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INTRODUCTION

The quest to understand the world around us and make sense of the bewildering complexity

and diversity of human existence in addition to finding and deriving meaning from life is as

old as humanity itself. Indeed, throughout history, philosophers, thinkers, and seers have

meditated on the world around them and have produced treatises’ about what they found.

With the flowering of human thought during the time of the 18th and 19th centuries, such

methods of enquiry were formalized and given specific names such as social research and

scientific research. While the former relies on observation and interpretation of the world

through conversations, meditation, and other forms of enquiry, the latter relies on verifiable

experimentation, empirical examination, and a method of research that is based on numerical

outcomes of the research.

The essential difference between social research and scientific research is that the former

relies more on qualitative methods whereas the latter relies on quantitative methods.

The branch of knowledge today referred to as the Social Sciences has human beings as its

focus of analysis, both as individuals and as actors within their various social settings.

This paper, therefore discusses research methodology in the social sciences, intending to aid a

deeper appreciation of the unity of knowledge.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Knowledge refers to expertise or skills possessed or acquired by an individual. It is the

knowledge of the world around us that helps us lead our life as a member of society. It helps

predict events, therefore mitigating the suffering or enhancing the well-being of individuals
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and groups. We commonly understand that the acquisition of knowledge is possible through

two fundamental means: experience (empirical) and reasoning (logical). The former

includes the knowledge we gain through sensory perceptions and the latter includes logic and

mathematical knowledge. However, in practice, we gain knowledge through processes that

are combinations of experience and reasoning.

However, in practical life, not all forms of knowledge can be subjected to the test of truth and

falsehood. There are forms of knowledge which cannot be subjected to this yet are very

essential to lead life. As a member of society, we learn morals that govern our life and tend to

lead our lives as per these norms, values, opinions, preferences, etc. This knowledge can only

be tested in the dimension of good or bad. This domain of knowledge could be called

morals. This governs most decisions in our day-to-day life. Terming this form of knowledge

as practical knowledge, Immanuel Kant (1864–1920) distinguished it from theoretical

knowledge.

Similarly, we have other forms of knowledge such as art (to differentiate between different

musical ragas), esthetics (appreciating a painting), and religious knowledge which cannot be

tested in the dimension of truth and falsehood.

Scholars have identified four principal ways by which knowledge and belief are acquired

and /or validated. These are tenacity, authority, intuition and the scientific method. The first

three are said to be non-scientific and therefore non-replicable.

Science: Etymologically, the word “science” is derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’,

meaning knowledge. Science, therefore, refers to a particular form of knowledge, which

could be relied on to gain a more dependable, correct, or true understanding of the world, and

how the world works. It also refers to a search for knowledge using a set of systematic

principles such as objectivity and measurability which are universally accepted.

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All sciences aspire to understand reality and/or attempt to explain how the world works.

Although this can be common for all disciplines, social sciences differ enormously from

natural sciences in terms of the way they look at reality, part of the reality they choose to

study, and the kind of problems they choose to address. Science is currently the most reliable

and preferred method for the study of phenomena. Science can be grouped into two broad

categories: natural science and social science.

Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description,

understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence

from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of

findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be

broadly divided into two main branches; these are life science and physical science. Life

science is also known as biology,  which is the study of living things. Physical science has

four subdivisions, which are: Life science includes disciplines such as biology(the study of

the human body) and botany (the science of plants), Chemistry (the study of substances),

Earth sciences consists of disciplines such as geology (the study of our planet), Physics (the

study of matter and energy) and Astronomy ( the science of celestial bodies).

RESEARCH

Research is the method of enquiry that uses systematic scientific techniques such as

experimental, quasi-experimental and non-experimental. These techniques are used to collect

secondary and primary information regarding a topic, Kothari (2004). On the other hand,

Merrian-Webster (2012) described the research as a hierarchy of actions toward investigation

for knowledge gain from new facts (discovery).

Either Zickmund (1997) added that this systematic investigation could be on either existing

or new knowledge whereby the knowledge found can be used to lay a foundation to prove
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facts, or contribute to expansion on results of previous works and resolve existing problems.

The research seeks to find explanations for unexplained phenomena, clarify propositions, and

correct misconceived facts. The search for a fact can be made through either; arbitrary

(unscientific) methods or scientific methods.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Scientific research is the process by which scientists study various phenomena using

systematic methods of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data. It is often referred to as a

creative process because it involves novel ways to test ideas that can lead to new ideas and

information.

Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical - based on observations and experimentation

2. Systematic - follows an orderly and sequential procedure.

3. Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept

constant.

4. Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process

5. Analytical - There is a critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their

interpretation

6. Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.

7. Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical

measures and are treated statistically.

The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of

acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, supporting a theory
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when a theory’s predictions are confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions

prove false.

Scientific research has multidimensional functions, characteristics, and objectives. Keeping

these issues in view, we assert that research in any field or discipline:

● Attempts to solve a research problem;

● Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data

for a new purpose;

● is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence;

● Demands accurate observation and description;

● Employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis;

● attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains

to validate the methods employed;

● is a deliberate and unhurried activity that is directional but often refines the problem

or questions as the research progresses.

Steps In Conducting Scientific Research.

Social research involves the following stages

● Selection of Research Problems

● Review of Related Literature

● Formulation of Research Objectives

● Devising Hypotheses

● Making the Research Design

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● Sampling Procedure

● Data Collection

● Data Analysis and Interpretation

● Hypotheses Testing

● Deriving findings, conclusions and suggestions

● Report Writing

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Some functions of social research are: 

● Discover New Facts or Verify/Test Old Facts: Social research allows us to discover

new facts about social life, individuals, and institution. It adds to our current body of

knowledge. It can also be used to test or verify old facts. 

● To Improve Social Welfare: Social research allows us to identify the root of a social

problem so that we can take appropriate remedial actions to improve social welfare. 

● To Gain More Control over Social Phenomena: Social research helps obtain first-

hand information about social dynamics and social institutions. This helps us gain

more control over social phenomena. 

● Development Planning: Social research provides a base for the planning and

designing of developmental schemes and programs.

● Systematic Study of Social Life: It examines human behaviour in a social

environment and collects data on diverse aspects of a person’s social life. The data

helps research establish an interrelationship between these.

THEORY IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

Theory (Gelso 2006) is a statement of the suspected relationship between and among

variables. Theory can be defined as a group of logically organised laws or relationship that
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constitutes an explanation in a discipline. A theory is an idea intended to explain facts or

events

Functions of Theory

1. It helps us classify things as entities for search and casual relationships

2. Serve as a basis for action

3. It helps understand how and why already observed irregularities occur.

4. Help interpret data

5. Helps to design a research question

Theoretical framework

A theoretical framework is a way of analysing predicting and interpreting a phenomenon. The

theoretical framework provides the overall theoretical background frames in research work

Theoretical framework discusses

1. Research problem

2. The rationale for conducting an investigation of the problem

The theoretical framework is not merely a description of a relevant theory, but the first step.

The next step is to apply the theory as a guide for analysis and explanation. Social research is

of two forms quantitative and qualitative dimensions

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

This is quantifiable evidence. It emphasizes mathematical or numerical analysis of data.

Quantitative research is either descriptive or experimental

Characteristics of quantitative research

1 the data is usually gathered using structured research instruments

2. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected

3. The researcher uses such as a questionnaire or computer software to collect

numerical data
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4. Natural environment

5. Multiple sources of data

6. Inductive data analysis

7. The use of a repeatable method

8. A random sampling of participants usually in the case of a questionnaire

Strength Of Quantitative Analysis

Strengths

1. Findings can be generalised if the selection process is well-designed and the sample is

representative of the study population

2 Relatively easy to analyse

3 Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable

Limitations

1. Related secondary data is sometimes not available or accessing available data is

difficult/impossible

2. Difficult to understand the context of a phenomenon

3. Data may not be robust enough to explain complex

QUALITATIVE METHOD

Qualitative data are usually gathered by observation, interviews or focus groups, but may also

be gathered from written documents and through case studies. In qualitative research, there is

less emphasis on counting the number of people who think or behave in certain ways and

more on explaining why people think and behave in certain ways. Participants in qualitative

studies often involve smaller numbers of tools including and utilising open-ended

questionnaires and interview guides. This type of research is best used to answer how and

why questions and is not well suited to generalisable what, when and who questions.
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Characteristics of qualitative research

1. Real-world Setting

2. Researcher Plays an important role

3. Different Research methods

4. Complex reasoning

5. Flexible

Strengths Of The Qualitative Research Approach

Some major strengths of qualitative research are as follows.

