Unit 1 Cells

Living things are made of cells Unicellular – one cell organism.

Multicellular – many celled organisms
Structure of a plant cell Cell wall – outside membrane. Completely Can you
permeable. identify
Chloroplasts – oval, many of them. Use chlorophyll these in a
for photosynthesis. diagram
Vacuole – Large. Location of cell sap. Storage. or
Plant cells contain everything an animal cell contains – picture?
see below
Structure of animal cells largest organelle – nucleus – stores DNA. Can you
Plasma/cell membrane – semi permeable cell identify
boundary. these in a
Cytoplasm – jelly like liquid inside cell enzyme diagram
catalyzed reactions here. Also called metabolic or
reactions. Mitochondria: aerobic respiration happens picture?
here, and active cells have many mitochondria (ex:
muscles).
RER: rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes on
it which make proteins.
Vesicles transport proteins around the cell, and out of
the cell.

Structure = Function
Ciliated cells in respiratory Secretes mucus - traps particles. Cilia move material away.
tract -long hair like
projections.
Root hair cells – “T” shaped, Increases rate of water absorption.
increases surface area
Xylem vessels (a tissue) Dead. Hollow-conduction of water.
Hollow. Strong cell wall. Strong cell wall-stops cell from bursting.
Red Blood Cells – biconcave, Biconcave/no nucleus: can carry more haemoglobin which carries
no nucleus, small and flexible. oxygen. Small and flexible: can squeeze through small capillaries.
Pallisade cells – top of leaf, Collects light, carries out photosynthesis
full of chloroplasts
Nerve cells – long and thin Conduction of impulses
egg cells – contain half of Reproduction
genetic material. Contains
yolk for energy storage
sperm – contains half genetic Reproduction
material. Tail for swimming
Magnification: AS X M = IS
AS: Actual Size - Usually small. M: magnification, seen in picture sometimes as number with “x”
after it. IS: image/picture size - Usually larger than AS. 1 mm = 1,000 µm
Definitions:
tissue: a group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared function
organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions
organ system: a group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions

1
 Unit 2 Cell transport

Definitions
Solute: A solid that dissolves (ex: sugar) in a solvent.
Solvent: A liquid (ex: water) that dissolves the solute.
Solution: A solution is a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Concentration: The amount of solute in an area. Also, the amount of a gas in an area. Ex: CO2 in
air.
Diffusion: the net movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region
of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.

High Concentration Low concentration

Diffusion is important:
Plants: carbon dioxide diffuses into cells (though guard cells and inner air space)
Animals: oxygen diffuses into cells, carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Osmosis
Osmosis: the diffusion of water molecules from a region
of their higher concentration (dilute solution) to a region of
their lower concentration (concentrated solution), through a
partially permeable membrane.
Osmosis: water moves from high water potential to low
water potential.
Example: Water flows into root hair cells by osmosis,
moving down it’s concentration gradient, from an area of
High water potential to an area of Low water potential, across a semi-permeable membrane.
Water: can diffuse through the cell membrane (partially permeable), faster with protein channel.
High solute concentration environment: water leaves cells by osmosis.
animal cell: shrivels. Plant cell: becomes plasmolyzed and cell membrane
tears away from cell wall.
Low solute concentration environment: water enters cell by osmosis.
Animal cell lysis (bursts). Plant cell wall prevents cell from bursting and
cell becomes “turgid.” This helps many plants remain upright (support).
Much of this support and turgor pressure is in xylem cells.

Active transport: The transport of molecules by a transport protein

pump up a concentration gradient across a membrane. Active transport
requires energy in the form of ATP (produced during respiration).
Importance of active transport:
1. To pump glucose (a sugar), into the body from the inside of the small intestine.
2. Root hair cells use ATP to pump ions up their concentration gradient, into the plant cells (where
there is a high concentration of ions).
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 Unit 3 Chemicals of life
The chemical reactions that take place in an organism to keep it living are called its metabolism.
Water makes up 80% of a human body. Water is needed as a solvent. Molecules need to be in solution
to react with each other. If a cell dries out the cell dies. Toxic waste chemicals like urea need to be in
solution to be transported and excreted. Red blood cells (in suspension) circulate in the body in
plasma which is mainly water. Water cools the body by sweat evaporating off the skin.

Carbohydrate Lipids (Fats and Oils) Protein

Elements CHO C H O (P) C H O N (S)
Basic Unit Monosaccharides Fatty Acids, Amino acids. There
(simple sugars) glycerol are 20 different types
Glucose/Fructose
Complex units Disaccharides (complex Triglycerides The 20 amino acids
sugar): Maltose (glucose and 1 glycerol and 3 Fatty can be joined into long
glucose), Sucrose (glucose acids chains called
and fructose) Plants have oils (liquid polypeptide. They
Polysaccharides at room temperature) have a wide range of
Starch (Plants) Animals have fats structural
Cellulose (Plants) (solids at room
Glycogen (Animals) temperature)
Solubility Simple sugars are soluble Insoluble Haemoglobin (soluble)
(white , sweet, crystalline Keratin (Hair is
solids) insoluble)
Polysaccharides are
insoluble
Use Release energy in Energy store in adipose Cell membrane
respiration (17kJ/g) tissue or in seeds Muscle
As a building block for (39kJ/g) Enzymes
polysaccharides Insulation Haemoglobin
Physical protection Antibodies
from damage Growth/repair/disease
Cell membrane fighting
Foods Sugar cane (sucrose) Peanuts, sesame (oils) Beans, peas eggs, milk
Nectar (fructose) Butter, cheese (fats) and meat
Milk (lactose)
Rice, potatoes (starch)
Food Test Benedict’s Test-Sugar Emulsion test Biuret Test
Mix the test substance with The test substance Mix the test substance
Benedict’s solution, Heat, a dissolves in ethanol to with some Biuret
positive test is a change form a clear solution. reagent a positive
from blue to orange/brick When this solution is result is a change from
red mixed with water it blue to lilac/purple
Iodine Test – Starch forms a milky/cloudy (violet)
Turns from brown to solution
blue/black if starch present
DNA Four bases: A, T, G and C. A complementary with T, G complementary with C
and hold the DNA double helix together (a double helix is like a twisted ladder)

3
 Unit 4 Enzymes

Definitions:
Enzyme: a protein that functions as a biological catalyst.
Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and is not changed by the
reaction.
Substrate + Enzyme  Enzyme + Product

Lock and key mechanism:

An enzyme fits it’s substrate like a lock fits it’s key. Enzymes are specific to their substrate.
substrate: the chemical that is changed by an enzyme.
product: the chemical that is produced by the enzyme.

Effects of temperature and pH:

Temperature: goes up, rate of reaction increases until about 40 degrees Celsius (substrate
randomly hits active site more often at high temperatures. Then the enzyme denatures,
and the structure of the active site is changed and does not fit the substrate. Optimum
temperature is the temperature where rate of reaction is fastest.
pH: Narrow range for most enzymes. Optimum pH for most enzymes is 7. High and low pH
can denature enzymes.

Role of enzymes in seed germination:

Enzyme (amylase) breaks down starch (substrate) into maltose (product). Starch not
soluble, maltose is soluble so can be transported and used for energy and growth of
seedling.

Role of enzymes in cleaners (biological washing powder):

Enzyme breaks insoluble substrate into soluble product.

Insoluble substrate Enzyme name Soluble product

Protein (ex: haemoglobin) Protease Amino acids
Lipids (fats) Lipase Glycerol + fatty acids

Role of enzymes in food industry:

Baby food: protease breaks down proteins into amino acids; easier for babies to digest.
Fruit industry: pectinase breaks down pectin; easier to squeeze juice out.
Sugar production: amylase breaks down starch into sugars; no need to grow sugar
cane/beets.

Notation: enzymes usually end in the letters “ase.”

4
 Unit 5 Animal Nutrition part 1

Definitions:
Ingestion: Taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the body through the mouth.
Digestion: The break-down of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water soluble molecules
using mechanical and chemical processes.
Absorption: The movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the
blood or lymph.
Assimilation: The movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are
used, becoming part of the cells.
Deamination: The removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea, followed
by release of energy from the remainder of the amino acid.
Egestion: Passing out of food that has not been digested, as faeces, through the anus.

Tooth structure: Enamel, dentine, pulp cavity (blood supply and nerves), fibres and cement.
Tooth types/functions: incisors-sharp, for biting pieces of food. Canines- most pointed, for
ripping (wolf). Molars/pre-molars: flat/wide, for grinding (cow).
Tooth decay and gum disease: sugar digested by bacteria makes acid – dissolves
enamel/dentine. Bacteria grow in plaque (soft), can become tartar (hard). Prevention: brush teeth
(fluoride toothpaste), eat less sugar, visit dentist.
Arguments for fluoride in water: proven to prevent tooth decay. Poor people maybe can’t
buy expensive fluoride toothpaste. Arguments against: want choice, can turn teeth black, fluoride
toothpaste maybe good enough.
Peristalsis: Rhythmic, wavelike contractions that move food through the gastrointestinal tract

Type of digestion Significance Accomplished by…

Mechanical digestion: Increases surface area of food: Teeth, muscular lining of
Breakdown of large pieces of more enzymes come in contact: alimentary canal, and bile.
food into smaller ones. increase speed of digestion.
Chemical digestion: Breakdown Small molecules can be Enzymes, acid of stomach.
of large molecules into small absorbed through the villi of
ones. small intestine.

