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INTRODUCTION
The quest to understand the world around us and make sense of the bewildering complexity
and diversity of human existence in addition to finding and deriving meaning from life is as
old as humanity itself. Indeed, throughout history, philosophers, thinkers, and seers have
meditated on the world around them and have produced treatises’ about what they found.
With the flowering of human thought during the time of the 18th and 19th centuries, such
methods of enquiry were formalized and given specific names such as social research and
scientific research. While the former relies on observation and interpretation of the world
through conversations, meditation, and other forms of enquiry, the latter relies on verifiable
experimentation, empirical examination, and a method of research that is based on numerical
outcomes of the research.
The essential difference between social research and scientific research is that the former
relies more on qualitative methods whereas the latter relies on quantitative methods.
The branch of knowledge today referred to as the Social Sciences has human beings as its
focus of analysis, both as individuals and as actors within their various social settings.
This paper, therefore discusses research methodology in the social sciences, intending to aid a
deeper appreciation of the unity of knowledge.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Knowledge refers to expertise or skills possessed or acquired by an individual. It is the
knowledge of the world around us that helps us lead our life as a member of society. It helps
predict events, therefore mitigating the suffering or enhancing the well-being of individuals
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and groups. We commonly understand that the acquisition of knowledge is possible through
two fundamental means: experience (empirical) and reasoning (logical). The former
includes the knowledge we gain through sensory perceptions and the latter includes logic and
mathematical knowledge. However, in practice, we gain knowledge through processes that
are combinations of experience and reasoning.
However, in practical life, not all forms of knowledge can be subjected to the test of truth and
falsehood. There are forms of knowledge which cannot be subjected to this yet are very
essential to lead life. As a member of society, we learn morals that govern our life and tend to
lead our lives as per these norms, values, opinions, preferences, etc. This knowledge can only
be tested in the dimension of good or bad. This domain of knowledge could be called
morals. This governs most decisions in our day-to-day life. Terming this form of knowledge
as practical knowledge, Immanuel Kant (1864–1920) distinguished it from theoretical
knowledge.
Similarly, we have other forms of knowledge such as art (to differentiate between different
musical ragas), esthetics (appreciating a painting), and religious knowledge which cannot be
tested in the dimension of truth and falsehood.
Scholars have identified four principal ways by which knowledge and belief are acquired
and /or validated. These are tenacity, authority, intuition and the scientific method. The first
three are said to be non-scientific and therefore non-replicable.
Science: Etymologically, the word “science” is derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’,
meaning knowledge. Science, therefore, refers to a particular form of knowledge, which
could be relied on to gain a more dependable, correct, or true understanding of the world, and
how the world works. It also refers to a search for knowledge using a set of systematic
principles such as objectivity and measurability which are universally accepted.
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All sciences aspire to understand reality and/or attempt to explain how the world works.
Although this can be common for all disciplines, social sciences differ enormously from
natural sciences in terms of the way they look at reality, part of the reality they choose to
study, and the kind of problems they choose to address. Science is currently the most reliable
and preferred method for the study of phenomena. Science can be grouped into two broad
categories: natural science and social science.
Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description,
understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence
from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of
findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be
broadly divided into two main branches; these are life science and physical science. Life
science is also known as biology, which is the study of living things. Physical science has
four subdivisions, which are: Life science includes disciplines such as biology(the study of
the human body) and botany (the science of plants), Chemistry (the study of substances),
Earth sciences consists of disciplines such as geology (the study of our planet), Physics (the
study of matter and energy) and Astronomy ( the science of celestial bodies).
RESEARCH
Research is the method of enquiry that uses systematic scientific techniques such as
experimental, quasi-experimental and non-experimental. These techniques are used to collect
secondary and primary information regarding a topic, Kothari (2004). On the other hand,
Merrian-Webster (2012) described the research as a hierarchy of actions toward investigation
for knowledge gain from new facts (discovery).
Either Zickmund (1997) added that this systematic investigation could be on either existing
or new knowledge whereby the knowledge found can be used to lay a foundation to prove
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facts, or contribute to expansion on results of previous works and resolve existing problems.
The research seeks to find explanations for unexplained phenomena, clarify propositions, and
correct misconceived facts. The search for a fact can be made through either; arbitrary
(unscientific) methods or scientific methods.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Scientific research is the process by which scientists study various phenomena using
systematic methods of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data. It is often referred to as a
creative process because it involves novel ways to test ideas that can lead to new ideas and
information.
Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical - based on observations and experimentation
2. Systematic - follows an orderly and sequential procedure.
3. Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept
constant.
4. Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
5. Analytical - There is a critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation
6. Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.
7. Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical
measures and are treated statistically.
The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of
acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, supporting a theory
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when a theory’s predictions are confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions
prove false.
Scientific research has multidimensional functions, characteristics, and objectives. Keeping
these issues in view, we assert that research in any field or discipline:
● Attempts to solve a research problem;
● Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose;
● is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence;
● Demands accurate observation and description;
● Employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis;
● attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains
to validate the methods employed;
● is a deliberate and unhurried activity that is directional but often refines the problem
or questions as the research progresses.
Steps In Conducting Scientific Research.
Social research involves the following stages
● Selection of Research Problems
● Review of Related Literature
● Formulation of Research Objectives
● Devising Hypotheses
● Making the Research Design
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● Sampling Procedure
● Data Collection
● Data Analysis and Interpretation
● Hypotheses Testing
● Deriving findings, conclusions and suggestions
● Report Writing
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
Some functions of social research are:
● Discover New Facts or Verify/Test Old Facts: Social research allows us to discover
new facts about social life, individuals, and institution. It adds to our current body of
knowledge. It can also be used to test or verify old facts.
● To Improve Social Welfare: Social research allows us to identify the root of a social
problem so that we can take appropriate remedial actions to improve social welfare.
● To Gain More Control over Social Phenomena: Social research helps obtain first-
hand information about social dynamics and social institutions. This helps us gain
more control over social phenomena.
● Development Planning: Social research provides a base for the planning and
designing of developmental schemes and programs.
● Systematic Study of Social Life: It examines human behaviour in a social
environment and collects data on diverse aspects of a person’s social life. The data
helps research establish an interrelationship between these.
THEORY IN SOCIAL RESEARCH
Theory (Gelso 2006) is a statement of the suspected relationship between and among
variables. Theory can be defined as a group of logically organised laws or relationship that
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constitutes an explanation in a discipline. A theory is an idea intended to explain facts or
events
Functions of Theory
1. It helps us classify things as entities for search and casual relationships
2. Serve as a basis for action
3. It helps understand how and why already observed irregularities occur.
4. Help interpret data
5. Helps to design a research question
Theoretical framework
A theoretical framework is a way of analysing predicting and interpreting a phenomenon. The
theoretical framework provides the overall theoretical background frames in research work
Theoretical framework discusses
1. Research problem
2. The rationale for conducting an investigation of the problem
The theoretical framework is not merely a description of a relevant theory, but the first step.
The next step is to apply the theory as a guide for analysis and explanation. Social research is
of two forms quantitative and qualitative dimensions
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
This is quantifiable evidence. It emphasizes mathematical or numerical analysis of data.
Quantitative research is either descriptive or experimental
Characteristics of quantitative research
1 the data is usually gathered using structured research instruments
2. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected
3. The researcher uses such as a questionnaire or computer software to collect
numerical data
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4. Natural environment
5. Multiple sources of data
6. Inductive data analysis
7. The use of a repeatable method
8. A random sampling of participants usually in the case of a questionnaire
Strength Of Quantitative Analysis
Strengths
1. Findings can be generalised if the selection process is well-designed and the sample is
representative of the study population
2 Relatively easy to analyse
3 Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable
Limitations
1. Related secondary data is sometimes not available or accessing available data is
difficult/impossible
2. Difficult to understand the context of a phenomenon
3. Data may not be robust enough to explain complex
QUALITATIVE METHOD
Qualitative data are usually gathered by observation, interviews or focus groups, but may also
be gathered from written documents and through case studies. In qualitative research, there is
less emphasis on counting the number of people who think or behave in certain ways and
more on explaining why people think and behave in certain ways. Participants in qualitative
studies often involve smaller numbers of tools including and utilising open-ended
questionnaires and interview guides. This type of research is best used to answer how and
why questions and is not well suited to generalisable what, when and who questions.
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Characteristics of qualitative research
1. Real-world Setting
2. Researcher Plays an important role
3. Different Research methods
4. Complex reasoning
5. Flexible
Strengths Of The Qualitative Research Approach
Some major strengths of qualitative research are as follows.
