (after Gustave Robert Kirchhoff – German Physicist)

2.1.1. First Kirchhoff's law (Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL))

It states "the algebraic sum of the currents flowing towards any node of the circuit is
equal to the algebraic sum of the currents flowing away from that node"

Σ I in. = Σ I out

2.1.1.1. Algebraic Signs

A convenient system for current is:
Consider all currents into a branch node as positive and all currents directed away
from that node as negative.

Thus at node A in fig (2.1), sum of currents flowing towards A = sum of currents
flowing away from A.
Also

I1 + I2 ─ I3 ─ I4 = 0
or
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
. I 4

.
.I 3
A
.I1

.I2

Fig. (2.1)
14
 Currents I1 and I2 are positive terms because they flow into node A,
currents I3 and I4 are negative terms because they flow away from node A.

2.1.2. Second Kirchhoff's Law (Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL))

It states "in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the products of current and
resistance in each part of the circuit is equal to the resultant e.m.f. in the circuit."
In other words ∑ I R = ∑ e.m.f.

2.1.2.1. Determination of Voltage Sign

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention should be

paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs.; otherwise results will come
out to be wrong. Following sign conventions is suggested:

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a −ve sign.
Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the −ve terminal of a battery to
it's +ve terminal (Fig. 2.2), there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be
given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to −ve terminal,
then there is a fall in potential; hence this voltage should be preceded by a ─ve sign.
It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m.f. is independent of the
direction of the current through that branch.
Current Current
E E
B V V
A B A A + ─ B A ─ + B
Fall in Rise in
Rise in Fall in Voltage Voltage
Voltage Voltage ─V= ─IR +V= + IR
+E -E
Fig. (2.2)

(b) Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resister (Fig. 2.2). If we go through a resister in the same
direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a
higher to a lower potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve. However,
if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise in voltage.
Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.

15
 Node
(a) (b) (c)
Loop + V5 ─
R1 R2 R5
I1 I2 + +
R3 R6 R7 I3 V6 V7
V
R4
Kirchoff's analysis for
the above mesh (a) is

─
given in (b) & (c)

Branch

Sum currents IN Sum Voltages (counterclockwise direction):

Kirchoff's analysis for I1 +I2 + I3 = 0 Amps V5 ─V6 + V7 = 0 volts
the above mesh (a) is Sum currents OUT Sum Voltages (clockwise direction):
given in (b) & (c) ─I1 ─I2 ─ I3 = 0 Amps ─V5 ─V7 +V6 = 0 volts
Kirchoff's Current Law Kirchoff's Voltage Law

2.3. The method to calculate the voltage and current in any electric circuit

There are several methods to analyses and determine the voltage drops, branch
currents and electro motive force e.m.f. in the electric circuits; we will be here study
only two of them namely:

1) Branch Current Method

2) Maxwell's Loop current Method

2.3.1. Branch Current Method

Example:

For the electrical network shown in fig. (2.3) determine the branch currents and the
voltage drops.

- First indicate current direction and mark the voltage polarity across each
resistance
- Remember that current in a resistance produces positive polarity where the
current enters
- In fig(2.3) E1 produces current from left to right through R1 it is I1
- E2 produces current from right to left R1=12 Ω C R2=3 Ω
through R2 it is I2 A E
- From KCL we get:
I1 I2
I3 = I1 + I2
- Also three unknowns would I3
E1=84V R3=6 Ω E2=21V
Required three equations for the
Solution, the other two equations
B D F
16
Fig. (2.3)
 Are obtained by writing two Kirchoff's
voltage law around two loops.

