TTPC-305 Textile Testing

Dr. Ghanshyam Neje

Syllabus
Introduction: Aim and scope of testing, Sample and Population, Sampling
techniques for fibre, yarn and fabrics.
Testing of Fibres and Yarn intermediates: Cotton fibre testing such as
length, fineness, crimp, maturity, neps, strength, elongation, trash-
content, grading of different cotton, fibre contamination measurement,
application of HVI and AFIS. Testing of wool and man- made staple fibers,
measurement of fiber friction and crimp. Evenness testing of slivers,
rovings.
Testing of Yarn: Yarn numbering and conversion system, twist in
continuous filament, spun and plied yarns, tensile properties, various type
of measuring instruments and their working principles, factors affecting
tensile properties, elastic recovery, effect of impact loading and fatigue
behavior, yarn friction, evenness testing of yarns, nature and causes of
irregularities, principles and methods of evenness testing, evaluations and
interpretation of evenness results, concept of index of irregularity. Analysis
of periodic variations in mass per unit length. Variance - length curves and
spectrogram analysis, yarn faults classification, Uster Classimat and
Classifault. Yarn hairiness, principle of measurement, measuring
instruments. Test for filament and textured yarn. 2

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 Syllabus
Testing of Fabric: Measurement of fabric dimensions and other physical
properties such as thickness, weight, yarn crimp, fabric shrinkage, air-
permeability, thermal properties, wettability, water proof-ness, and
flame resistance, Fabric low stress mechanical properties such as
smoothness, stiffness, softness and shear, drape behaviour. Test related
to fabric appearance such as pilling, crease and wrinkle recovery, fabric
handle and factors influencing it, fabric comfort. Air-water and water-
vapor transmission through fabrics, thermal resistance of fabrics.
Serviceability testing parameters such as abrasion resistance, fabric
strength, tear strength, bursting strength and snagging test, assessment
of barre and other form of fabric defects.
Chemical Testing of Textiles: Color fastness, rubbing fastness, laundering
fastness.

Reference Books
1. Saville B P, “Physical Testing of Textiles, Woodhead
Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, 2002
2. Testing and Quality Management, Ed. V. K. Kothari,
IAFL Publications, New Delhi, 1999
3. Booth J E, Principles of Textile Testing, CBS Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi, 1999
4. Angappan P and Gopalakrishnan R, Textile Testing,
SSM Institute of Textile Technology, Komarapalayam,
2002
5. Basu A, Textile Testing, SITRA Coimbatore, 2002

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 Objectives of Testing
1. Research

2. Selection of raw material

3. Process Control

4. Process development

5. Specification tests
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Population and Sample

➢Population: Whole bulk of material available for
testing

➢Sample: a small number of the individual

members of population, selected to represent the
population

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Selection of sample for testing (Sampling)

➢A sample is a relatively small fraction which is

selected to represent a population

➢Two main reasons for only testing samples,

1. Time required for testing
2. Destructive nature of many of the tests

Sampling Example
1. Suppose a bale of cotton weighing about 500 lb is to be
tested and the information required is the staple length of the
cotton fibre. By using a suitable sampling method, the weight
of cotton fibre actually tested may be about 20 mg.
Bale weight in mg = 500 × 453.6 × 1000
= 226,800,000
Sample weight (in mg) = 20
Sample weight 20 1
= =
Bale weight 226,800,000 11,340,000
less than one eleven millionth of the bulk has to represent the bale

2. 10 random samples of cones (1.5 kg each) from 15 ton of yarn

10 × 1.5 1
=
15000 1000 8

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 Aim of Sampling
To produce an unbiased representative of whole
population

For example:
The proportions of different fibre lengths in the
sample are the same as those in the bulk
or
Each fibre in the bale should have an equal chance
of being chosen for the sample

