MABINI COLLEGES, INC.

Graduate School
College of Teacher Education
Daet, Camarines Norte

Name : MA. ELAINE MANLIMOS ALCANTARA

Course : Master of Arts in Education Major in Educational Leadership

Course Title : Seminar on Educational Psychology

Course Code : EDUC 202

Semester Attended : 1st Semester, Academic Year 2020-2021

Professor : NOEL V. IBIS, PhD

REFLECTION PAPER

In accordance to the lessons discussed in our class during the first and second

consecutive meetings via Google meet, I have learned more about teaching-learning interaction

that really become a big factor in order to learn more effectively. The reading with

comprehension also play as a vital role in order to understand the lesson and integrate different

knowledge. In this subject, I develop an understanding of Educational Psychology and up bring

me to become more flexible and open-minded in the field of education.

The other reflections for each topic in educational psychology are follows:

I. What is learning for you?

To sum up everything what comes into my mind, learning is depends upon on

how are we going apply it through life. Yes, it is all about application and there are

different perspectives to be considered in order to process learnings. It was broad

yet important to discuss each development.

During our class, I have my learnings for each topic. I relished how my classmate

and professor shared their ideas.

A. BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

According to the study, the behaviorist perspective also known as behavioral

psychology is a theory of learning, which states all behaviors are learned through

interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior

is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is key for educators

because it affects how students react and behave in the classroom and suggest that

teachers can directly influence how their students behave. As an educator I strongly

believe that environment greatly affect ones’ learning, it is crucial for the teaching and

learning process. With good environment, both student and teacher can interact and

share knowledge enthusiastically. Basically, conditioning can greatly affect student’s

behavior towards erudition. As we experience nowadays, different learnings modalities

have been implemented all over the world due to pandemic-Covid19 we are facing until

now. Based from my own experience as a teacher their students experiencing

difficulties in their academic they want actual or face to face learning modality in order

to learn more specifically the students who are dependent to their teachers.

B. GESTALT PERSPECTIVE

What I have learned about gestalt perspective is that is how people perceive and

apprehend the relationship of the whole to the parts that make it a whole. Since, Gestalt

theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts.

There are six (6) categories:

 Proximity

Objects placed near each other tend to be perceived as one group.

 Similarity
 The principle of similarity states that when things appear to be similar to each

other, we group them together. And we also tend to think they have the same

function.

 Continuity

The Gestalt Continuity Law explains how our brain experiences visual line of

elements that are grouped together. There is a tendency to perceive a line

continuing its established direction. This principle is considered to be one of the

most important among others, because it has the vastest application in design.

 Closure

The principle of closure states that when we look at a complex arrangement of

visual elements, we tend to look for a single, recognizable pattern.

 Figure and Ground

The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as

either being in the foreground or the background. They either stand out

prominently in the front (the figure) or recede into the back (the ground).

 Common Fate.

Humans tend to perceive elements moving in the same direction as being more

related than elements that are stationary or that move in different directions.

. The gestalt theory is all about how the people conceptualize things and connect it to

his/her new learnings or a theory that looks at human perception. Thus, we impose a cause and

effect result and at the same time the relationship. It is important to this type of educational

technology are the interaction and collaboration. I have learned that is more on relationship and
patterns of a certain things to be learned by an individual. Moreover, it is also connected and

has an initial response to the behaviorism. I also learned to this topic is that the unified

completely is different from the sum of the parts. Overall, it is a matter of being placed and

configuration to inculcate knowledge.

C. Piagetian Perspective (Endogenous Constructivist)

According to this theory states that Piaget believed that children take an active

role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform

experiments, observe, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around

them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt

previously held ideas to accommodate new information. (Kendra Cherry, 2021).

As I have grasped to this topic, it is all about the development and each stage

on how to acquire knowledge. Since it is constructivist, it is the process wherein the

kids learn through systematic process according to the things they can do. Everyone has

a nature intelligence and it is because of what they have adapt in their environment; it

will be developed according ones’ capability. For example, toddlers or during the

sensimotor stage, they are the one who imitate the most and learning new words for

them respectively. Overall I’ve learned from this theory that intelligence is something

that grows and develops through a series of stages.

D. INFORMATION-PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE (Exogenous Constructivist)

Information processing is how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use and

remember information. It focuses on the idea that humans process the information they receive

from the environment, in the manner of a computer rather than merely responding to stimuli.