Flexibility: This qualitative research approach uses either semi-structured interviews, open-

ended questionnaires or both, which provided their subjects with an opportunity to offer more

explanation and perhaps clarifications since they are not confined to a specific limit on what

to respond to.

The use of multiple data collection tools: makes qualitative research data more credible

since the strengths of one research tool supplements the weaknesses of the other. The use of

multiple tools allows respondents to use a particular tool they are comfortable with.

Integration of human touch: researchers interact with the respondents allowing a researcher

to understand the actual feelings and experiences of the respondents. The magnitude of the

research problem can be easily understood through narrations from respondents.

Cost-effectiveness: Small samples are preferred and used in qualitative research allowing

research to be conducted with reduced capital. Because of this, research problems can be

solved with a minimum amount of money.

Limitations Of The Qualitative Approach To Research

Some major weaknesses of qualitative research are as follows

Subjectivity: In some situations, people may provide different interpretations of the same

thing based on varied reasons. Based on that, the qualitative approach is generally
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interpretive. Researchers have the task of interpreting what they hear, see, taste, touch or

smell. What one interprets as good or bad is not necessarily interpreted the same way by

another person making the qualitative approach subjective.

Generalisability: Because of the small sample size used in the qualitative approach, findings

are considered specific for the group of people where a study was conducted with a limited

chance of using the findings to generalise to the rest of the population not included in the

study.

Difficulty in replicating findings: One of the important aspects of research is the ability of

the research findings to produce similar results under the same methods and similar

circumstances. Replication in a qualitative study is challenging since people have varied

feelings, experiences and backgrounds, therefore producing similar results may not be

practical in some cases.

Data may be influenced by the researcher’s bias: Direct involvement of a researcher with

the respondents may consciously or subconsciously affect collected data. Since researchers

are human beings, they may be tempted to report what did not happen, exaggerate or

understate the actual situation found in the field. Other factors may influence a researcher to

become biased during data collection and reporting.

METHODS AND METHODOLOGY IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

RESEARCH

A research methodology is simply an outline of the tools, techniques, and procedures used

within a research study to gather data, analyse it, and interpret it. It explains what steps are

taken during research, as well as why and how you took them. A good research methodology

will include,

● Type of Research Conducted

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● Data Collection Methods Employed

● Data Analysis Methods Employed

● Tools and Techniques used to Carry out the Research

● A Rationale to Substantiate why Certain Methods were Chosen

● Limitations of Methods Employed

SOURCES OF DATA USED IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

We can classify sources of data used in social research in two ways:

● Primary and Secondary Data: Primary data refers to information that is gathered

first-hand by researchers using methods such as interviews, experiments, surveys, etc.

Secondary data, on the other hand, refers to information that already exists and has

been collected by previous researchers or organizations. It includes sources such as

existing research papers, government reports, newspapers, etc.

● Quantitative and Qualitative Data: Quantitative data refers to information that takes

a numerical or statistical form while qualitative data refers to information that takes a

non-numerical form such as words, visuals, or audio.

RESEARCH METHODS EMPLOYED IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

Survey: is conducted by sending a set of pre-decided questions to a sample of individuals

from a target audience. This leads to a collection of information and feedback from

individuals around the world. Surveys can be conducted via online and offline mediums.

Some examples include mail, hand-delivered, group-administered and household drop-

off surveys.
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There are various types of social research surveys: Longitudinal, Cross-sectional, and

Correlational Research. Longitudinal and Cross-sectional social research surveys are

observational methods while Correlational is a non-experimental research method.

Longitudinal social research surveys are conducted with the same sample over a course of

time while Cross-sectional surveys are conducted with different samples.

Experiments: Experimental research is conducted by researchers to observe the change in

one variable on another, i.e. to establish the cause and effects of a variable. In experiments,

there is a theory which needs to be proven or disproven by careful observation and analysis.

A hypothesis is created based on limited evidence and once the experiment is carried out, its

outcome allows for the rejection or verification of the hypothesis. There are two key types of

experiments; laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory experiments take place in a

controlled environment whereas field experiments take place in real-life settings

(uncontrolled environments).

Interviews: This is the technique of garnering opinions and feedback by asking selected

questions face-to-face, via telephone or online mediums. There are formal and informal

interviews. Formal interviews are organized by the researcher with structured open-ended

and closed-ended questions while Informal interviews are more of conversations with the

participants and are extremely flexible to collect as much information as possible.