Factors Governing Sampling Methods

1. Form of the material

2. Amount of material available

3. Nature of test

4. Type of testing instrument

5. Information required

6. Degree of accuracy required

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 Sampling Types
Sampling can be broadly classified into two
groups

1. Statistical sampling

2. Non-statistical sampling

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Sampling Types
Statistical sampling can be sub-divided into Four
types
i. Random sampling
ii. systematic sampling
iii. Stratified sampling (Sub-grouping)
iv. Cluster sampling

Non-statistical sampling can be sub-divided into

two types
i. Haphazard sampling
ii. Judgmental sampling
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 Random Sampling
➢In random sampling, each item in the population
has same probability of being selected as a part
of sample as any other item
➢ For e.g. Selection of 20 ring bobbins from 1000 (using random
number generator or using slips of papers like random lottery)

➢Random sampling can be done with or without

replacement
➢ If done without replacement, the item is not returned to the
population after it is selected and therefore can occur only
once in the sample

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Systematic Sampling
▪ Another statistical method
▪ In this method, every nth element from the list is
selected as the sample, starting with a sample n
randomly selected from first k elements

▪ For e.g. if 20 ring bobbins are to be selected from

1000, then k = 1000/20=50
▪ If number 15 (n) is randomly selected from first 50 (k)
element list, then sample will have 15th element in
each group of 50. (15th, 65th, 115th, 165th…)

▪ Original population list should not be ordered in way

that introduces any non-random factors in the sample 14

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 Stratified Sampling
• This sampling is used when representative from each
sub-group (strata) within the population need to be
represented in the sample

• Divide the population into sub-groups (strata) based on

mutually exclusive criteria

• Random or systematic samples are the taken from each

subgroup

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Stratified Sampling
• For e.g. if there are 30 ring frames, (5 machines of
manufacturer A, 10 of manufacturer B, and 15 of
Manufacturer C) and 30 bobbins are to be selected in
the sample
• Machines are grouped in 3 sub-groups

A B C A B C
(5 Machines) (10 Machines) (15 Machines) (5 Machines) (10 Machines) (15 Machines)

10 10 10 5 10 15

No. of bobbins No. of bobbins

Fixed number of samples from each Samples in proportion of each sub-
sub-group group

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 Cluster Sampling
❖It is also called as block sampling

❖In cluster sampling, population is divided into

groups called clusters

❖These clusters are as heterogeneous as possible

to matching the population

❖Random sample is then taken from within one

or more selected clusters

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Cluster Sampling
❖It is also called as block sampling

❖In cluster sampling, population is divided into

groups called clusters

❖These clusters are as heterogeneous as possible

to matching the population

❖Random sample is then taken from within one

or more selected clusters

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 Cluster Sampling
❖Cluster sampling can tell us a lot about that
particular cluster, but unless the clusters are
selected randomly, & lot of clusters are sampled,
generalizations cannot be made about population

E.g. 1. grouping number of ring frames and checking

any cluster
2. Sample taken for a particular shift (night shift testing
sample will be from night shift production)

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Non-statistical Sampling
•In this type of sampling, information about
entire population cannot be extrapolated from
the sample

Non-statistical sampling is of two types,

i. Haphazard sampling

ii. Judgmental sampling

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 Haphazard sampling
✓ In Haphazard sampling the samples are selected
based on convenience, but preferably should still
be chosen as randomly as possible.

✓ Testing operator may choose any bobbin that is

closer to him/ on top surface/ at the bottom

✓ It is quicker and sample size is smaller

✓ Since it is not statistically based, generalization

about population should be made cautiously
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Judgmental Sampling
▪In this sampling method, person selecting sample
uses his/her knowledge or experience to select
the items to be sampled

▪ For example, based on experience, a person may know which

type of items have more chance of non-conformance or which
type of items had problem in past or which has higher risk of
getting rejected

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 Types of Sample
➢ Random Sample
Every individual in the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample

➢ Numerical Sample: The sample in which proportion

of all the fibres is exactly the equal to the proportion in
the population

➢ Biased Sample: Where selection of an individual is

influenced by factor other than chance, the sample
ceases to be truly representative of bulk & a biased
sample results
✓ In such case, sample may not be entirely representative of
the bulk
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Causes of Biased Sample

➢Bias due to specific physical characteristics
✓Longer fibre always have greater chance of being selected
because it has higher surface area

➢Bias due to position of individuals in the bulk

relative to sampler
✓Individuals in the bulk nearest to the sampler or the top
layer may get selected in the sample

➢Subconscious Bias
➢ Sampler may select only the cleaner portion of the bulk
➢ We have tendency to pick best looking and damage free
cone or bobbin
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Length biased & Extent biased Sample
In fibre sampling, common instances of bias are
Length Bias and Extent Bias
❖Length biased sample: This sample would consist
of greater proportion of longer fibres than would be
contained in the bulk
❖ Because: in any sample or strand of fibres, it will be
mostly the longer fibres project out (Longer fibres have
higher surface area)  Length biased sample

❖Extent biased sample

Fibre extent: The extent of a fibre in a strand is the
distance parallel to the strand axis through which it extends
The chance of a fibre being selected from a strand &
included in sample is proportional to its extents and
the sample will be 'extent biased' 25

Selecting Sample from Bulk

• When large number of bales of particular variety of
cotton are purchased, a few bales are chosen at
random as representing the bulk
Bulk Size (bales) Sample Size (bales)
Up to 50 2
51-100 4
101-150 7
151-300 13
301-500 20
501-1000 32
1000 & above 40

➢ Select number of bales based on bulk size to represent the population

➢ Draw sample from each of the bale (from all zones of individual bale) and
mix well
➢ Finally prepare a basic sample weighing around 1 kg to 1.5 kg by mixing
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material from all the randomly chosen bales

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 Zoning Technique
• Cotton fibre selection from bulk (bale)
Step 1: From bulk, sample of about 50 g is
prepared by selecting about 80 large tufts
chosen, from max. portions of bulk
Step 2: Divide this sample in four quarters
Step 3: Take 16 small tufts at random from
each quarter, size approx. 20 mg
Step 4: Each tuft shall be halved four times,
discarded alternately with right & left hands and
turning the tuft through a right angle between
successive halvings. 16 wisps are thus produced
from each quarter sample
Step 5: Combine each set of wisps into a
tuft
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Zoning Technique (cont.)

Step 6: Mix each tuft in turn by 'doubling
and drawing' between the fingers
Step 7: Divide each tuft into 4 parts
Step 8: Obtain 4 new tufts by combining a
part of each of the former tuft
Step 9: Mix each new tuft again by
doubling and drawing
Step 10: Take a quarter from each tuft to
make the final sample

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 Selection of Fibre sample from parallel
fibre strand
• Representation of an idealized sliver composed of 6-, 8-,
& 10-unit fibres, all parallel to sliver axis (shown in Figure)
• If sample is selected at line AA, selected sample will have
six fibres 6 units long, eight fibres 8 units long, & ten
fibres 10 units long (its not unbiased sample)
• To obtain an unbiased sample, only those fibres whose
ends terminate in a given volume should be selected

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Selection of Fibre sample from parallel

fibre strand
• All the fibres protrude past AA are combed away & discarded
• Move the line AA to BB
• Fibres now protruding past BB are those whole ends terminate in
volume AA-BB
• If these fibres are combed & classified in length groups, there are
nine fibres in each of the 6-, 8-, & 10-unit length groups
• Thus, fibre length has not influenced choice of fibres included in
the sample & therefore an unbiased sample is achieved

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 Squaring Technique
This method is used to take sample from sliver
• Sliver is opened out into web & placed on a black velvet pad
• End of the sliver is then squared off
• A glass plate is placed over the fibres to act as a control, & small fringe
is left projecting beyond the edge of the plate
• All the protruding fibres are removed & discarded
• Glass plate is moved back a little & a second fringe is removed
• It is necessary to repeat this operation until final position of the plate
edge is at least a distance equal to the length of the longest fibre
present from its original position

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Squaring Technique (cont.)