The sequence of events in processing information which includes input, processing, storage

and output. The input stage can be further broken down into acquisition, data entry and

validation. The output stage can also be further divided into interactive queries and routine
reports. The student’s brain bring information in, manipulates it and stores it ready for future

use- this is the learning aspect. Unlike Piaget’s theory, this approach proposes that cognitive

development is ongoing and gradual, not organized into distinct stages. The essence of

information-processing is that it helps performers identify relevant cues via selective attention,

therefore increasing movement reactions which will lead ultimately to a successful outcome.

Successful outcomes are increased if strategies to help enhance our ability to store more

information in the long term memory is practiced.

E. SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the

1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in

a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment and

behavior. The central premise of social cognitive theory is reciprocal determinism, which is

the interaction of person, environment and behavior. A person’s behavior is shaped by

observing the people around them and their perceptions of the environment. Bandura asserts

that most human behavior is learned through observation, imitation and modelling. There are

four elements to social learning theory namely; attention, retention, reproduction and

motivation. Social Cognitive theory can be incorporate to classroom teaching through Flipped

Classroom Model, Gamifications and Simulations, and Peer Coaching.

II. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

A. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality

development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First

laid out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone many

refinements since his work. It argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions among

three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. Sigmund Freud emphasized the

importance of the unconscious mind and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the

unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal

of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious. Freud’s theory emphasizes that play

is essential in a growing child. Schools should utilize play in their curriculum because it is vital

in handling academic and emotional problems among children. These are students modifying

reality to let go of anxiety or reduce conflict.

B. ERICKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in the second half of the

20th century by Erik Erickson in collaboration with Joan Erickson is a comprehensive

psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages that a healthy developing individual

should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. The eight stages of Erickson’s

psychosocial theory namely; Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (oral sensory, infancy under 2 years),

Will: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (muscular-anal, toddlerhood, 2-4 years), Purpose:

Initiative vs. Guilt (locomotor-genital, early childhood, 5-8 years), Competence: Industry

vs. Inferiority (latency, middle childhood, 9-12 years) Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion

(Adolescence, 12-19 years) Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood, 20-39 years) Care:

Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood, 40-59 years) Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs.

Despair (late adulthood, 60 years and above). One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is

that it provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the entire
lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important

influence that social relationships have on development. Erickson showed developmental

stages that seamlessly integrate into a comprehensive theory of personality based on self-

organization. Each stage corresponds to access to a structural level.

C. KOLHBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to

explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development,

like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—

stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys

about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz”

dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg

emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive

moral development. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,

conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages

of moral development (a) Level 1: Pre-Conventional throughout the pre-conventional level,

a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of

authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not

yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead

focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring. (b) Level 2:

Conventional throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal

and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is

now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.

Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s

appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned. (c) Level 3: Post-Conventional throughout

the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract

principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or

eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities

from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles.

Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically

include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but

changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.

Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over

social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that

of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may

never reach this.

D. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory refers to community and culture are integral parts of

children’s development. The more that the students are engage to socialization with more

knowledgeable others, the more they learn and learning varies to culture. Environment has a

vital role of how the children will think or what they think about.

E. BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child development as a complex system of

relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate

settings of family and school to broad cultural values, laws, and customs. To study a child's

development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also

at the interaction of the larger environment as well. Bronfenbrenner divided the person's

environment into five different systems: the Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem,

Macrosystem, and Chronosystem. The Microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's

theory, and are the things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate

environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers. Relationships in a

microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be influenced by other people in their

environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.

Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can influence how

they treat them in return. The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are

crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development. If a child has a strong nurturing

relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect on the child. Whereas,

distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child. The Mesosystem

encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the interactions

between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings. It is where a

person's individual microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and

assert influence upon one another. The Exosystem is a component of the ecological systems

theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and

informal social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence

them as they affect one of the microsystems. An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s

development could be if one of the parents had a dispute with their boss at work. The

Macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that focuses on

how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth,

poverty, and ethnicity. The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not

refer to the specific environments of one developing child, but the already established society

and culture which the child is developing in. This can also include the socioeconomic status,

ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of the culture. The fifth and final level of

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the Chronosystem. This system

consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which influence

development, including major life transitions, and historical events. These can include normal

life transitions such as starting school but can also include non-normative life transitions such

as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.