Location in Associated Enzymes present Major functions

alimentary canal glands/organs
Mouth Salivary glands Amylase Chewing, carbohydrates
(carbohydrates) digestion begins.
Esophagus None None Peristalsis moves bolus
(chewed piece of food) to
stomach.
Stomach None Pepsin (protein), also Low pH kills bacteria. Protein
low pH. digestion begins.
(rennin in baby (rennin make milk clot in
mammals) breast feeding animals)
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 Small intestine Pancreas makes Lipase, protease, Small intestine
(first the all the enzymes. amylase. digests/absorbs the food.
duodenum, then Liver makes bile, Bile – consists of salts Bile – emulsifies fat-increased
the ileum) gall bladder and pigments (effects surface area for enzymes.
stores it before it color of faeces).
goes to small
intestine.
Large intestine- None None Colon: Absorbs water/salts –
colon, rectum prevents dehydration and salt
anus. loss. Rectum: faeces formed
here. Anus: faeces egested
through anus.

Small intestine structure: Lined with villi – increase surface area. Lots of capillaries – absorb
nutrients from small intestine – carry it to hepatic portal – to liver.

Structure Function

Epithelia cells – one cell Good for absorption.

thick
Many capillaries Carry nutrients away

Lacteal Absorbs fats

After absorption: nutrients transported to liver through hepatic

portal vein. Amino acids deaminated, stored as fat. Nitrogen from
amino acid – urea – excreted through kidneys. Glucose converted
to glycogen in liver (or used as energy). Liver has enzymes that
break down toxic compounds (alcohol), then they are released into the blood and excreted through
kidneys.

Unit 6 Animal Nutrition part 2

Plants are producers they make their food by photosynthesis.
Animals are consumers they need to eat other plants or animals.
The food and drink that an animal consumes is called its diet.
There are 7 nutrients in a diet:
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water, dietary fibre
A balanced diet provides the right amount of energy and the necessary amounts of the 7
nutrients listed above.
The amount of energy needed depends on 3 factors:
your age (older more than younger)
your sex (male more than female)
your job (active more than inactive)
The energy is measured in KJ/100g of food. KJ is the unit for kilojoule
1 gram of fat contains twice as much energy as 1g of protein or carbohydrate.

6
Health is the absence of disease. A deficiency disease is caused when the diet does not contain
enough of a particular mineral or vitamin.

Vitamins are organic molecules that are needed in the body in tiny amounts.

Minerals are inorganic molecules that are needed in small amounts.

Vitamin Foods that contain it Function Deficiency disease

C Oranges/Limes They make the Scurvy: causes pain in
protein collagen that joints and bleeding
forms fibres that allow gums.
the skin to stretch.
D Butter/egg yolk Helps the body to Rickets: weak bones
Also made in the skin absorb calcium for become deformed in
making teeth and shape
bones

Mineral Element Foods that contain it Function Deficiency disease

Calcium Milk/Cheese /Yoghurt Used to make strong Poor blood clotting/
Ca bones and teeth Brittle bones and
Bread teeth
Iron Liver/Red meat/Egg Making haemoglobin Anaemia: people feel
Fe yolk/Dark green the pigment in red tired and weak as
vegetable blood cells there are not enough
red blood cells to
carry oxygen

Dietary Problems

Dietary fibre prevents constipation and allows good peristalsis. Perstalsis is the muscular
contractions of the gut (alimentary canal). Cellulose from plant cell walls is the main form of
dietary fibre. Humans cannot digest cellulose.
Saturated fat (animal fat) and Cholesterol deposit in arteries and can cause coronary heart
disease (heart attack)
Excess energy in the diet can lead to the deposition of adipose tissue (fat cells) and make a
person obese. This causes high blood pressure/strokes/diabetes.
Starvation (too little energy) causes death. Malnutrition (an unbalanced diet) can lead to
deficiency diseases. Kwashiorkor caused by a lack of protein leads to underweight children.

Food Additives

A food additive is something that is added to a food for reasons other than nutrition. The table lists
the main types of additive. In Europe each additive has an E number.

Type of additive Example Found in Function Notes

flavoring Monosodium Soup, stock Enhances Natural amino
glutamate cubes, Chinese flavor/provides acid, popular in
food umami flavour China
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 colouring Tartrazine Drinks/sweets Orange/Yellow Banned in many
countries
because of a link
to hyperactivity
in children
preservative Sodium nitrite Bacon/sausages Kills bacteria Possible link to
cancer
emulsifiers Lecithin Powdered milk Stops oil and
water separating

Food production is unequally distributed around the planet. Famines occur when there is a shortage
of food. Famines are caused by:

 Weather drought/ flooding/

 War/political unrest that prevents farming of harvest or food transportation
 Overpopulation

Agriculture

Growing crops and animals on farms is the main way in which food is supplied. Modern intensive
agriculture relies on:

 Machinery that allow farmers to prepare the land and spray the chemicals.
 Chemical fertilizer, nitrates /phospates/potassium (NPK) and urea that help plants grow
rapidly
 Pesticides, Chemicals that kill pests that eat or destroy plants or animals
 Herbicides, Chemicals that kill weed plants that compete with the crop and lower yields
 Selective breeding, Plants and animals with desirable properties rice with high yields/ cows
with high volumes of milk production

Unit 7 Plant Nutrition

(Autotrophic/ Self-feeding Producers by photosynthesis)
Like all living organisms plants from the kingdom plants (multicellular/chloroplasts/cellulose cell
wall/large permanent vacuole) need energy for growth, repair and replacement of cells. Plants use
the energy in sunlight to bond inorganic molecules (CO2and H2O) to form the organic molecule
glucose (C6H12O6). The molecule responsible for converting the light energy into stored chemical
energy is the green pigment chlorophyll which is stored in special organelles called chloroplasts.

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 +6O2

8
The leaf is supported by the stem and the petiole (d) their job is to hold the leaf in a position that
maximizes the adsorption of light energy. The leaf is flat to give it a large surface area and light
weight. The central midrib (c) and lateral veins (b) show how water moves through the leaves. (a) is
the lamina or flat body of the leaf.

Structure Function
Waxy cuticle Prevents water loss (evaporation)
Upper epidermis Makes and secretes the waxy cuticle
Palisade layer (Palisade Mesophyll) Traps light energy in chloroplasts
Spongy Mesophyll (round shape leaves room for CO2) diffusion Traps light energy in chloroplast
Lower epidermis (Also has guard cells which make the stoma (ta) Makes and secretes the waxy cuticle
Xylem vessels Water transport to leaf
Phloem vessel Sucrose transport from leaf

There must be holes in the leaf (stomata) and air spaces in the middle of the leaf to allow gases
to diffuse in and out of the cell.

The glucose that is made in photosynthesis is transported to other parts of the plant as sucrose. It
is then broken down in respiration to release chemical energy (which is used to make new
cells/chemicals). Sugar may also be stored as starch in fruits or tubers (potato). Plants need inorganic
ions like nitrates (NO3) and minerals like magnesium (Mg) to make organic molecules. Nitrogen makes
proteins and magnesium makes chlorophyll. Like animals, plants can have deficiency diseases. No
nitrate means no protein which means slow growth and small plants. No magnesium means no
chlorophyll which means yellow leaves.

The chloroplast has double membrane. The chlorophyll is in membranes that are in stacks. Large
stores of starch can be seen as starch grains. These starch grains can be detected using the starch
test (iodine in solution will turn from red/brown to blue black). For this colour change to be seen,
9
the waxy cuticle is first removed by boiling the leaf in water (also ruptures the cell membrane and
chloroplast membrane). Then the chlorophyll is removed by boiling the leaf in ethanol, this
decolourises the leaf. Starch is insoluble in ethanol and water. If starch is present there is a positive
test.

Limiting factors

Photosynthesis needs: light, water, carbon dioxide (heat). A limiting factor is the chemical or
condition which is in short supply and because of this the rate of the reaction (photosynthesis) is
slower.

The graph shows the effect of light intensity

on the rate of photosynthesis (x axis
independent variable). At x and y light is a
limiting factor at z light stops. Light intensity
is a limiting factor in all 4 experiments..

In experiment 2 the rate of photosynthesis is

the slowest the low temperature is the
limiting factor (lower kinetic energy resulting
in fewer collisions). In experiment 4 the higher
concentration of CO2 makes up for the lower
temperature. In experiment 3 all factors are at
their optimum level and that is why the rate is
the fastest.

10
 Unit 8 Transport in animals (blood and lymph)

Plasma is the liquid part of the blood and is water with dissolved glucose, amino acids, salts,
hormones and enzymes in solution.