• This is necessary because whenever a strand is broken
there is a bias of long fibres at each broken fringe

• Glass plate is then moved back for one last time &
protruding fibres from leading edge are removed and
taken as Numerical sample

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 Cut-squaring method
• Modified squaring technique
• Used for sliver, roving, yarns (parallel arrangement of fibres
in strand)
• Twisted strands is first untwisted, opened out little & laid
parallel on black velvet pad
• Glass plate is placed over it (with leading edge perpendicular
to strand axis)
• Fringe is cut with scissors as near the glass plate as possible,
& projecting fibre ends are removed by forceps & discarded

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Cut-Squaring Method (cont.)

• Glass plate is the moved back 1 mm & again projecting
fringe is removed & discarded
• This operation is repeated
• Finally, after third movement of glass plate, the fringe
is removed & used as sample

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 Core Sampling Method for Raw Wool
➢This method is used to assess proportion of grease,
vegetable matter in the wool sample taken from
unopened bales of raw wool

➢ Coring tube length is 2 ft, it penetrates up to center of

the bale
➢ Tube enters in the direction of compression, i.e.,
cutting is perpendicular to layers of fleece
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Core Sampling Method for Raw Wool

➢ Cutting tip diameter is smaller than coring tube
diameter
✓ Helps in sliding of core inside the coring tube
✓ Helps in retaining the core when tube is withdrawn
➢ Number of cores are extracted (from number of bales)
& combined
➢ Different sizes of tubes 14 mm, 15 mm &
18 mm
➢ After sample extraction, it is immediately
stored in air tight container

Sample can be used for grease content, vegetable 36

matter content but not for fibre length

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Tong Sampling Method for Wool Sample
• All the previous methods give unbiased samples, but this method gives extent
biased sample
• Fibres must be more or less parallel, method can be used for so sliver, roving
& yarn
• After opening out the material into a thin flat sheet, one pair of tongs is used to
clamp about 3 groups of fibres at right angles to fibre direction
• Clamped fibres are removed from rest of the sample, and combed on one side
• After combing, second pair of tongs clamps fibres on combed side (tong should
be parallel and in contact with first tong)
• First tong is then removed, & uncombed fringe is combed
• Fully combed sample is then transferred to velvet pad for further testing

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Yarn Sampling
➢Count of yarn removed from fabric
Cut from conditioned sample,
✓At least 2 rectangular strips containing different warp ends
for determining count of warp yarns
✓at least 5 rectangular strips representing different weft
packages for determining the count of weft yarns
✓All the strips should preferably be of same length (about
20 inch long)
✓Width should contain at least 50 threads of warp or weft
(whichever is under consideration)

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 Yarn Sampling
➢Twist in yarn in package form
✓Take test specimens in equal numbers from ten packages
✓No specimen being taken from within 1 yd of the end of
package
✓Minimum distance of 1 yd between consecutive specimens

➢Single thread tensile test

✓Specimen can be taken from any package, from unwoven warp
or from woven or knitted fabric
✓At least 50 specimens shall be taken for each test on single
yarns & two ply yarn (medium to fine count)

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Fabric Sampling
When taking sample from fabric, following
recommendations should be kept in mind

• Fabric within 2 inch of the selvedge should not be used

• No two samples should contain the same threads; in
other words, as many of the component threads as
possible should be represented in the samples

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 Fabric Sampling
• When weft way strips are selected, some of the strips
should include fabric woven from two weft packages.
This is because the weft tension at the start of a fresh
package may be much lower than the tension at the end
of the old package, thereby giving rise to a change in the
fabric structure and some variation in strength, an effect
known as the 'cop end effect'.

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