III. Cognitive and Language Development of Learners

A. LEV VYGOTSKY

Lev Vygotsky is a Russian psychologist who developed the Sociocultural Theory. He was born

in Russia on 1896 and died of TB on 1934 at the age of 37. His work has become the foundation

of much research and theory in cognitive development.

B. JEROME BRUNER

Jerome Seymour Bruner (October 1, 1915 – June 5, 2016) was an American psychologist who

made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory

in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior research fellow at the New York University

School of Law. Bruner’s studies helped to introduce Jean Piaget’s concept of developmental

stages of cognition into the classroom. His much-translated book The Process of

Education (1960) was a powerful stimulus to the curriculum-reform movement of the period.

In it he argued that any subject can be taught to any child at any stage of development, if it is

presented in the proper manner. According to Bruner, all children have natural curiosity and a

desire to become competent at various learning tasks; when a task as presented to them is too

difficult, however, they become bored. A teacher must, therefore, present schoolwork at a level

that challenges but does not overwhelm the child’s current developmental stage. Moreover, the

task is best presented within a framework of structured interaction between teacher and child,
one that makes use of and builds upon skills that the child has already acquired. Such

frameworks, which Bruner referred to as “scaffolding,” facilitate learning by limiting the

child’s choices, or “degrees of freedom,” in the learning process to a manageable domain. In

addition, he championed the “spiral curriculum,” in which subjects are taught to student’s year

after year at increasing levels of complexity. Bruner developed a social science curriculum that

was widely used during the 1960s and ’70s. He also studied perception in children, concluding

that children’s individual values significantly affect their perceptions.

C. NOAM CHOMSKY

Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian,

social critic, and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics",

Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of

cognitive science. He is Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and

Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and is the author of

more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, politics, and mass media. Ideologically,

he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism. The Language Acquisition

Device is a controversial claim from language acquisition research proposed by Noam

Chomsky in the 1960s. The LAD concept is a purported instinctive mental capacity which

enables an infant to acquire and produce language. It is a component of the nativist theory of

language. This theory asserts that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for

acquiring language. The main argument given in favor of the LAD was the argument from the

poverty of the stimulus, which argues that unless children have significant innate knowledge

of grammar, they would not be able to learn language as quickly as they do, given that they

never have access to negative evidence and rarely receive direct instruction in their first

language.
IV. Educational Psychologists

A. ALFRED BINET

Alfred Binet, born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who invented the first practical

IQ test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist

Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively

from regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work. Along with his

collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last

of which appeared just before his death. Alfred Binet, born Alfredo Binetti, was a French

psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the French

Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method that would

determine which students did not learn effectively from regular classroom instruction so they

could be given remedial work. Along with his collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published

revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last of which appeared just before his death. Alfred

Binet, born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test,

the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred

Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively from

regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work.

B. BENJAMIN H. BLOOM AND LEE CRONBACH

Lee J. Cronbach (1916 - 2001) was an American educational psychologist who made

significant contributions to psychological testing and measurement. Born in Fresno, California,

Cronbach received a bachelor's degree from Fresno State College and a master's degree from

the University of California, Berkeley. In 1940, he received a doctorate in educational

psychology from the University of Chicago. Cronbach is most famous for the development
of Cronbach's alpha, a method for determining the reliability of educational and psychological

tests. His work on test reliability reached an acme with the creation of generalizability theory,

a statistical model for identifying and quantifying the sources of measurement error. Benjamin

Samuel Bloom was an American educational psychologist who made contributions to the

classification of educational objectives and to the theory of mastery learning. He is particularly

noted for leading educational psychologists to develop the comprehensive system of describing

and assessing educational outcomes in the mid-1950s. He has influenced the practices and

philosophies of educators around the world from the latter part of the twentieth century.

Benjamin Bloom also made contributions to the study of intelligence. His experiments

identified how early experiences could influence an individual's ability to learn. As a result,

some of his work appeared to support the nurture side of the nature versus nurture controversy

in psychology. Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify

educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover

the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and sensory domains. The cognitive domain list

has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure

curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities. In the 1956 original version of the

taxonomy, the cognitive domain is broken into the six levels of objectives listed below. In the

2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy, the levels have slightly different names and the

order is revised: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create (rather than

Synthesize). Knowledge involves recognizing or remembering facts, terms, basic concepts, or

answers without necessarily understanding what they mean. Comprehension involves

demonstrating an understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, summarizing, translating,

generalizing, giving descriptions, and stating the main ideas. Application involves using

acquired knowledge—solving problems in new situations by applying acquired knowledge,

facts, techniques and rules. Learners should be able to use prior knowledge to solve problems,
identify connections and relationships and how they apply in new situations. Analysis involves

examining and breaking information into component parts, determining how the parts relate to

one another, identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support

generalizations. Synthesis involves building a structure or pattern from diverse elements; it also

refers to the act of putting parts together to form a whole. Evaluation involves presenting and

defending opinions by making judgments about information, the validity of ideas, or quality of

work based on a set of criteria.