Source Destination
water Absorbed in small intestine/colon All cells
plasma protein Fibrinogen made in liver Remain in blood (fibrinogen for
Antibodies made by lymphocytes clotting. Antibodies kill
pathogens)
lipids Cholesterol and fatty acids absorbed in ileum Liver for respiration. Adipose
tissue (fat cells) for storage
carbohydrates Absorbed in ileum (glycogen breakdown in All cells for respiration
liver)
excretory Urea produced by deamination of amino Kidneys for excretion
waste acids
mineral ions Na+, K+ , Cl- absorbed in ileum/colon All cells. Excess to
kidneys/excretion
hormones Excreted by endocrine glands Target cells
Dissolved gases CO2 produced by cell respiration Lungs for excretion

Red blood cells: no nucleus/bi-concave discs (large SA to

volume ratio)/haemoglobin is protein that carries oxygen to
cells as oxyhaemoglobin. Made in bone marrow broken down
in liver to make bile.
White blood cells: Two main types are phagocyte and
lymphocyte. Phagocyte engulf and destroy bacteria.
Lymphocytes produce and secrete antibodies.
Platelets: small fragments of cells made in bone marrow
involved in blood clotting.
Blood clotting: Damaged cells release chemicals that
activate platelets, causing them to become sticky and stick
together. The platelets release more chemicals which cause
fibrinogen (soluble) to be converted to fibrin (insoluble). The
insoluble fibrin forms a fiber like polymer which catches red
blood cells and platelets causing the blood to clot. Blood
clotting prevents blood loss and also prevents the entry of
pathogens.

The lymphocyte comes into contact with the antigen.

The lymphocyte divides to form many identical cells. The
lymphocytes secrete antibodies. The antibodies bind to
the antigen and destroy the antigen.

11
 Unit 9 Transport in animals (Functions of the blood)

Oxygen transport Oxygen is carried by the protein haemoglobin in a reversible reaction

Oxygen + Haemoglobin Oxyhaemoglobin
Haemoglobin is often (blue) (Red)
represented as Hb Each haemobglobin molecule carries 4 oxygen molecules
CO2 transport Most CO2 travels in the plasma as hydrogen carbonate ions, some is
carried by haemoglobin
Products of digestion Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals and ions travel in the
plasma
Urea Made in liver travel to kidneys for excretion
Hormones Secreted by endocrine glands into plasma
Heat Heat produced by respiration is moved in the plasma and cells

Lymph and tissue fluid

Capillaries leak plasma. This is called tissue fluid. White blood cells can also leave the blood and
move into the tissues. Tissue fluid brings oxygen, nutrients and soluble proteins to the cells. The
tissue fluid does not drain back into the blood vessels and into lymphatic capillaries. These small
vessels join with bigger vessels that for the lymphatic system. The lymph vessels carry lymph to the
subclavian vein.

Lymph system runs in parallel to blood vessels

throughout the body

12
 Unit 9 Transport in animals (blood vessels)

There are 3 kinds of blood vessel:

Artery carry oxygenated blood under high pressure from the

heart
 Small lumen (whole)
 Smooth lining
 Strong fibrous layer/Elastic and muscle layers allow vessel
to expand when blood is pumped by the heart

Vein carry deoxygenated blood under lower pressure back to

the heart. Thinner walls with less muscle and fibres. Contain
valves that allow the unidirectional flow of blood

Capillary
Narrow (very small lumen)
Close to every cell to allow rapid diffusion of O2 H2O and
glucose to the cells

The lumen is the space inside the blood vessel

(they usually have a smooth surface which
reduces friction and reduces blood pressure).
Valves allow the unidirectional flow of blood.
As the pressure is low, blood is forced back to
the heart by the contraction of skeletal
muscles. A clot of blood which blocks a blood
vessel is called thrombosis. If this blockage is in
a blood vessel in the lungs it is called a
pulmonary thrombosis.

13
 The circulatory system is made up of
blood, blood vessels and the heart (a
muscular pump/ cardiac muscle is
myogenic and contracts by itself without
fatigue). Humans have a double
circulation in which deoxygenated and
oxygenated blood are separated. This is
achieved by splitting the heart with the
septum (each septum has two chambers
(atria and ventricles).

The coronary
artery supplies the
heart with O2 and
glucose. CAD
coronary heart
disease causes a
heart attack or
cardiac arrest. This
happens when the
flow of blood stops
(atheroma). CAD is
caused by:
Smoking nicotine
damages the blood
vessels
Diet saturated fat
and cholesterol get
deposited in the
artery and block it.
Obesity and high
blood pressure and
stress.
Satins are drugs
that reduce
cholesterol and
reduce the risk of
CAD.
Cardiac Cycle: Diastole: all the muscles relax and blood flows into the heart. The semilunar valves
close preventing blood entering the ventricles. The atrioventricular valves open. The muscles of the
atria relax allowing blood to flow in from the veins. Atrial systole Atria contract and fill the
ventricles. Ventricular systole the muscles of the atria relax and the ventricles contract.

14
 Unit 10 Transport in plant

Definitions
Transpiration: Evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by loss of
water vapour from plant leaves, through the stomata.

 water is pulled up the plant by transpiration in xylem

Translocation: The movement of sucrose and amino acids from source to sink in phloem:

 Summer: from regions of production (leaves) to regions of storage (roots/fruit) or regions of

utilization in respiration or growth.
 Winter: from regions of storage (roots) to regions of utilization (above ground parts of
plant).
 If a systemic pesticide is applied to the leaf, it will be transported in the phloem.

Leaf Structure:
Cuticle: thick/waxy layer on epidermis. Prevents water loss if thick.
Vascular bundle: contains xylem (water/mineral transport) and phloem (sugar transport).
Xylem: Dead, big hollow cells – thick, lignified, cell wall for support.
Phloem: Smaller live cells, transport sugar from source to sink. No nucleus, but companion cell has
one.
Stomata: Water evaporates out of stomata. Opened and closed by guard cells. CO2 diffuses in
through stomata.

Factors affecting transpiration:

Temperature, humidity, wind speed and light intensity affect transpiration rate. When it’s hot, dry,
windy, and sunny, transpiration happens fastest.
As humidity and thickness of cuticle increase, water loss due to transpiration decreases.

Pathway of water from soil to air: Root hair cell, root cortex, xylem, mesophyll cell (in leaf).

Leaf Root Stem

Phloem Xylem

15
Causes of wilting:
Not enough water is absorbed in root hair cells, often due to high solute concentration in soil, and
turgor pressure is lost in xylem cells.

Environment Adaptations of plant

Pond Stomata on top, thin cuticle, water absorbed from all tissues (not roots), very
little xylem – not needed for support.
Dessert Round (less surface area), hairy (traps moist air), stomata closed during day (less
transpiration) and located in pits, many roots (deep or spread out).

Root hair cell: large surface area, water absorbed by osmosis, mineral ions absorbed by active
transport up their concentration gradient (uses energy).

Finally….. can you annotate this picture and explain what is happening using the terms:
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, translocation, osmosis, active transport, xylem,
phloem, source and sink?

Try telling another student your answer.

16
 Unit 11 Respiration and gas exchange

Respiration
Definitions:
Respiration: The chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release
energy (ATP).
Aerobic respiration: as the release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the
breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration: The release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of
food substances in the absence of oxygen.
Equations (word equations and chemical formulas/symbols)
Aerobic respiration: Glucose plus oxygen combine to form water and carbon dioxide.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Anaerobic respiration:
Muscle cells: glucose → lactic acid. C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3
Yeast cells: glucose → alcohol + carbon dioxide. C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Role of yeast in bread and beer making
Yeast, in the absence of oxygen makes alcohol by digesting the carbohydrates in grains.
Anaerobic respiration in muscles.
When not enough oxygen is available muscles produce lactic acid and a smaller amount of
ATP/energy. After exercise, the lactic acid if transported to the liver where it is combined with
oxygen to produce glucose.

Features of the gas exchange surface: Structure = function!

Feature of surface function
Moist Keeps cells alive, helps with diffusion of
O2/CO2
Large surface area, like villus Lots of gas can diffuse quickly
Capillaries nearby, like villus Blood transports O2 to cells, CO2 to alveoli
One cell thick (thin!), like villus Allows gas to diffuse quickly
Well supplied with oxygen All cells require oxygen for cellular respiration

Be able to identify the following:

larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, ribs, the
internal and external intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm.
Exercise increases all of the following: rate and
depth of breathing, usage of O2 and CO2, and lactic
acid production. CO2 and lactic acid cause blood pH
to decrease: brain senses this, and increases rate of
breathing.
Lactic acid is processed after exercise in the liver which requires oxygen because this process
involves aerobic respiration.

17
 Unit 12 Excretion

Definitions:
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess of requirements. ----You
need to understand how carbon dioxide, urea and salts are excreted.
-Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids (deamination: the removed of the nitrogen
from amino acids to form urea).
-Carbon dioxide is produced from respiration.

Function of kidney:
Removes urea and excess (extra) salts and water. If a person needs conserve water or salts, less is
excreted. If a person eats too much salt or drinks too much water, less is reabsorbed in the tubule of
the nephron.
All glucose is reabsorbed (by active transport – up concentration gradient).