Loop (1):
Start at point B and go clockwise through E1, VR1and
VR3 the equation for this loop is:

E1  VR1  VR3  0

84  V  V 0
R1 R3

Loop (2):
Start at point F and go counterclockwise through E2, VR2and
VR3 the equation for this loop is:

E V  V  0
2 R2 R3
21 V  V  0
R2 R3

Using the known values of the resistances R1, R2 and R3 to specify the IR voltage
drops

VR1  I1 R1  I1 12  12 I1
VR2  I 2 R 2  I 2 3  3 I1
VR3  (I1  I 2 ) R 3  6  (I1  I 2 )
Substituting these values in the voltage equation of loop (1) we get:
84  12 I  6  (I  I )  0
1 1 2
Also in the loop (2)

21  3 I  6  (I  I )  0
2 1 2

Multiply (I1+I2) by 6 and combining and transposing the equations

18 I  6I  84
1 2
6 I  9I  21
1 2
Solving for the currents

Divided the top equation by 2, and the bottom equation by 3 the two equations
become:

17
9I  3I  42    (1)
1 2
2I  3I  7    (2)
1 2
Subtract (2) from (1) we get:
9 I  3I  42
1 2
 2 I  3I  7
1 2

7 I  0  35
1
35
I   5A
1 7
The 5-A I1 is the current through R1.
Its direction is from a to e, as assumed, because we get a positive value for I1, to
calculate I2, substitute 5 for I1 in equation (2) we get

2 5  3I 7
2
3I  7 10  3
2
I   3  1A
2 3
The negative sign for I2 means this current opposite to assumed direction.
Therefore, I2 flows through R2 from c to e instead of from e to c

Why the solution for I2 in negative?

In Fig (2.3) I2 was assumed to flow from point e to c through R2 because E2 produces I
in this direction. However, the other voltage source E1 produces current through R2 in
the opposite direction from c to e. this result of – 1 A for I2 shows that the current
produced by E1 is more than the current produced by E2 .the net result is 1 A through R2
from e to c. the actual direction of I2 is shown in Fig (2.4) with all the values for the
solution of this circuit.
Notice that the polarity of VR2 is reversed from the assumed polarity in Fig.(2.3),since
the net current (resultant current)through R2 is actually from c to e, however the polarity
of E2 is the same in both figures because it is a voltage source , which generates its own
polarity.
R1=12 Ω R2=3 Ω
VR1=60 V VR2= 3V
To calculate I3 through R3 C E
A
From fig.(2.4) and by using
KCL we get I1=5A I2=1 A
I3 = I1 ─ I2 =5 + (-1) = 4 A I3
The 4A current or I3 is in the direction asE1=84V R3=6 Ω E2=21V
assumed. VR3=24V

B D F
18
Fig. (2.4)
 Calculation of the voltage drops in the given circuit:

VR1=I1 X R1= 5 X 12 = 60 V

VR2=I2 X R2= 1 X 3 = 3 V

VR3=I3 X R3= 4 X 6 = 24 V

2.3.2. Maxwell's Loop Current Method

Basically, this method consists of writing mesh or loop voltage equations by Kirchhoff's
voltage law in terms of unknown loops (or mesh) current.

Find the branch currents and the voltage drops across each resistance
in the circuit of Fig (2.5) by using Loop Current Method. ( Resistance values are all in
ohm)
- Loop ABFA:
R1=6 5 V R3=2 R5=4
C D
6I  3(I  I )  6  0 A B
1 1 2
9I  3I  6 :3 6V I1 R2=3 I2 R4=4 I3 10 V
1 2
3I  I  2   (1)
1 2 F Fig. (2.5) E

- Loop BCEFB:
 5  2I  4(I  I )  3(I  I )  0
2 2 3 2 1
 3I  9I  4I  5  (2)
1 2 3 A R =6 1 B R3=2 C R5=4 D

+
+

- Loop CDEC: +
I1 R2=3 I2 I3 +
10 V
6V R4=4 ─

4I  10  4(I  I )  0
3 3 2 F +
5V
─ E

8I  10  4I  0 Fig. (2.6)
3 2
 4I  8I  10 : 2
2 3
 2I  4I  5                (3)
2 3

19
The matrix form of the three equations is:

 3  1 0   i1   2 
 3 9  4  i    5  ,
   2  
 0  2 4  i   5
 3
 3 1 0 
 
  3 9  4  3(9  4)  (4  2)   1 3  4    4  0   0
 0 2 4 
 
 336  8   12   84  12  72
 2 1 0 
Δ  5 9  4  29  4    4  2    15  4    4  5  0
1  
 5  2 4 
Δ  236  8  20  20   2  28  56
1