Flexibility: This qualitative research approach uses either semi-structured interviews, open-
ended questionnaires or both, which provided their subjects with an opportunity to offer more
explanation and perhaps clarifications since they are not confined to a specific limit on what
to respond to.
The use of multiple data collection tools: makes qualitative research data more credible
since the strengths of one research tool supplements the weaknesses of the other. The use of
multiple tools allows respondents to use a particular tool they are comfortable with.
Integration of human touch: researchers interact with the respondents allowing a researcher
to understand the actual feelings and experiences of the respondents. The magnitude of the
research problem can be easily understood through narrations from respondents.
Cost-effectiveness: Small samples are preferred and used in qualitative research allowing
research to be conducted with reduced capital. Because of this, research problems can be
solved with a minimum amount of money.
Limitations Of The Qualitative Approach To Research
Some major weaknesses of qualitative research are as follows
Subjectivity: In some situations, people may provide different interpretations of the same
thing based on varied reasons. Based on that, the qualitative approach is generally
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interpretive. Researchers have the task of interpreting what they hear, see, taste, touch or
smell. What one interprets as good or bad is not necessarily interpreted the same way by
another person making the qualitative approach subjective.
Generalisability: Because of the small sample size used in the qualitative approach, findings
are considered specific for the group of people where a study was conducted with a limited
chance of using the findings to generalise to the rest of the population not included in the
study.
Difficulty in replicating findings: One of the important aspects of research is the ability of
the research findings to produce similar results under the same methods and similar
circumstances. Replication in a qualitative study is challenging since people have varied
feelings, experiences and backgrounds, therefore producing similar results may not be
practical in some cases.
Data may be influenced by the researcher’s bias: Direct involvement of a researcher with
the respondents may consciously or subconsciously affect collected data. Since researchers
are human beings, they may be tempted to report what did not happen, exaggerate or
understate the actual situation found in the field. Other factors may influence a researcher to
become biased during data collection and reporting.
METHODS AND METHODOLOGY IN SOCIAL SCIENCE
RESEARCH
A research methodology is simply an outline of the tools, techniques, and procedures used
within a research study to gather data, analyse it, and interpret it. It explains what steps are
taken during research, as well as why and how you took them. A good research methodology
will include,
● Type of Research Conducted
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● Data Collection Methods Employed
● Data Analysis Methods Employed
● Tools and Techniques used to Carry out the Research
● A Rationale to Substantiate why Certain Methods were Chosen
● Limitations of Methods Employed
SOURCES OF DATA USED IN SOCIAL RESEARCH
We can classify sources of data used in social research in two ways:
● Primary and Secondary Data: Primary data refers to information that is gathered
first-hand by researchers using methods such as interviews, experiments, surveys, etc.
Secondary data, on the other hand, refers to information that already exists and has
been collected by previous researchers or organizations. It includes sources such as
existing research papers, government reports, newspapers, etc.
● Quantitative and Qualitative Data: Quantitative data refers to information that takes
a numerical or statistical form while qualitative data refers to information that takes a
non-numerical form such as words, visuals, or audio.
RESEARCH METHODS EMPLOYED IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
Survey: is conducted by sending a set of pre-decided questions to a sample of individuals
from a target audience. This leads to a collection of information and feedback from
individuals around the world. Surveys can be conducted via online and offline mediums.
Some examples include mail, hand-delivered, group-administered and household drop-
off surveys.
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There are various types of social research surveys: Longitudinal, Cross-sectional, and
Correlational Research. Longitudinal and Cross-sectional social research surveys are
observational methods while Correlational is a non-experimental research method.
Longitudinal social research surveys are conducted with the same sample over a course of
time while Cross-sectional surveys are conducted with different samples.
Experiments: Experimental research is conducted by researchers to observe the change in
one variable on another, i.e. to establish the cause and effects of a variable. In experiments,
there is a theory which needs to be proven or disproven by careful observation and analysis.
A hypothesis is created based on limited evidence and once the experiment is carried out, its
outcome allows for the rejection or verification of the hypothesis. There are two key types of
experiments; laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory experiments take place in a
controlled environment whereas field experiments take place in real-life settings
(uncontrolled environments).
Interviews: This is the technique of garnering opinions and feedback by asking selected
questions face-to-face, via telephone or online mediums. There are formal and informal
interviews. Formal interviews are organized by the researcher with structured open-ended
and closed-ended questions while Informal interviews are more of conversations with the
participants and are extremely flexible to collect as much information as possible.