Renal capsule: Allows water, glucose, urea, and salts to pass into the tubule. Bigger molecules and
cells cannot pass through.
Tubule: Reabsorbs all glucose (active transport-up
concentration gradient), most water (osmosis), and
some salts (diffusion and active transport). Result:
urea is concentrated in the ureter.

Dialysis: Blood put through tube in machine outside

of body. Tube is semipermeable and sits in solution
of water and glucose and salts. Therefore, water
and glucose are not lost by diffusion/osmosis, but
urea and excess salts are. (not all salts are lost – see
book for details)

18
 Unit 13 Coordination and response (the nervous system)

The nervous system is made up of 3 parts.

CNS (Central Nervous System) brain and spinal cord Processes nervous impulses
and co-ordinates the bodies
response
PNS (Peripheral Nervous sensory, relay and motor Connect the CNS to the
System) neurones sense organs and effectors
(muscles and glands
Specialist sense organs eye, ear, skin, tongue and nose Detect changes in the
environment
Nerves connect the sense organs to the CNS. Nerves are large bundles of neurones.
A neurone is a single nerve cell.
An impulse is an electrical signal that moves along the neurone.
Neurones do not touch one another. There is a small gap, this gap is called a synapse.
At the gap a chemical messenger is secreted this is called a neurotransmitter. The
neurotransmitter diffuses across the gap and when it binds to the membrane of the next neurone it
causes a new impulse to start moving along the neurone.

Sensory neurones carry impulses from the

sense organs to the CNS (spinal cord).

Relay neurones lie inside the spinal cord and

carry the impulses to the motor neurons.

Motor neurons carry impulses to the

effectors (muscles and glands).

A reflex is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus. They often protect the body. eg blinking.
Reflexes are involuntary which means that the body responds without conscious thought (the brain is
not involved). Voluntary actions involve the brain and only happen when you think about it.

The pathway along which impulses travel in a reflex is called a reflex arc. It involves the stimulus
receptor sensory neurone  relay neurone in spinal cord  motor neurone effector 
response

19
 The Eye
Cornea and lens are transparent and let
light pass through. Both also focus the
light so that it falls on the retina. Retina
is the location of the receptor cells the
rods (black /white) and the cones
(colour). The pupil is a hole that lets the
light in (no pigment unlike the iris). Iris
(pigmented and opaque) dilates in low
light. The iris controls the amount of light
entering the eye. Optic nerve (bundle
of sensory neurones that carry impulses
to the brain) Ciliary muscles (change
the shape and thickness of the lens.
Refract light on to the retina). Remember
the lens is elastic when it is not be in
stretched by the pull of the ciliary
muscles it is short, curved and thick.
Fovea a concentration of cone cells.

20
 Unit 14 Coordination and response (Endocrine glands)

Glands are effectors.

Effectors are organs that respond to a stimulus (a change in the environment).
Endocrine glands are glands that manufacture (make) and secrete (release) hormones into the
blood plasma.
Hormones are protein molecules (they have a specific 3 dimensional shape). A hormone is a chemical
substance which is produced in an endocrine gland, is secreted into and transported by the blood plasma,
which alters the activity of one or more target organs and is then destroyed in the liver.
Endocrine glands have good blood supplies and have many capillaries running through them. The
glands have no ducts (tubes). They are ductless. Other glands like the salivary glands have ducts (tubes).
The effect of a hormone may be short (adrenaline ‘fight or flight’) or long lasting (testosterone a hairy
chest).

Gland Hormones Target Organ Effect

Produced
Thyroid Thyroxine All cells Increases cell metabolism
Adrenal Adrenaline Liver Converts glycogen to glucose
Heart Increases heart rate and strength
of contraction
Skin& Digestive Blood flow to organ is reduced.
system
Pancreas Insulin Liver Converts glucose to glycogen
Glucagon Liver Converts glycogen to glucose
Testes Testosterone Larynx (voice box)
Enlarges voice breaks (deepens)
Bones Fuse and become denser
Testes Sperm production
Hair follicles Pubic hair growth
Muscles Muscles grow bigger
Ovaries Oestrogen Breasts Grow/enlarge
Progesterone Hair follicles Pubic hair growth
Pelvic girdle Grows wider
Uterus lining Grows thick and spongy
Corpus luteum Progesterone Ovaries Prevents follicles developing in
Uterus lining the ovary (prevents menstruation)
Maintains a thick uterus lining
Pituitary LH Follicle Both stimulate the follicle to
FSH Follicle produce oestrogen. A surge in
both causes ovulation
Hormones are useful in medicine, insulin for diabetics, progesterone and oestrogen are used in
contraceptives for women.

BST (bovine somatotrophin) is a hormone that is injected into cattle to increase milk production. BST
is a natural hormone in cows but more is injected.

Advantages Disadvantages
Milk production is increased BST will enter the food chain in milk and cheese
You need fewer cows to get the same amount of Cows that produce large amounts of milk may
milk feel discomfort and are more prone to udder
infections
21
 *For IGCSE you do not need to know the location or function of the pineal, parathyroid or
thymus glands.

Remember that while the hormones in the plasma circulate to every cell and organ in the body, they
only have their effect on specific target organs. These target organs have receptor sites that are
complimentary to the shape of the hormone (similar to the relationship with an enzyme and its
substrate). The hormone binds to the receptor site to have its effect. No receptor site no binding no
effect.

22
 Unit 15 Homeostasis
Homeostasis: the maintenance of a constant internal environment. It is achieved using negative
feedback.

Blood glucose regulation:

see diagram. Pancreas monitors blood
glucose levels. If high, pancreas secretes
insulin, which causes muscle and liver cells
to absorb glucose (monosaccharide) and
convert it to glycogen (polysaccharide).
This lowers blood sugar.
If blood sugar is low, the pancreas secretes
glucagon which travels in the blood,
causing liver cells to convert glycogen to
glucose. The glucose is released into the
blood and raises blood sugar.

Temperature regulation:

23
 Unit 16 Coordination and response in plants

Definitions:
Gravitropism: When a plant grows towards or away from gravity.
Phototropism: When a plant grows towards or away from light.
Both of these tropisms are examples of living things responding to stimuli from their
environment. Light and gravity are both environmental stimuli.
Growth: A permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell
size or both.
Development: An increase in complexity.

Auxins are mostly made in the tips of the shoots and roots, and can diffuse to other parts
of the shoots or roots. It collects in the shady side of the shoot, making the side grow faster
so the shoot bends towards the light. Auxins are used as selective weed killers.

Germination:
A seed needs oxygen, the right temperature, water and energy to begin growing.
Respiration supplies the energy needed for growth, requires oxygen, and is also an enzyme
catalyzed reaction. Because it is an enzyme catalyzed reaction, it also requires an appropriate
temperature for enzymes to operate at. Furthermore, because respiration is a metabolic
reaction, it requires a medium, which is water. If there is too much water, for example if it
flood, oxygen will not reach the seed and germination will not occur.

Role of enzymes in seed germination:

Enzyme (amylase) breaks down starch (substrate) into maltose (product). Starch not
soluble, maltose is soluble so can be transported and used for energy and growth of
seedling.

24
 Unit 17 Drug

A drug is defined as ‘any substance taken into the body that changes or affects the chemical
reactions in the body’.
Drugs are either legal or illegal. Drugs that are used to cure illness and disease are called medicines.
One of the most famous drugs is penicillin. Penicillin is made by the fungus Penicillium. It is an
antibiotic (stops life). Penicillin works against bacteria (but not viruses). It prevents them from
multiplying by stopping them making a cell wall (during mitosis).

Opium is a mixture of chemicals extracted from poppies. It is used to make the legal drugs morphine
and codeine which are very strong pain killers. Opium is also used to make the illegal drug heroin.
Heroin is a depressant. A depressant works on the brain and can temporarily make us feel happy
(euphoric). It also makes us lose our inhibitions (the feelings that help regulate our actions) this can
lead to doing dangerous things. Heroin is addictive this means that the person will want to take it
again and again. If they do not get the drug they will feel ill and crave the drug. Once addicted it take
great will power to go through the process of withdrawal. People using heroin are at greater risk of
contracting HIV because the needs used for injecting heroin are sometimes shared without being
sanitized.
Alcohols is a legal drug. It is a depressant. People enjoy the feeling of relaxation and the loss of
inhibitions. Alcohol is toxic but drinking small amounts will not cause serious health problems.
Alcohol slows down a person’s reaction time (that is why you are not allowed in many countries to
drink and drive). Alcohol makes people aggressive (to argue and fight). Drinking large amounts of
alcohol will damage the liver (cirrhosis) and the brain.
Smoking tobacco means that a person is breathing in a number of harmful chemicals. Nicotine is
an addictive, stimulant (this makes people feel more alert, it also stops you feeling hungry). Nicotine
narrows the blood vessels and raises blood pressure (hypertension). Smokers have a much greater
risk of developing heart diseases. Tar is a carcinogenic chemical (cancer causing chemical). Tar makes
cells divide and divide to form cells that have no function. This lump of cells is called a tumour.
Carbon monoxide is a very poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke. It reduces the bloods ability to
carry oxygen by binding to haemoglobin. It can pass from a mother to the foetus (baby) and reduce
the growth of the baby. Smoke particles. The particles cause a disease called emphysema.