C. JOHN I. DEWEY AND ROBERT GAGNE

John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose

ideas have been influential in education and social reform. He was one of the most prominent

American scholars in the first half of the twentieth century. In many countries, the modern

educational system looks the way it does thanks to John Dewey. His approach to schooling was

revolutionary for his time and proves to be fundamentally important for modern education to

this day. John Dewey probably gained the most publicity thanks to his role in the studies into

progressive education. Progressive education in essence is a vision of education that emphasize

the necessity of learning by doing. According to the John Dewey theory, people learn best

through a hands-on approach. As a result, the philosophies and views of John Dewey are placed

in the educational philosophy of pragmatism. Dewey argued that education can only truly be

effective when children have learning opportunities that enable them to link current knowledge

to prior experiences and knowledge. This was a ground-breaking idea in those days.

Particularly the part related to experience learning, where children come into contact with their

environment, was revolutionary.

Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist best known for his Conditions

of Learning. He pioneered the science of instruction during World War II when he worked with
the Army Air Corps training pilots. He went on to develop a series of studies and works that

simplified and explained what he and others believed to be "good instruction." Gagné was also

involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based training

and multimedia-based learning. Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning model gives trainers and

educators a checklist to use before they engage in teaching or training activities. Each step

highlights a form of communication that aids the learning process. When each step is completed

in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged and to retain the information or skills that

they're being taught. If you use this approach before any type of training session or presentation,

you'll remember how to structure your session so that your people get the best possible learning

experience. (1) Gaining Attention (Reception) Start the learning experience by gaining the

attention of your audience. This change in stimulus alerts the group that learning will soon take

place. (2) Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy) You must ensure that your team

knows what they need to learn, and that they understand why they're about to learn this new

information. (3) Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) When your people learn

something new, match the new information with related information or topics they've learned

in the past. (4) Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) Present the new information to

the group in an effective manner. (5) Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) To

help your team learn and retain the information, provide alternative approaches that illustrate

the information that you're trying to convey. (6) Eliciting Performance (Responding) At this

stage, you need to ensure that your people can demonstrate their knowledge of what you've

taught them. The way that they show this depends on what they're learning. (7) Providing

Feedback (Reinforcement) After your team demonstrates their knowledge, provide

feedback and reinforce any points as necessary. (8) Assessing Performance (Retrieval) Your

team should be able to complete a test, or other measurement tool, to show that they've learned

the material or skill effectively. Team members should complete this test independently,
without any help or coaching from you. (9) Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization)

In this last stage, your team members show that they've retained information by transferring

their new knowledge or skill to situations that are different from the ones you've trained them

on.

D. MARIA MONTESSORI AND HERBERT SIMON

Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori was an Italian physician and educator best known for the

philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an

early age, Montessori broke gender barriers and expectations when she enrolled in classes at

an all-boys technical school, with hopes of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change of

heart and began medical school at the Sapienza University of Rome, where she graduated with

honors in 1896. Her educational method is in use today in many public and private schools

globally.

E. BURRHUS K. SKINNER AND CHARLES SPEARMAN

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor and

social philosopher. He was a professor of psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until

his retirement in 1974. Skinner referred to his approach to the study of behavior as radical

behaviorism. This philosophy of behavioral science assumes that behavior is a consequence of

environmental histories of reinforcement. Skinner argued that education has two major

purposes: (a) to teach repertoires of both verbal and nonverbal behavior and (b) to interest

students in learning. He recommended bringing student’s behavior under appropriate control

by providing reinforcement only in the presence of stimuli relevant to the learning task.

Because he believed that human behavior can be affected by small consequences, something

as simple as “the opportunity to move forward after completing one stage of an activity” can
be an effective reinforce. Skinner was convinced that, to learn, a student must engage in

behavior, and not just passively receive information.