Δ  56
1

3 2 0 
Δ   3 5  4  35  4    4  5  2 3  4   24
2  
 0  5 4 
Δ  24
2
 3 1 2 
Δ   3 9 5   39  5  5  2    1 3  5  0   2 2  3  0
3  
 0  2  5
Δ  3 35  15  26   105  15  12  78
3
Δ  78
3
Δ 56 7
I  1  A  0.78A
1 Δ 72 8
Δ 24 1
I  2  A  0.33A
2 Δ 72 3
Δ  78  13
I  3  A  1.083A
3 Δ 72 12

21
The mesh currents are:

I1=0.78 A
I2=0.33 A
I3= – 1.083 A

The branch currents are as shown in Fig. (2.6):

IR1 = I1= 0.78 A

IR2 = I1─I2 =0.78 ─ 0.33=0.45 A
IR3 = I2 = 0.33 A
IR4 = I2 – I3 =0.33 – (– 1.083) = 1.413 A
IR5 = I3= – 1.083 A
It means we have to change the direction of Loop CDEC as shown in Fig. (2.6)

R1=6 5V R3=2 C R5=4

A B D

6V I1 R2=3 I2 R4=4 I3 10 V

F Fig. (2.6) E

21
2.4. Delta-Star and Star-Delta transformation

Fig. (2.7-a) shows three resistances R1, R2and R3 connected in a closed mesh or Delta to
three terminals A, B and C. it is possible to replace these delta-connected resistances by
three resistances Ra, Rb and RC connected respectively between the same terminals
A, B and C, and S is a common point as shown in Fig. (2.7-b).
A
A

Ra
R2 R3
Ω Rc Rb
S
R1 B
C B C (b)
Fig. (2.7)
(a)
Such arrangement is said to be Star – Connected

2.4.1. Delta-Star transformation

R (R R ) R R R R
From Fig.(2.7  a) R  3 1 2  1 3 2 3          (1)
AB
R R R R R R
1 2 3 1 2 3
From Fig.(2.7  b) R  R  R                       (2)
AB a b
from (1) and (2) we have

R R R R
R  R  R  1 3 2 3             (3)
AB a b
R R R
1 2 3
similary

R R R R
R  R  R  1 2 1 3             (4)
BC b c
R R R
1 2 3
and

R R R R
R  R  R  1 2 2 3             (5)
AC a c
R R R
1 2 3
22
subtracting (4) from (3) we get
R R R R
Ra Rc  2 3 1 2             (6)
R R R
1 2 3
adding (5) from (6) we get
2R R
2R a  2 3
R R R
1 2 3
R R
Ra  2 3                 (7)
R R R
1 2 3
R R
Similarly R  1 3            (8)
b
R R R
1 2 3
R R
Rc  1 2            (9)
R R R
1 2 3

2.4.2. Star - Delta transformation

Dividing (7) by (8) we get

Ra R2

R b R1
R R
R 2  a 1
Rb
similarly
Dividing(7 ) by (9) weget
Ra R3

R c R1
R R
R 3  a 1
Rc

23
substituting for R 2 and R 3 in (7), we have
R1R a R1R a

Rb Rc
Ra 
R R R R
R1  1 a  1 a
Rb Rc

2 2
R1 R a
R bR c
Ra 
R1R b R c  R1R a R c  R1R a R b
R bR c
1
 2 2 
 
R 1 aR R1R a
Ra   

 R1R b R c  R1R a R c  R1R a R b 
1
 
R1R a
R1R a
Ra 
R bR c
Rc  Rb
Ra
R R 
 b c
R1R a  R a   R c  R b 
 R 
 a 

R R
 R1  R b  R c  b c                            (10)
Ra
Similarly
R R
R2  Rc  Ra  c a                            (11)
Rb
R R
R3  Ra  R b  a b                            (12)
Rc

24
Example
Three resistances 50Ω, 100 Ω and 150 Ω are star connected as shown in Fig. (2.8-a).
Calculate the resistances of equivalent delta connected.

R R
 R1  R b  R c  b c A
Ra
R1  100 150  100 150  550 Ω
50 Ra=50 Ω

R 2  150  50  150  50  275 Ω

Rc=150 Ω
S Rb=100 Ω
100
C B
R 3  50 100  50 100  183,3 Ω (2.8-a)
150
A

R2= 275 Ω R3=183,3 Ω

Ω

R1= 550 Ω B
C
2.8-b

25
Example

In the bridge circuit in Fig (2.9-a) determine the total current IT.