Emphysema is when the alveoli are broken

down and the surface area for gas exchange is
greatly reduced, people struggle to breathe.

Smoking also makes the goblet cells that

produce mucus to make extra mucus. It also
destroys or paralyses the cilia on the epithelial
cells. All of this leads to extra mucus in the
lungs, this mucus is an ideal food for bacteria
which can grow and cause infections.

25
 Unit 18 Pathogens and immunity

A pathogen is an organism that causes disease. Pathogens include bacteria and viruses.
Organisms which harbour these pathogens are referred to as hosts. Pathogens can be spread
from host to host through contact with an infected organism, or through other mediums such
as food, water, waste and bodily fluids, and are thus called transmissible diseases. It is
therefore important to make sure that food is prepared hygienically, waste and sewage are
treated, and good personal hygiene is maintained to prevent the spread of disease.
Defenses against infection:
The body’s first line of defense attempts to prevent pathogens from entering the body, and
includes:
● Mechanical barriers - this includes hairs in the nose and skin.
● Chemical barriers - includes mucus, stomach acid and tears.
Once the pathogen has infected the body, an immune response occurs to kill it. This involves
phagocytosis and antibody production.
Antibodies and antigens:
Pathogens can be detected by white blood cells and are destroyed in an immune response. Each
pathogen has a specific antigen protein on the cell membrane. In the immune response,
lymphocytes produce specific antibodies, which bind to the antigens to produce an antibody-
antigen complex. As each type of pathogen has different antigens, a specific antibody which is
complementary to this antigen must be made for each disease. Once the antibody binds to the
antigens, the pathogens clump together making them harmless. They can then either be killed
directly or marked for destruction by phagocytes.
Autoimmune diseases: Some diseases can be caused by an immune response on healthy
body cells, where they are targeted and destroyed by the immune system. An example of this
is type 1 diabetes, where the body targets cells in the pancreas, thus insulin can no longer be
produced.

Active immunity: Active immunity can be gained after an infection, or through vaccination.
Infection: After the pathogen has been killed, some of the lymphocytes remain as memory
cells. This means that if the same pathogen ever enters the body again, the lymphocyte would
recognize the antigens and be able to produce new antibodies more quickly than the first time.
Memory cells stay in the body for years, thus giving long-term immunity.
Vaccination:
1. A dead or attenuated version of a pathogen is given to the patient
2. The antigens evoke an immune response, in which antibodies are produced
3. Memory cells are produced which stay in the body, giving long-term immunity
Vaccination can be used to control the spread of disease by providing herd immunity. This
is where a large amount of the population is vaccinated and are thus immune to the pathogen,
so the disease cannot spread as there are only a few people left who can still become infected.
The few that cannot be vaccinated, for example due to medical reasons, are therefore protected
against the disease.
Passive immunity: Passive immunity is a short-term defense against a pathogen and can be
gained through acquiring antibodies from another individual. One example of passive
immunity is antibodies being passed to a baby through the mother’s milk, thus it is important
for babies to be breastfed to reduce the risk of diseases. It can also be gained through injections
of antibodies from a donor. Passive immunity is short-term as memory cells are not produced.

26
 Unit 19 Reproduction (asexual and sexual reproduction)

Asexual reproduction is a process which results in the production of genetically identical offspring,
known as clones. This only requires one parent, unlike sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction
occurs predominantly in plants, although some animals such as starfish also reproduce in this way.
Advantages of asexual reproduction:
● Only one parent is required - this is helpful for organisms which live in desolate environments where
finding a mate is difficult.
● Can reproduce quickly - large quantities of offspring can be produced quickly to rapidly populate an
area. This helps to dominate a habitat and prevent competition from other species.
● It takes less energy to reproduce asexually.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
● Lack of diversity - all offspring are genetically identical.
● Prone to extinction - as each organism produced is genetically identical, a disease which harms one
will be dangerous to all of them, thus it is easy for the whole population to be destroyed by one
pathogen.
● Cannot adapt - organisms are adapted to one environment and cannot adapt to changes. If the
environment changes, e.g. the temperature rises, they are likely to be killed.
● Overpopulation - too many offspring may be produced, which causes overcrowding in a habitat.

Sexual reproduction requires two parents. The nuclei of two gametes, one from each parent, fuse
together to form a zygote. Each offspring is genetically different. The process of the gametes fusing
is called fertilisation.
Most cells in the body are diploid cells, meaning that they have a full set of chromosomes, whereas
haploid cells (egg and sperm cells) only have half as many chromosomes. This means that when two
haploid gametes fuse during fertilisation, a complete set of chromosomes is produced - half from the
mother and half from the father. The nucleus of a zygote is therefore diploid as it has a complete set
of chromosomes.
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
● Wide diversity - each offspring is genetically unique.
● Promotes survival - each organism is unique so disease cannot spread as easily.
● Organisms can adapt - as each offspring is born with different genes, those with a genetic advantage
are more likely to survive and pass their positive traits on to their offspring, whilst those with a genetic
disadvantage are more likely to die without producing offspring. This allows the species to evolve
through natural selection.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
● Two parents are required - it may be difficult for some species to find mates, especially when there
is an imbalance of males and females in an area or if the species is endangered.
● Fewer offspring produced - it takes longer and requires more energy to produce offspring, therefore
it is less efficient than asexual reproduction.

27
 Unit 20 Reproduction (sexual reproduction in plants)

Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the flowers using pollen. Cross-pollination occurs
when grains of pollen are transferred from the anthers of one plant to the stigma of another plant of
the same species. Some flowers can produce male and female gametes, and thus can self-pollinate
by transferring pollen from their anther to their stigma. This is considered as sexual reproduction as
there is still a male and female gamete.
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Cross-pollination vs self-pollination:

● Cross-pollination results in more genetic diversity in a species, thus the species can adapt and is
more resilient to diseases.
● Self-pollination uses less energy as the plant does not need to expend energy in attracting
pollinating insects.
● Self-pollinating plants can spread to areas where the species does not currently exist as other
pollinators are not required. Cross-pollinating plants, however, are reliant on pollinators.
● Cross-pollination can only occur when the flowers are open.

Methods of pollination: insect pollination and wind pollination.

In insect pollination, insects are attracted to the plant, where pollen sticks to them. They then move
to another plant and drop the pollen, causing the second plant to be pollinated.
In wind pollination, the wind blows pollen off the first plant and carries it to the second plant.
Pollen that is carried by insects is adapted to be sticky and have hooks which attach to the insect.
Pollen carried by the wind does not need to stick to anything, thus is smooth. It is also very light.

Fertilisation:
1. Pollen grains land on a plant stigma.
2. If the pollen is of the same species, a pollen tube begins to grow.
3. The pollen moves down the pollen tube to the ovule.
4. Fertilisation occurs when the nucleus from the pollen cell fuses with a nucleus in an ovule. This
produces a zygote.
5. The zygote develops into an embryo plant.

Factors affecting seed germination:

● Water - water moves into the seed, causing it to swell. This allows the embryo to begin growing.
● Oxygen - used in respiration to produce energy for growth.
● Temperature - the seed contains enzymes, e.g. for respiration, which will work faster at the plant’s
optimum temperature. This is why seeds are dormant in the winter and grow again in the spring.

29
 Unit 21 Human Reproduction

Male Reproductive Structures: The male reproductive system also involves the
excretory system starting with the ureter which transports urine, the bladder which stores
urine, and the urethra which transports urine out of the body. The sperm are made by meiosis
in the testes, then transported through the sperm duct to the urethra where liquid is added
by the prostate gland.

Female Reproductive System, Sexual Intercourse and pregnancy: Ejaculation is the

process where sperm exits the penis and enters the vagina. The sperm then swim through
the vagina, cervix, and uterus to the oviduct where a single egg may have been released
through ovulation.

Fertilization is where the male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) fuse together (in
oviduct). After fertilization, a zygote is formed (1 cell) which divides by mitosis to form an
embryo which implants in the endometrium (implantation). The endometrium is thick,
spongy and well supplied with blood vessels for the embryo to attach to, and grows to form
the placenta.

30
Development of the foetus: Key structures:
● Umbilical cord - allows the exchange of substances between the foetus and the mother through the
cord.
● Placenta - Connects to the foetus end of the umbilical cord and allows exchange of substances. It
also produces hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone.
● Amniotic sac - Surrounds the foetus and produces amniotic fluid.
● Amniotic fluid - protects the foetus.

The Placenta: Oxygen, glucose, and amino acids dissolve from the maternal blood pool
across the placenta into the fetus’ capillaries, through the umbilical cord to the fetus. Carbon
dioxide, urea, and other metabolic wastes diffuse across the placenta from the fetus to the
maternal blood pools.

Ante-natal care:

Pregnant women should…. Because…

Exercise …Fitness helps during labour.
Eat extra calcium …Helps bones of fetus grow.
Eat extra iron …Helps transport oxygen to fetus, and
helps fetus grow it’s own RBC’s.
Eat extra carbohydrates and amino acids …They give the fetus energy (carbs) and
help with growth (amino acids).
Not smoke or drink alcohol …Nicotine in tobacco can cause low weight
babies, and alcohol is bad for developing
organisms (including teenagers)

Birth of the child:

1. The amniotic sac breaks, releasing the amniotic fluid.
2. Muscles in the uterus wall contract to push the baby out while the cervix dilates.
3. The baby exits the mother through the vagina.
4. The umbilical cord, which is still attached to the baby, is cut and tied.