Charles Edward Spearman, FRS was an English psychologist known for work in statistics,

as a pioneer of factor analysis, and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did

seminal work on models for human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive

test scores reflect a single General intelligence factor and coining the term g factor. The result

was Spearmans two-factor theory which attempted to show that all cognitive performance can

be explained by two variables: one general ability (g) and the many specific abilities (s) it gave

rise to. Later, however, further analysis showed that g alone was enough to explain the

correlations between different tests. When people talk about IQ or intelligence, its usually this

general mental ability that they are referring to.

F. LEWIS I. TERMAN AND EDWARD THORNDIKE

Lewis Madison Terman was an American psychologist and author. He was noted as a pioneer

in educational psychology in the early 20th century at the Stanford Graduate School of

Education. He is best known for his revision of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales and for

initiating the longitudinal study of children with high IQs called the Genetic Studies of Genius.

He was a prominent eugenicist and was a member of the Human Betterment Foundation. He

also served as president of the American Psychological Association. A Review of General

Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Terman as the 72nd most cited psychologist of

the 20th century, in a tie with G. Stanley Hall. In 1921, Terman began his "Genetic Studies of

Genius," a longitudinal study that set out to investigate whether high IQ students were more

successful in life. What he found was that his high IQ subjects (which he referred to as

"Termites") tended to be healthier, taller, and more socially adapted than other kids. Based on

his results, Terman suggested that gifted children should be identified early, offered tailored
instruction, and have access to specially-trained teachers. Terman found that while many of his

high IQ subjects were very successful, not all fared as well and most actually turned out no

better than the average. He did find that those who ended up being the most successful tended

to rate higher on self-confidence, perseverance, and goal-orientation as children. Lewis Terman

played an important role in the early development of educational psychology and his

intelligence test became one of the most widely used psychological assessments in the world.

He advocated for support and guidance for kids identified as gifted in order to nurture their

talents and abilities.

Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at

Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning

process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for

educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee

exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation and served

as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. A Review of General

Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited psychologist

of the 20th century. Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement theory and

behavior analysis, providing the basic framework for empirical laws in behavior psychology

with his law of effect. Through his contributions to the behavioral psychology field came his

major impacts on education, where the law of effect has great influence in the classroom. The

learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology:

Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations

or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.

The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to

dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory)

was that learning could be adequately explained without referring to any unobservable internal
states. Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect – responses to a

situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become

habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of readiness – a series of responses can be chained

together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise

– connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.

A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a

rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.

G. WILLIAM JAMES

William James was an American philosopher and psychologist, and the first educator to offer

a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the late

nineteenth century, one of the most influential philosophers of the United States, and the

"Father of American psychology". Along with Charles Sanders Peirce, James established

the philosophical school known as pragmatism, and is also cited as one of the founders

of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology analysis, published in 2002,

ranked James as the 14th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century. A survey published

in American Psychologist in 1991 ranked James's reputation in second place, after Wilhelm

Wundt, who is widely regarded as the founder of experimental psychology. James also

developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism. James's work has

influenced philosophers and academics such as Émile Durkheim, W. E. B. Du Bois, Edmund

Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, Richard Rorty,

and Marilynne Robinson.

IV. Motivational Theories

A. FLOW THEORY (Mihalyi Csikzsentmihaly)

In positive psychology, a flow state, also known colloquially as being in the zone, is the mental

state in which a person performing some activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized

focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence, flow is

characterized by the complete absorption in what one does, and a resulting transformation in

one's sense of time. Optimal Experience use the term to describe those occasions where we feel

a sense of exhilaration, deep sense of enjoyment and becomes landmark to our own lives. he

identified 9 ways through which we can achieve flow. Being in the flow is where students find

themselves in that narrow channel between disinterest and fear. There is a fine balance between

the challenge of the task, and the skills the learner has at their disposal. Maintaining this balance

avoids disillusionment if your skills don’t measure up to the challenge, or boredom if the task

is too simple and easy to achieve. Games and gamification may offer students the fine

equilibrium between boredom and anxiety, as will other forms of immersive learning such as

role play, simulation and problem solving. As long as the learning resource is designed to have

the appropriate levels of challenge built into it, students will be interested.

B. MODELLING AND RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM (Albert Bandura)

Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura which states

that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social

environment. Bandura accepts the possibility that an individual's behavior may be conditioned

through the use of consequences. At the same time, he asserts that a person's behavior (and

personal factors, such as cognitive skills or attitudes) can impact the environment. These skill

sets result in an under- or overcompensated ego that, for all creative purposes, is too strong or

too weak to focus on pure outcome. This is important because Bandura was able to prove the

strong correlation between this with experiments.