Solution:
IT R2=4Ω R3=6Ω
In the given circuit the three resistances
R1, R2 and R3 are delta connected;
we can transform them in star as shown R1=2Ω
in Fig. (2.9-b) then: 30 V

R5=6Ω R4=3Ω

R 2R 3 4 6 24
Ra    2Ω
R1  R 2  R 3 2  6  4 12 Fig. (2.9-a)

R1R 3 2 6 12
Rb    1Ω IT R2=4Ω Ra R3=6Ω
R1  R 2  R 3 2  3  6 12 Rc Rb

R1R 2 2 4 8
Rc     0.6 Ω R1=2Ω
R1  R 2  R 3 2  3  6 12 30 V
R5= 6Ω R4=3Ω

The resultant network is as shown in Fig. (2.9-c)

Fig. (2.9-b)

R T  R a  R b  R 4  // R c  R 5 
IT Ra= 2 Ω
4 6.6 26.4
RT  2  2  2  2.5  4.5 Ω
10.6 10.6
30 V Rc= 0.6 Ω Rb=1Ω
E 30
 IT    6.6 A
R T 4.5
R5=6Ω R4=3Ω

Fig (2.9-c)

26
2.5. The superposition theorem
2.5.1 The statement of this theorem

The superposition theorem can be stated as:

"In a linear network containing more than one source of e.m.f., the resultant current in
any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would be produced by each e.m.f.,
acting alone all the other sources of e.m.f being replaced meanwhile by their respective
internal resistances. "

Let us consider the application of this theorem to the solution the following problem.

Calculate the current through the 10-Ω resistance in the network shown in
Fig.(2.10) by using the superposition theorem.

I1 I3
2Ω I2 3Ω
10 Ω

6V 4V

Fig. (2.10)
Solution

Let first the 6-V source acting alone, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. (2.10-a).
E
I  1
1 R
T
I3
6 6 6  13 2 Ω
I1
I     1,39 A
1 3  10 56 56 I2 10 Ω
2 3Ω
3  10 13 6 V
3 3
I I   1,39   0,32 A
2 1 3  10 13 Fig. (2.10-a)

Now let the 4-V source acting alone, the circuit becomes as shown in
Fig. (2.10-b) also:

I 3 I 1
2Ω
I 2 3Ω
10 Ω

4V

Fig. (2.10-b)

27
 E2
I 
1
RT

4 4 4  12
I     0,857 A
1 2  10 56 56
3
2  10 12
2 2
I  I   0,857   0,142 A
2 1
2  10 12

According to the superposition theorem, the current through the 10Ω branch is the sum
of the two currents in this branch due to each source alone,
i.e. I I 2 I2  0.321 0.142  0.463A

Example:

Determine the current through the 10 Ω resistance in the network shown in fig. (2.11),
by using the superposition theorem.

4.8 Ω 10 Ω 4.8 Ω

0.2 Ω 0.2 Ω
5Ω 5Ω
10 V 15V
Fig. (2.11)
Let first the 10-V source acting alone, the circuit will be as shown in fig. (2.11-a)

4.8 Ω 10 Ω 4.8 Ω

0.2 Ω 0.2 Ω
5Ω 5Ω
10 V
Fig.2.11-a

The equivalent resistance of the two 5-Ω parallel resistances is

55 25
  2.5 
( 4.8  0.2)  5 10

28
The network will be redrawn as shown in fig (2.11-b)
4.8 Ω 10 Ω
E 10 10 I1 I3
I  1    1.166 A 0.2 Ω
1 R 5  12.5 5  3.57
T 4.8  0.2   I2 5Ω 2.5Ω
17.5 Ω
10 V
5
I I   1.166  0.285  0.33 A Fig. (2.11-b)
3 1 12.5  5

Now let the 15-V source acting alone, the circuit becomes as shown in fig (2.11-c).