Breastfeeding vs bottle-feeding:
● Breastfeeding allows antibodies to be passed from the mother to the child, providing immunity.
● Breastfeeding contains all the essential nutrients for the baby. Some nutrients in bottled milk may
be harder for the baby to digest. There is also no risk of an allergic reaction to breastmilk.
● Breastfeeding may be painful for the mother.
● Breastfeeding can only occur when the mother is present.

31
 Unit 22 Sex hormones in humans
Two hormones are key to the development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty and
the subsequent regulation of these characteristics:
Testosterone: Causes the development of facial and pubic, increased muscle mass and
sperm production.
Oestrogen: Causes the increase in width of pelvic girdle, growth of pubic hair, breast
development and enlargement, and stimulates ovulation.

Menstrual cycle: The menstrual cycle happens approximately every 28 days. During each cycle, an
egg cell is released from the ovaries. The uterus wall thickens by filling with blood capillaries in
preparation for a pregnancy, which would occur if the egg is fertilised. If this egg is not fertilised, the
egg dies and menstruation occurs, where the dead egg cell and old uterus lining is expelled from the
body in a period.

The menstrual cycle is regulated by four hormones:

● FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone triggers the development of an egg cell in the ovary, and also
stimulates oestrogen production in the ovaries. This is produced in the pituitary gland.
● LH - Luteinising hormone triggers an egg to be released, as well as stimulating progesterone
production in the ovaries.
● Progesterone - Progesterone is responsible for maintaining the thick uterus lining in the cycle and
during pregnancy. It also decreases FSH production.
● Oestrogen - Stimulates LH production, whilst decreasing FSH production.
At the beginning of the cycle, levels of FSH and LH are high to stimulate egg production and cause the
production of oestrogen which thickens the uterus lining. When the egg is released, the levels of LH,
FSH and oestrogen decrease, whilst progesterone is released to maintain the uterus lining. If the egg
is not fertilised, progesterone levels decrease and the uterus lining breaks down, causing menstruation

Birth control in humans There are many methods to prevent pregnancy if children are not wanted,
including:
● Natural birth control methods - these methods use the knowledge of the menstrual cycle to avoid
pregnancy. This is done by monitoring body temperature and cervical mucus to predict when
ovulation is occurring and avoiding sexual intercourse in this period. As cycles can be irregular and
difficult to accurately predict, this method is not always reliable. Another natural method is to abstain
from sexual intercourse.
● Chemical methods - chemical methods include the contraceptive pill, implant and injection, as well
as IUD and IUS. These contain hormones which stop pregnancy. The contraceptive pill contains the
hormones progesterone and oestrogen, which prevents ovulation.
● Barrier methods - this includes the condom, femidom and diaphragm. These are used to act as a
physical barrier and prevent the sperm from reaching the egg. Condoms also have the advantage of
preventing the spread of STIs.
● Surgical methods - these procedures prevent the release of sperm and egg cells. A vasectomy
involves the sperm ducts being tied or cut, preventing sperm from exiting the testes. In women, the
oviducts can be tied or cut to prevent the release of egg cells from the ovaries.

32
Fertility treatments: On the other hand, there are also people who have difficulty becoming
pregnant. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) and artificial insemination (AI) are two fertility treatments which
can solve this:
● IVF - If fertilisation cannot occur due to the sperm count or quality being too low, the egg cell can
be fertilised outside of the body and then be implanted back into the uterus.
● AI - sperm is directly inserted into the uterus. This sperm can be from the partner, or from a sperm
bank if their sperm is not of a high enough quality.

Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments: Some people believe that
fertility treatments, such as IVF, and genetic screening of embryos may lead to ‘designer babies’,
where parents will discard eggs which do not have desired characteristics, for example a certain hair
colour or gender. In addition, they may avoid having a child with an inherited disease. Some religious
groups do not agree with artificial methods of contraception. This is because they believe that they
are preventing a life that otherwise would have been created, which goes against their beliefs.
Fertility treatments are also contentious as during IVF, multiple eggs are taken and fertilised at once,
leading to spare embryos which are afterwards frozen and stored or destroyed.

Sexually transmitted infections known as STIs, are infections that are transmitted via bodily
fluids during sexual intercourse or contact. The spread of STIs can be controlled by abstaining from
sexual contact, avoiding risky sexual practices and always using protection such as condoms.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an example of an STI. HIV is present in the bodily fluids
of infected people, such as blood and semen, and can be transmitted during sexual intercourse. In the
blood, HIV attaches to lymphocytes (white blood cells) and enters the cell. Here, it uses the
cell to replicate itself and thus the cell cannot carry out its normal functions. Consequently, HIV
reduces the number of functioning lymphocytes, as well as reducing the body’s ability to produce
antibodies to fight off infection. HIV leads to AIDS, which makes the person extremely susceptible to
other pathogens as the white blood cells can no longer fight off disease, which can be fatal.

Unit 23 Inheritance

Definitions:
● Inheritance - the transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring.
● Chromosome - a thread-like structure of DNA that carries genetic information in the form of
genes.
● Gene - a length of DNA that codes for a particular protein.
● Allele - one of a number of different versions of a gene.
● Genotype - the genetic makeup of an organism, consisting of all the alleles present.
● Phenotype - the observable features of an organism as a result of the expression of particular
alleles of the gene.
● Homozygous - an organism containing two identical alleles of a particular gene.
● Heterozygous - an organism containing two different alleles of a particular gene.
● Diploid nucleus - nuclei which contain a full set of chromosomes (23 pairs).
33
● Haploid nucleus - nuclei which only contain half the number of chromosomes. These cells are egg
and sperm cells, which fuse during fertilization to produce a diploid cell.

Punnet squares are used to predict the probability of a cross.

 If two homozygotes are crossed (AA x aa), then 100% of the offspring will be heterozygous
dominant (Aa) and all offspring will express the dominant phenotype.
 If two heterozygotes are crossed (Aa x Aa), Genotypically, 25% will be homozygous
dominant, 50% will be heterozygous dominant, and 25% will be homozygous
recessive. Phenotypically, 75% will show the dominant trait, and 25% will show
the recessive trait.

Sex determination: The genotype of males is XY and the genotype of females is XX. 100% of
the time females produce gametes containing 1 X chromosome. 50% of the
time males produce gametes containing a Y chromosome, and 50% of the time
males produce gametes containing an X chromosome.
Do this: circle the games on the punnet squares to the right!

Codominance and ABO blood groups: Codominance is when both alleles

are expressed in heterozygotes. The genotypes are written as follows: IA, IB,
and IO. If one parent is IA IA, and the other is IB IB, all of their offspring will be IA IB. So, one parent
had blood type A, and the other had blood type B, and all the offspring will have both blood types, so
their blood type will be AB. Neither A nor B is dominant over the other trait, and they are both
displayed in the phenotype.

Sex-linked characteristics: Some genes are located on the sex chromosomes. A characteristic
which comes from one of these genes is referred to as a sex-linked characteristic. A result of this is
that some traits are more common to one gender, for example any gene located on the Y chromosome
can only be present in males as females do not have this chromosome. An example of a sex-linked
characteristic is colour blindness, which is a recessive characteristic found on the X chromosome.
Mitosis: is a form of cell division. During mitosis, nuclear division of a parent cell occurs, producing
two genetically identical daughter cells. Mitosis is used to create new cells in the body to repair and
replace old and damaged tissues, as well as allowing growth of the organism and playing a role in
asexual reproduction.
Mitosis involves the splitting of chromosomes into their two halves, each of which are known as a
chromatid:
1. Before replication can occur, the chromatids in the parent cell must replicate to produce identical
copies of themselves which pair as chromosomes.
2. The chromosomes line-up along the nucleus.
3. The chromosomes separate so that each identical chromatid is pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
4. The cell membrane constricts in the middle and the nucleus is separated as the cell splits into two
new daughter cells. Each of these cells will contain a set of chromatids.

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Meiosis: Produces gametes (sperm and eggs in humans). Also called sex cells, and all of them are
haploid (half the number of genes/chromosomes). Meiosis produces a large variety of sex cells
because of independent assortment and crossing over.
 Independent assortment: inheriting one maternal chromosome does not affect whether or
not another maternal chromosome is inherited (the same is true for paternal chromosomes).
 Crossing over: genes are exchanged between homologous chromosomes. This creates
chromosomes with new combinations of alleles (not genes). The diagram below shows a
homologous pair (after DNA replication) where there are two types of chromosome; one has
two dominant alleles and the other has two recessive alleles. After crossing over has occurred,
there are four types of chromosome; 1 has two dominant alleles, 1 has two recessive alleles, one
has a dominant A and a recessive b, and 1 has a dominant B and a recessive a. Look carefully at
the TWO diagrams showing how the two genes can be inherited.