C. ATTRIBUTION THEORY (Bernard Weiner)

Bernard Weiner is an American social psychologist known for developing a form of

attribution theory which seeks to explain the emotional and motivational entailments of

academic success and failure. His contributions include linking attribution theory, the

psychology of motivation, and emotion. Attribution theories attempt to explain how human

beings evaluate and determine the cause of other people's behavior.

D. INDICATORS OF MOTIVATED PERSONS (Deborah Stipek)

Motivation refers to those reasons that underlie behavior that is characterized by willingness

and volition. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is animated by personal enjoyment, interest,

or pleasure. Researchers often contrast intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation, which is

motivation governed by reinforcement contingencies. Traditionally, educators consider

intrinsic motivation to be more desirable and to result in better learning outcomes than extrinsic

motivation. Motivation involves a constellation of closely related beliefs, perceptions, values,

interests, and actions. For example, self-efficacy is an individual’s perceived competence in a

given area, and people tend to be more motivated to participate in activities at which they excel.

In particular, attributing failure to lack of effort is more motivating than attributing failure to

lack of ability, whereas the opposite is true for successful performance. Values are incentives

or reasons for engaging in certain activities, with intrinsic values more likely to foster

persistence and effort than attainment values or values focusing on costs. Interests are

“interactions between an individual and certain aspects of his or her environment.” Interests

are content-specific and come in two forms: individual interest and situational interest.

Individual interest is a relatively stable trait developed with respect to a particular topic or

subject. Situational interest, on the other hand, is immediate, affective, and transitory, and

reflects certain environmental factors, such as task characteristics. Individual interest is

believed to foster greater long-term persistence than situational interest. Finally, a person’s

goals are related to his or her reasons for engaging with a task. Mastery goals focus on learning

for the sake of learning, whereas performance goals are concerned with excelling in relation to

others. Students holding mastery goals are more likely than those holding performance goals

to have high self-efficacy, to prefer effort attributions, to persist at challenging tasks, and to

use cognitive strategies associated with self-regulated learning. Such strategies involve setting

achievable goals, monitoring one’s performance, evaluating progress, and framing successes

and failures with respect to effort and ability.

E. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (Martin Seligman)

Learned helplessness is behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli

beyond their control. It was initially thought to be caused from the subject's acceptance of their

powerlessness: discontinuing attempts to escape or avoid the aversive stimulus, even when

such alternatives are unambiguously presented. Upon exhibiting such behavior, the subject was

said to have acquired learned helplessness. Over the past few decades, neuroscience has

provided insight into learned helplessness and shown that the original theory actually had it

backwards: the brain's default state is to assume that control is not present, and the presence of

"helpfulness" is what is actually learned.

V. Diversity and Characteristics of Learners

A. CULTURE, CLASS AND GENDER

The increasing diversity in our schools, the ongoing demographic changes across the nation

and the movement towards globalization dictate that we develop a more in-depth understanding

of culture if we want to bring about true understanding among diverse populations. Some

cultures encourage group learning. Give your students time to explore individually – This is

important for students who come from societies where individuality is paramount. Using both

team learning and individual learning strategies will encourage your students to adjust to

different situations. Scientists and psychologists have developed a number of different models

to understand the different ways that people learn best. One popular theory, the VARK model,

identifies four primary types of learners: visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic.

Each learning type responds best to a different method of teaching. Most research suggests that

preferred learning styles of males and females can generally be distributed equally among the

four learning modes; however, there is considerable evidence suggesting a discrepancy

between male and female scores in the abstract- concrete dimension of learning. Studies

suggest that females score higher in the concrete learning mode whereas males score higher on

the abstract conceptualization side of the continuum. Women with a concrete experience

learning approach usually prefer hands-on experiences to learn, they make intuitive or feeling

based judgments, they are people oriented, and they typically feel comfortable with ambiguity.