Observation: involves researchers joining their subjects in their natural environment to

observe how they behave in real social settings. This can either be covert or overt. When it is

overt, respondents are aware that they are a part of a sociological research project. When it is

covert (undercover), respondents believe that the researcher is ‘one of them’ and are likely

unaware that they are a part of a research study.

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Content Analysis: analyses the content of written documents such as books, newspapers,

articles, magazines, and even lectures. Under content analysis, systematic analysis is

constructed of the subject or the theme being communicated by the mass media.

LANGUAGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.

Language of social science can be seen as the basic component of communication and it

provides a basic understanding between individuals. Without a good understanding, there is

no good communication. In research methodology, we encounter

1. Concept: Concepts are defined simply as abstract ideas. It can be defined further in two

types which are: Conceptual and operational definition.

Conceptual consists of primitive and derived terms while operational refers to a set of

procedures that describes the activities one should perform.

2 Variable: It can be simply defined as something that can be changed or uttered, such as a

characteristic or value. There are different types of variables.

3. Population: It can be defined as a group of individuals of the same species within a

community.

4. Sample: It can simply be defined as a smaller, manageable version of a larger group. It is

a subset containing the characteristics of a larger population.

5. Subject: It can be defined as a single member of a sample.

6. Parameter: A parameter is an attribute that describes the population.

7. Statistics: They are numbers, summaries of patterns and can also be probabilities.
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8. Hypothesis: It is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

or a proposed explanation for some observed phenomenon.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher

to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable

for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.

Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select which model

to implement for a study. Like the research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly

classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research determines the relationships between collected data and observations

based on mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related

to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that

conclude “why” a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable

insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business

decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization.

Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when

making decisions about the business’s future.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:
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Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the

situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by

gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide

insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand

the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory

research.

Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect

of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the independent

variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an

independent variable such as a price, on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or

brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.

Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique. It

helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. There is

no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two other variables, and statistical

analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires

two different groups.

Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the

underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about

the factors that create troublesome situations. This design has three parts of the research:

● The inception of the issue

● Diagnosis of the issue

● Solution for the issue

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Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a

subject to further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject

and details the research questions’ what, how, and why.

Research Design Elements

Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy

of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in experimental

research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are,

● Accurate purpose statement

● Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research

● The methods applied to analyzing collected details

● Type of research methodology

● Probable objections to research

● Settings for the research study

● Timeline

● Measurement of analysis.

Characteristics of Research Design

Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to

create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key

characteristics:

● Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about

the data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free

from bias and neutral.

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● Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results

every time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable.

● Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct

measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the

objective of the research. Only then will the questionnaire developed be valid.

● Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not

just a restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be

conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES RESEARCH.

An ethic is more than the presence of a basic value or value. It is the base of action in any

science. The ethics between the ethics of science and the personal respect of the researcher is

the major problem in social science research. Issues of ethics arise primarily out of the

researcher's relation with different sectors of society. E.g research respondents, sponsors of

research etc. Ethics in social science research basically addresses those issues that concern

the behaviour of a social researcher and the consequences that their research brings to the

people they study. As such ethical Issues have the potential to impact every stage of the

research process and within any research project. There are seven basic ethical issues in

social science research thus:

1. Informed consent

2. Deception

3. Privacy (including confidentiality and anonymity)

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5. Physical or mental distress

6. Problems in sponsored research

7. Scientific misconduct or fraud and scientific advocacy.

DOCUMENTATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

The documentation research method refers to the analysis of documents that contains

information about the scenario or event under consideration. It is used to investigate,

categorize and analyze physical sources, most commonly written documents, in the social,

public or digital world.

Scientific writing is different from everyday writing because it carefully documents its

sources through the use of citations and it helps the reader to see what inspired the writer and

to check the validity of their work. Acknowledging the work of others involves citing the

sources that were used in the text and compiling all the sources consulted at the end of the

writing in form of references or bibliography depending on the particular documentation style

adopted.

Various documentation styles are in use in academic scientific writings such as the American

Psychological Association, Modern Language Association, Turban or Chicago style,

American Medical Association and council of science Editors.

A proper citation has two components for documentation of sources within the paper(in-

text)and at the end of the paper. The in-text citation may be in the form of a footnote, endnote

or parenthetical reference and is placed next to each quote paraphrased in order to document
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its source. On the other hand, the end-of-text or end-of-paper citation is a comprehensive list

of all the works used in the research project

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