4.8 Ω 10 Ω 4.8 Ω

0.2 Ω 0.2 Ω
5Ω 5Ω
15V
Fig. (3.11-C)

The circuit will be reduced to become as in fig (2.11-d)

E 15 15
I1  2 
   1.75 A
5  12.5 5  3.57 10 Ω 4.8 Ω
T 4.8  0.2 
R
17.5 I`3 I`1 0.2 Ω
5 2.5Ω I`2
I  I   1.75  0.285  0.5 A 5
Ω
3 1 12.5  5 15V

Fig. (2.11-d)

The current through 10-Ω branch is the sum of the two currants in it.
 
i.e. I10  Ω  I3   I3  0.33  0.5  0.1667A
It mean's the currant I10-Ω flow from right to left.

29
2.6. Thevenin's theorem
2.6.1 The statement of this theorem

The Thevenin's theorem can be stated as:

"The current through a resistance RL connected across any two points A and B of an
active network is obtained by dividing the P.d. (VOC) between A and B (with RL
disconnected) by (RL+ Rth), where Rth is the resistance of the network measured
between points A and B (with RL disconnected) and the source of the e.m.f. replaced by
their internal resistances"

Suppose, it required to find the current IL through the load resistance RL

as shown in fig. (2.12)
R1 A
IL
The load current IL will be equal to:
Voc
IL 
R2 RL R th  R L

Fig. (2.12) B

To find IL by using the Thevenin's theorem we must proceed the following steps:

1. Remove RL from the circuit terminals A&B and redraw the circuit as shown in
Fig. (2.12-a). R A
1

I
R2 VOC RL

E
Fig. (2.12-a) B

The terminals become open-circuited.

2. Calculate the Voc which appears across A&B (RL is removed).
As seen, Voc is the voltage drop across R2 and equal to I R2
where I is the circuit current when A&B are open.
Also:
E
I
R R
1 2
ER
 VOC  I  R  2
2 R R (Voltage division theorem)
1 2
31
 3. Now calculate Rth of the network as shown in Fig. (2.12-b) also:
R1 A
R R
R  R // R  1 2
Rth th 1 2 R R
R2 1 2

Fig. (2.12-b) B
4. Represent the network by Thevenin's equivalent circuit and connect back the
load resistance RL across the terminals A&B as shown in fig.(2.12-c)

Rth A

IL The load current IL will be equal to:

RL Voc
VOC IL 
R th  R L

Fig. (2.12-c) B

Example:
Determine the current through the 10 – Ω resistance in Fig.(2.13) by using the
Thevenin's theorem.
R1 = 5 Ω R3 = 5 Ω
IL
I I2
I1 R2= 20Ω R4=15 Ω RL=10 Ω
E=6 V

Fig. (2.13)
Solution:
The load current IL will be equal to:

Voc
IL 
R th  R L

To solve such problem we must doing the three steps of the Thevenin's theorem:
31
i) Remove the 10-Ω load resistance RL as shown in Fig. (2.13-a)
5Ω 5Ω A

I I2
R4=15Ω
I1 20 Ω VOC RL
6V I2

Fig. (2.13-a) B
and find Voc , it means you must get I2 because Voc = I2 x R4 ,
Also to get I2 you must get I.
To get I you must calculate the total resistance RT of the circuit (RL is removed) also:

RT = (20 //20) + 5= (20/2) +5=15 Ω

I = E / RT = 6/15 = 0.4 A
I2 = I x (20 / 40) = 0.4 x 0.5 = 0.2 A
VOC = I2 x R4 =0.2 x 15 = 3 V

ii) Find Rth from the side of the terminals A& B as shown in Fig. (2.13-b)

5Ω 5Ω A

Rth
20 Ω 15 Ω

Fig. (2.13-b) B
Also:
Rth = ((5 // 20) + 5) // 15 = ((100/25) +5)//15= (9x15) / (9+15) = 5.625 Ω

iii) Represent the network by Thevenin's equivalent circuit and connected back the
load resistance RL across the terminals A & B as shown in Fig.( 2.13-c).

Also IL will be equal: Rth=5.625 Ω A

Voc 3
IL    0.192A IL
R th  R L 5.625 10 RL=10 Ω
VOC=3V

Fig. (2.13-c) B

32