They excel at understanding people, identifying problems, brainstorming, imagining, taking

risks, leading, and getting work done. Conversely, men who prefer abstract conceptualization

take an analytic approach to learning, they think logically and rationally, they enjoy working

with symbols and like structure. They have a variety of sources—primarily parents, peers, and

the media. Teachers are certainly not the primary cause of gender role differences, but

sometimes teachers influence them by their responses to and choices made on behalf of

students.
B. INTELLIGENCE: PERSPECTIVES AND DEVELOPMENT

Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-

solving, and planning. While the subject of intelligence is one of the largest and most heavily

researched, it is also one of the topics that generate the greatest controversy. One of the more

recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed

that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and accurately depict

a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based on skills and

abilities that are valued in different cultures (a) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to

control your body movements and to handle objects skillfully, (b) Interpersonal intelligence:

The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations, and desires of

others, (c) Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner

feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes, (d) Logical-mathematical intelligence: The

ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical

patterns, (e) Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and

timbre, (f) Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants,

and other objects in nature, (g) Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills

and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words, and (h) Visual-spatial

intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and

abstractly.

C. LEARNING AND COGNITIVE STYLE

Learning style is the unique collection of individual skills and preferences that affects

how a person perceives, gathers, and processes information. It also dictates how your brain

works most efficiently to process, comprehend and learn new information, and how easily or

quickly you learn something new. It describes how information enters the brain: visually,
aurally and etc. Cognitive style or thinking style is a concept used in cognitive psychology to

describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. It refers to how

information is processed once the information goes to the brain: field dependence or

independence.

VI. Transfer of Learning

A. KINDS AND LEVELS OF TRANSFER

Transfer of learning is the study of the dependency of human conduct, learning or

performance on prior experience and it occurs when learning in one context or with one set of

materials impacts on performance in another context or with other related materials. It is very

essential in learning because if there were no transfer, students would need to be taught every

act that they would ever perform in any situation. Furthermore, if we did not transfer some of

our prior knowledge, then each new learning situation would start from scratch. Assumption to

education: what is taught in a course will be used in relevant situations in other courses, in the

workplace and out of school.

B. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING

Critical and creative thinking involves students thinking broadly and deeply using

skills, behaviors and dispositions such as reason, logic, resourcefulness, imagination and

innovation in all learning areas at school and in their lives beyond school. Thinking that is

productive, purposeful and intentional is at the center of effective learning. Critical and creative

thinking is essential for students to become successful learners. This general capability has 4 main

parts: posing questions, gathering, organizing and processing information and ideas imagining

possibilities, suggesting alternatives, seeking solutions and putting ideas into action talking about

and giving reasons for their thinking and applying knowledge in new situations applying logic and
reasoning, drawing conclusions and designing a course of action, and evaluating procedures and

results. During their primary and high school years, students develop critical and creative thinking

as they imagine possibilities, consider alternatives, and create innovative solutions. They apply

logic and reasoning to develop a course of action, and weigh up the consequences. Critical and

creative thinking is essential for students to become successful learners.

C. PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving consists of using generic in an orderly manner to find solutions to

problems. Some of the problem-solving techniques developed and used in philosophy, artificial

intelligence, computer science, engineering, mathematics, or medicine are related to mental

problem-solving techniques studied in psychology. An important goal of education is helping

students learn how to think more productively while solving problems, by combining creative

thinking (to generate ideas) and critical thinking. Both modes of thinking are essential for a

well-rounded productive thinker.

VII. Teaching and Learning Environment

TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Technology and Education is a complex, integrated process involving people,

procedure, ideas, devices, and organization for analyzing problems and devising,

implementing, evaluating, and also managing solution. The ultimate goal of this, is to

facilitating learning process with the use of technology. It also paly as a vital role in education

simply because it supports knowledge instruction for representing learner’s idea, understanding

and beliefs. It is also for producing organized, multimedia bases by learners.

C. TECHNOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (TPACK)

 Technological pedagogical content knowledge is a framework to understand and

describe the kinds of knowledge needed by a teacher for effective pedagogical practice in a

technology-enhanced learning environment. Mishra and Koehler added technology as a

modeling element to Lee Shulman's pedagogical content knowledge construct. They proposed

that addressing content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technology knowledge

concurrently provides a framework for technology integration in the curriculum.

D. POSITIVE CLASSROOM CLIMATE

They create a positive school climate to meet physical student needs and developp their

self-management, awareness, empathy and relationship skills. They take deliberate steps to

keep their students healthy and safe by: reducing disengagement from education, and targeting

those at risk of dropping out of school. To create a positive climate for your classroom, focus

on the following three “pieces” of the classroom climate “pie:” Develop and reinforce

classroom rules and norms that clearly support safe and respectful behavior. Having classroom

rules helps you create a predictable, safe learning environment for your students. Develop and

reinforce classroom rules and norms that clearly support safe and respectful behavior.