Meiosis and Mitosis:

Mitosis Meiosis

Two daughter cells Four daughter cells

Used for asexual

reproduction, and Used for sexual
growth and reproduction:
development of an Produces four gametes.
organism.
1 diploid parent cell 1 diploid parent cell
produces 2 diploid produces 4 haploid
daughter cells. daughter cells.
Protein synthesis: DNA controls the function of the cell by regulating protein synthesis. Protein
synthesis is important to maintain cell structure, as well as for producing enzymes to catalyze
metabolic reactions:
1. The gene which codes for the protein is used to make an mRNA copy in the nucleus.
2. The mRNA copy leaves the nucleus and travels through the cytoplasm to a ribosome.
3. The ribosome uses the mRNA strand to produce a chain of amino acids which make up the protein.
The order of the amino acid chain is determined by the order of bases on the mRNA. This order is
specific to each protein made. As each type of cell has a different function, not every type of protein
is synthesized in every cell. The genes to code for each protein are present in every cell, however.
These genes are therefore switched ‘on’ or ‘off’. When the gene is switched on, it is expressed, and
the protein associated with the gene is synthesized. When the protein is not required, the gene is
switched off.
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Stem cells are found in embryos or in the bone marrow. These cells are unspecialized and divide by
mitosis to produce daughter cells which then specialize to have a variety of functions. Cells, once
specialized, cannot produce unspecialized cells. For example, a cell which makes up the heart tissue
cannot divide to make a cell which can act as skin tissue as the cell produced will already be specialized
as a heart cell.

Unit 24 Variation and natural selection

Definitions:
mutation: a change in a gene or chromosome.
natural selection: the greater chance of passing on of genes by the best adapted organisms.
Variation: Means differences. Differences that help
an organism survive in an environment are called
adaptations. Organisms compete for limited resources
such as food and space. Organisms most adapted to
their environment survive, reproduce, and pass on
their genes to their offspring.
Note: mutations are the source of all new
variation.

Evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria:

Antibiotics kill bacteria because they interfere with
important enzyme catalyzed reactions in the bacteria.
Mutations in bacteria make the bacteria resistant to the antibiotic. This is an advantage, helps the
bacteria survive, reproduce, and pass on it’s resistance genes to the next generation.

Evolution of sickle cell anemia

Sickle cell is a genetic disease. Malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes.
Alleles
A
HB : Normal haemoglobin, can get malaria, but does not have sickle cell anemia.
S
HB : Abnormal haemoglobin and immune to malaria.
Genotypes
S S
HB HB Has sickle cell anemia, likely to die during childhood
A S
HB HB No sickle cell anemia, immune to malaria
A A
HB HB No sickle cell anemia, might contract malaria and might die from it.
Heterozygous individuals are well adapted to areas that have malaria. These individuals are
therefore more likely to survive and pass on the HBS allele.

Artificial Selection: Animals and plants are selected that have favorable traits, such as more
meat on a cow, or larger more beautiful flowers. Organisms with these favorable traits are bred and

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their offspring inherit these traits. Over time, a species may change significantly. Obvious examples
included domesticated animals such as dogs, and crops species such as corn.

Continuous Variation: This type of variation is influenced by

genes and the environment. There is usually a large number of
different phenotypes in continuous variation. Height is a good
example. Some people are genetically predisposed towards being
tall or short, but eating a healthy diet will increase height to a
certain extent. When continuous variation is graphed it can be a
histogram (right) or a line graph.

Discontinuous Variation: The result of genes alone, and results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates. Blood groups are a good example. Bar graphs are frequently
used for all types of data that is discontinuous.

Ionizing radiation and chemicals: Both of these increase

the rate of mutations. Cigarettes have chemicals (called carcinogens)
in them that cause cancer because they cause mutations. Most
mutations are bad, but if one is good, it helps the individual survive,
reproduce, and pass on the mutation to their offspring.

Sexual Reproduction – produces variation Asexual Reproduction – identical offspring

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
May provide Only half of parents No waiting for If environment
resistance to new genes passed on. pollination/other mate changes, little ability
disease to adapt
If environment Males cannot have Can be very fast Mutations are the
changes, more likely children and eat food (bacteria). only source of new
some of the offspring mother could variation.
will survive. otherwise be eating
Variation due to Note: it depends on the situation. Keep in mind that sexual
crossing over and reproduction needs two parents and that it produces more variation.
independent
assortment

Adaptive features are inherited functional features that help the organism by increasing its
fitness, which is the ability of the organism to survive and reproduce in its environment.

Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to live in very dry climates, such as cacti. They have a
number of adaptive features that help to increase survival by reducing water loss:
● Fewer stomata - water vapour diffuses out of the plant via the stomata, thus less water is lost if
there are fewer stomata. Stomata are also sunken in pits in the leaf, which allows bubbles of moist
air to be trapped around them. This lowers the water potential gradient, so less water is lost from the
leaf.
● Small, rolled leaves or spines - this reduces the surface area of the leaf and traps moisture to lower
the water potential gradient, reducing water loss.
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● Deep roots - this allows plants to absorb water from the soil. Roots are also adapted to absorb lots
of water when it rains for storage, e.g. in monsoon seasons.
● Thick waxy cuticle - this provides a waterproof barrier around the leaf to prevent water loss.

Hydrophytes, in contrast, are plants which are adapted to live in very wet conditions and includes
species such as the water lily and the lotus. These plants are adapted differently to xerophytes as
they do not need to minimize water loss:
● Leaf shape - leaves are usually large and flat to have a large surface area which promotes water
loss.
● Stomata - positioned on the top of the leaf where the sun hits. There is also a large number of
stomata, which are usually open to allow water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf.
● Thin/no waxy cuticle - water loss does not need to be restricted by this layer in hydrophytes.
● Small root system - as there is a large amount of water reliably available, root systems can be
shallow, and water can diffuse directly into the stem.

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 Unit 25 organisms and their environment

Definitions:
● Producer - an organism which converts light energy to chemical energy in order to produce its own
nutrients.
● Consumer - an organism which gets energy from feeding on other animals or plants.
● Food chain - a diagram which shows the order of energy transfer through feeding in an ecosystem.
● Food web - a diagram showing how different food chains interact with each other.
● Trophic level - the trophic level of an organism refers to its position in the food chain, food web,
pyramid of numbers or pyramid of biomass.
● Pyramid of numbers - shows the number of organisms in each trophic level of a food chain.
● Pyramid of biomass - shows the total mass of organisms in each trophic level of a food chain.
● Biomass - the total mass of living material.
● Herbivore - organisms which feed on plants.
● Carnivore - organisms which feed on animals.
● Decomposer - organisms which break down decaying organic material

Solar energy (sunlight) is the main source of energy for organisms. Energy is initially trapped in
the process of photosynthesis, by producers. They use the energy to carry out the 7 characteristics
of life (MRS GREN). Autotrophs are self-feeding (plants). Heterotrophs eat other organisms.

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 +6O2

Ecology is the study of ecosystems. An ecosystem is the interaction between the community and
the environment. The community is all the living organisms in a defined area. A population is the total
number of one species in a community. A species are organisms that can reproduce to give birth to
fertile offspring (babies).
A food chain is a chart showing the flow of food/energy from one organism to the next. A food web
is a series of interconnecting food chains.
Tree  Caterpillar Song bird Eagle
Producer  Primary ConsumerSecondary ConsumerTertiary Consumer
First trophic level Second trophic levelThird trophic level Fourth trophic level

Each organism lives on a trophic level (feeding level). The Producer is on the First trophic level, the
Primary Consumer is the Second trophic level. There are never more than five trophic levels. This is
because energy is lost when one organism consumes another.
● Not all animal and plant material can be digested to gain energy from, e.g. fur and bones.
● Energy is lost through excretion and decay.
● Energy is used in other processes, e.g. movement and keeping warm

This means that organisms later on in the food chain gain less energy from their food than organisms
earlier on, as energy is lost at each level. Consequently, organisms later in the food chain must eat a
larger amount to gain enough energy for survival. For this reason, there are usually not more than
five trophic levels as too much energy would be lost to sustain another. This is also why it is more
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efficient for humans to eat plants rather than animals, as there are more stages in the food chain if
animals are present.

A pyramid of numbers can be used to show the number of organisms in each trophic level. This is
similar to a pyramid of biomass, which measures the total biomass of all the organisms at each
level. A pyramid of biomass tends to have a true pyramid shape as biomass is lost in each level which
corresponds to the energy lost. A pyramid of biomass therefore is more useful as it gives an indication
of the amount of energy being passed on at each stage of the food chain.

Biomass is the mass of living

material after water has been
removed. A smaller biomass cannot
support a bigger biomass. The same
is true of energy. They are always
true pyramids. Pyramids of
numbers may sometimes not be
true pyramids eg a tree and
caterpillars or a dog and fleas.

Human impact on food chains: Humans alter food webs through over-harvesting food species
and introducing foreign species to habitats. Over-harvesting will damage food chains as other
organisms which consume these organisms will not have enough food to survive, meaning that many
of them will die. Introducing foreign species may have the same effect as there is now competition for
resources, which could damage existing species by interfering with the food chain.