Observation: involves researchers joining their subjects in their natural environment to
observe how they behave in real social settings. This can either be covert or overt. When it is
overt, respondents are aware that they are a part of a sociological research project. When it is
covert (undercover), respondents believe that the researcher is ‘one of them’ and are likely
unaware that they are a part of a research study.
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Content Analysis: analyses the content of written documents such as books, newspapers,
articles, magazines, and even lectures. Under content analysis, systematic analysis is
constructed of the subject or the theme being communicated by the mass media.
LANGUAGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.
Language of social science can be seen as the basic component of communication and it
provides a basic understanding between individuals. Without a good understanding, there is
no good communication. In research methodology, we encounter
1. Concept: Concepts are defined simply as abstract ideas. It can be defined further in two
types which are: Conceptual and operational definition.
Conceptual consists of primitive and derived terms while operational refers to a set of
procedures that describes the activities one should perform.
2 Variable: It can be simply defined as something that can be changed or uttered, such as a
characteristic or value. There are different types of variables.
3. Population: It can be defined as a group of individuals of the same species within a
community.
4. Sample: It can simply be defined as a smaller, manageable version of a larger group. It is
a subset containing the characteristics of a larger population.
5. Subject: It can be defined as a single member of a sample.
6. Parameter: A parameter is an attribute that describes the population.
7. Statistics: They are numbers, summaries of patterns and can also be probabilities.
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8. Hypothesis: It is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables
or a proposed explanation for some observed phenomenon.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher
to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable
for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.
Research Design Types
A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select which model
to implement for a study. Like the research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly
classified into quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative research determines the relationships between collected data and observations
based on mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related
to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that
conclude “why” a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.
Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable
insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business
decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization.
Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when
making decisions about the business’s future.
You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:
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Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the
situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by
gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide
insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand
the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory
research.
Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect
of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the independent
variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an
independent variable such as a price, on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or
brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.
Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique. It
helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. There is
no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two other variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires
two different groups.
Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the
underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about
the factors that create troublesome situations. This design has three parts of the research:
● The inception of the issue
● Diagnosis of the issue
● Solution for the issue
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Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a
subject to further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject
and details the research questions’ what, how, and why.
Research Design Elements
Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy
of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in experimental
research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are,
● Accurate purpose statement
● Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
● The methods applied to analyzing collected details
● Type of research methodology
● Probable objections to research
● Settings for the research study
● Timeline
● Measurement of analysis.
Characteristics of Research Design
Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to
create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key
characteristics:
● Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about
the data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free
from bias and neutral.
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● Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results
every time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable.
● Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of the research. Only then will the questionnaire developed be valid.
● Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not
just a restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be
conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES RESEARCH.
An ethic is more than the presence of a basic value or value. It is the base of action in any
science. The ethics between the ethics of science and the personal respect of the researcher is
the major problem in social science research. Issues of ethics arise primarily out of the
researcher's relation with different sectors of society. E.g research respondents, sponsors of
research etc. Ethics in social science research basically addresses those issues that concern
the behaviour of a social researcher and the consequences that their research brings to the
people they study. As such ethical Issues have the potential to impact every stage of the
research process and within any research project. There are seven basic ethical issues in
social science research thus:
1. Informed consent
2. Deception
3. Privacy (including confidentiality and anonymity)
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5. Physical or mental distress
6. Problems in sponsored research
7. Scientific misconduct or fraud and scientific advocacy.
DOCUMENTATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
The documentation research method refers to the analysis of documents that contains
information about the scenario or event under consideration. It is used to investigate,
categorize and analyze physical sources, most commonly written documents, in the social,
public or digital world.
Scientific writing is different from everyday writing because it carefully documents its
sources through the use of citations and it helps the reader to see what inspired the writer and
to check the validity of their work. Acknowledging the work of others involves citing the
sources that were used in the text and compiling all the sources consulted at the end of the
writing in form of references or bibliography depending on the particular documentation style
adopted.
Various documentation styles are in use in academic scientific writings such as the American
Psychological Association, Modern Language Association, Turban or Chicago style,
American Medical Association and council of science Editors.
A proper citation has two components for documentation of sources within the paper(in-
text)and at the end of the paper. The in-text citation may be in the form of a footnote, endnote
or parenthetical reference and is placed next to each quote paraphrased in order to document
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its source. On the other hand, the end-of-text or end-of-paper citation is a comprehensive list
of all the works used in the research project
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