Having classroom rules helps you create a predictable, safe learning environment for your

students. Rules give your students clear boundaries and opportunities to practice self-regulation

and make good choices. When students feel safe and respected both emotionally and

physically, they are able to focus better on learning.

Promote positive peer relationships. You want to create an environment where your students

support and are kind to one another. Nurture positive relationships with all students. You

need to let your students know that you not only care about their progress in the classroom, you

also care about them as human beings.

VIII. How good I am in the following?

A. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom Management is a term teachers use to describe the process of ensuring that

classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the

delivery of instruction. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior

preemptively, as well as effectively responding to it after it happens. It is very important to

have a good classroom management to boosts confidence: In an effective classroom, teachers

are able to give more attention to each student and structure lesson plans to meet certain needs.

All of these factors will help in boosting the confidence of students. Effective classroom

management is being to implement and maintain classroom discipline in an effective manner.

B. ART OF QUESTIONING

Questioning is a very simple and effective teaching strategy that can be applied to

almost any situation. The heart and soul of training--the most widely used instructional strategy

to facilitate learning. The essence of effective teaching because of the numerous purposes it

serves, such as motivating learners intrinsically, assessing knowledge and skills, and reviewing

content. There are different kinds of questions; (a) Factual question it is soliciting reasonably

simple, straight forward answers based on obvious facts or awareness. These are usually at the

lowest level of cognitive or affective processes and answers are frequently either right or

wrong. Used to get information from the students and often test rote memory. (b) Clarifying

questions is intend to provide clarity to both students and teachers. Such questions have

important clueing effects and help students to revisit their earlier statements with alternative

perspectives (c) Broadening or Extension question enlarges the existing theme, explore

implications of the response and can be useful in opening up further possibilities. Such

questions can be used to assess additional knowledge of the students. (d) Justifying questions
probe for assumptions and explore reasons. These questions require significant comprehension

and reasoning skills on the part of the students. (e) Hypothetical Questions often come in handy

during the later part of teacher-student interactions when the basic facts and concepts are

already established (f) Questions about questions probe for reasons for the question. This

allows the students to verbalize their reasoning and understanding of the events leading to their

own questions. (g) Redirecting questions address the same question to several students and

distribute responsibility. The benefits of such questions include generation of a wider variety

of responses and allowing the students to evaluate each other contributions. This technique

shifts the focus from teacher- student interactions to student-student interactions.

C. DEVELOPING PORTFOLIOS

Developing a portfolio is an ongoing process. As your portfolio develops over time,

you will include documents which provide evidence of a wide range of activities and

achievements, along with your reflections on these documents. A student portfolio is a

compilation of academic work and other forms of educational evidence assembled for the

purpose of (1) evaluating coursework quality, learning progress, and academic achievement;

(2) determining whether students have met learning standards or other academic requirements

for courses, grade-level promotion, and graduation; (3) helping students reflect on their

academic goals and progress as learners; and (4) creating a lasting archive of academic work

products, accomplishments, and other documentation.

It is very important in teaching-learning process and develop critical thinking skills as

well as higher-order thinking skills. It also helps us to broaden our perspectives in life. Art of

questioning has been big part my teaching career, it was my weakness before, but as the days

goes by and through my experiences it progressively develops.

D. INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

 Creativity goes hand in hand with innovation. And there is no innovation without

creativity. While creativity is the ability to produce new and unique ideas, innovation is the

implementation of that creativity - that's the introduction of a new idea, solution, process, or

product. Creativity refers to generating new and novel ideas. Innovation refers to the

application of an idea and, in many cases, is a collaborative enterprise. So in other words,

innovation is applied creativity. Or if I put my creative speaker hat on, I might say, “Creativity

is a bioelectrical thunderstorm that precipitates an inescapable notion.” While Creativity is

related to ‘imagination’, but innovation is related to ‘implementation’. The primary

difference between creativity and innovation is that the former refers to conceive a fresh idea

or plan, whereas the latter implies initiating something new to the market, which is not

introduced earlier.

For me, imagination is one of the most important when it comes to thinking, through it

our minds become creative and enable to set a clearer idea so that it can be apply through life.

Me, as an English enthusiast, in order for me to write my masterpiece such as a poem, short

stories, etc. it requires a great imagination. Not just in writing but also in teaching field, I must

be creative in every step of the way in order to make an innovation so that I can address

problems in education.

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