Unit 26 Nutrient cycles

The carbon cycle: Carbon is an essential element which makes up the majority of molecules in
living organisms.
The carbon cycle is used to show how carbon atoms move between the atmosphere and living
organisms:
1. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, which makes up about 0.04%
of the air.
2. Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants during photosynthesis. Here, the carbon is transferred from
carbon dioxide to other molecules such as proteins and carbohydrates.
3. These molecules are passed through the food chain when feeding occurs, hence carbon is also
passed between the trophic levels.
4. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere during respiration, which releases carbon dioxide, and during
decomposition.
Carbon can be trapped in dead organisms when decomposition does not occur. These organisms
become fossilised over thousands of years to form fossil fuel. When this fossil fuel is burned, large
amounts of carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. This, along with the effect of
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deforestation, leads to the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasing, which causes
global warming.

The water cycle:

1. Water evaporates from bodies of water such as lakes and rivers to form water vapour (gas). It also
is released from plants during transpiration.
2. This water vapour rises upwards and begins to cool. When it cools, condensation occurs, turning
the vapour back into liquid water which forms clouds.
3. When the cloud becomes too heavy, water falls from the cloud as precipitation (rain, snow, hail
etc.).
4. This water is then taken up by plants and animals, or returns to a body of water, so that the cycle
can continue.

The nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen is another element which is key to biological lifeforms. Nitrogen is
used to make amino acids, DNA and ATP, which is a molecule that releases energy. Microorganisms
are key to the nitrogen cycle as they help to convert nitrogen to different forms so that it can be used.
1. Nitrogen gas is present in the air. This nitrogen is fixed (converted to useable nitrate ions) by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live on the root nodules of some plants, or by lightning.
2. Plants absorb these nitrate ions and use them to make other molecules, such as amino acids and
proteins.
3. These molecules are passed through the food chain via feeding.
4. Nitrogen is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia when decomposition occurs, or in the form
of urea, which is excreted from organisms after deamination occurs. If this decomposition occurs in
anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) then denitrifying bacteria can break down nitrates and return
nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.

Population size
Definitions:
● Population - A group of organisms of the same species living together in one habitat.
● Community - Populations of many different species living together in one ecosystem make up a
community.
● Ecosystem - A system in a specific area which contains a variety of living organisms which work
together within the environment.

Factors affecting rate of population growth:

● Food supply
● Predation
● Disease
Human population growth: Over the last 250 years, the human population has risen from just over
1 billion to 7.6 billion. There are many social and economic implications of this. Due to the massive
demand for resources and space, deforestation occurs, and a high amount of fossil fuels are burnt.
This leads to global warming and also damages habitats.

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 Unit 27 Human influences on ecosystems

Improvements in farming: With the advancement of technology, new methods of farming have
been introduced in order to maximise yield:
● Use of machinery - agricultural machinery can be used in place of people. This is quicker and more
efficient, thus larger amounts of land can be farmed at once.
● Chemical fertilisers - fertilisers increase the amount of nutrients in the soil for plants, meaning that
they can grow larger and produce more fruit, increasing the yield.
● Insecticides and herbicides - these chemicals kill off unwanted insects and weed species.
● Selective breeding - animals and crops which produce a large yield are selectively bred to produce
a large number of organisms with a high yield.
Farmers also grow crops in a monoculture, which means that only one species of crop is grown at
once. This is done to maximise efficiency and simplicity. It does, however, have a negative impact on
the surrounding ecosystems. This is because there is a loss of biodiversity as only one species is grown.
This can harm food chains and reduce the population of some species.

Intensive farming: Animals and crops can both be farmed intensively. With crops, this means
farming in a monoculture using high amounts of pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers to maximise
production. Animals are kept in high densities and energy loss is limited by restricting movement and
keeping a constant optimum temperature so that the organisms do not waste energy to
thermoregulate. High amounts of antibiotics are also used to prevent diseases.
Intensive farming is not sustainable, however, and damages the environment: livestock produce large
amounts of methane gas, which is a main contributor to global warming, whilst crops take up huge
amounts of space, meaning that forests and other habitats must be destroyed to make space for
farming.

Food shortage: When people do not receive enough food, famine occurs. This can be caused by a
variety of factors, including natural disasters, such as drought and flooding, increasing population,
poverty, and unequal food distribution. As the world human population increases, food production
must also be increased to sustain the population. This is a problem as more land is required to grow
crops and animals, meaning that deforestation is happening at an increasing rate, and there is also an
increasing amount of greenhouse gases emitted from animal production. Greenhouse gases cause
global warming, which is a worldwide issue that leads to increased natural disasters, such as tropical
storms and drought, as well as rising sea levels, which floods homes and decreases the amount of
habitable land.

Habitat destruction Many habitats are destroyed by humans to make space for other economic
activities, or by pollution from these activities. Consequently, the biodiversity of many places is
decreasing. This interrupts food chains and webs and means that more species may die because their
prey is gone.
Main causes of habitat destruction:
● Clearing land for farming and housing
● Natural resource extraction
● Marine pollution
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Deforestation: Deforestation involves cutting down large amounts of trees to gather as resources
for manufacturing or to clear space for other economic activities. This has a large amount of
undesirable effects:
● Extinction - habitat destruction can lead to the extinction of species that lived there.
● Soil erosion - without roots to anchor the soil, it is carried away by the wind and heavy rains. This
decreases the fertility of these areas.
● Flooding - forests prevent flash flooding by slowing the time that water takes to reach the ground.
They also allow the water to be absorbed into the soil.
● Increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere - Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
during photosynthesis. If there are fewer trees, less carbon dioxide is absorbed, thus there is more in
the atmosphere. This increases global warming.

Eutrophication and water pollution: One of the major pollutants to lakes and rivers is chemicals
from fertilisers. When fertilisers are washed off fields into waterways, eutrophication occurs:
1. Fertilisers are washed from fields into the waterways by rain. This brings an excess of nutrients
into the habitat.
2. The nutrients cause plants to grow rapidly, and there is an algae bloom across the surface.
3. Algae covers the surface of the water, preventing sunlight from passing through. This means that
plants cannot photosynthesise to produce energy so they begin to die.
4. As there are less plants to photosynthesise, less oxygen is released into the water. The dead plants
are broken down by decomposers, which use up the remaining oxygen from the water.
5. The lack of oxygen causes organisms such as fish to die, reducing the biodiversity of the habitat.

Another cause of water pollution is female contraceptive hormones. These hormones are excreted
from the body in urine and then make their way into the water supply, as they are not filtered out by
sewage treatment plants. When they reach male aquatic organisms, such as fish and frogs, which are
very sensitive to the hormones, it causes feminisation. This is where male organisms begin to produce
eggs and lose the ability to reproduce. Consequently, a small amount of offspring is produced which
can harm the species survival and also disrupts the food chain for animals that usually feed off these
organisms. In addition, these hormones can reduce the sperm count in men, which causes fertility
problems.

Air pollution: The main pollutants of air are methane and carbon dioxide. These are released into
the atmosphere due to farming practices and manufacturing, especially during the burning of fossil
fuels. Air pollution leads to a number of environmental problems: carbon dioxide and methane
contribute to the increasing rate of global warming and climate change, as well as causing acid rain.
Global warming occurs when greenhouse gases rise into the atmosphere and form a layer around the
Earth, preventing heat from the Sun escaping the atmosphere. This means that the climate of Earth
becomes hotter. Acid rain is caused by carbon dioxide dissolving in rain water to form carbonic acid,
and sulphur dioxide dissolving to make sulphuric acid. Acid rain then falls and accumulates in bodies
of water and soils, causing a change in pH which may harm organisms living there. The acid also
corrodes infrastructure and damages tree bark and leaves. To reduce acid rain, sulphur dioxide is
removed from gases before they are released into the atmosphere. Sulphur can also be removed from

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fossil fuels before burning, although this process is expensive. Soils and water can be made less acidic
by adding powdered limestone or slaked lime.

Conservation
It is important to reduce the negative impacts that humans have on the environment to conserve the
biodiversity of ecosystems. This means increasing the sustainability of resources and manufacturing.
Sustainable resources are those which can be taken from the environment without the risk of
them running out, i.e. they can be produced naturally as quickly as they are harvested. Resources such
as coal and oil are not sustainable as fossil fuels are non-renewable. Others, such as wood and fish,
can be harvested sustainably with the help of quotas, education and re-stocking.
Development should also happen sustainably. Sustainable development is defined as development
which meets the needs of people today, as well as providing for an increasing population without
damaging the environment. Development must be managed carefully to maintain sustainability. This
involves cooperation between different players, from local councils and companies, to governments
and NGOs, each of whom may have differing demands. For example, some companies may want to
continue harvesting resources to protect jobs and profits, whereas other people may disagree as it
could damage habitats.

Reducing waste: Unsustainable practices can lead to large amounts of waste. This waste can be
reduced by introducing recycling programmes. Paper, glass, plastic and metals can all be reused and
recycled, which greatly reduces the amount of these materials polluting the environment or in landfills.
It also reduces the demand on sourcing raw materials, which in turn reduces the amount of habitat
destruction.

Sewage treatment: Water treatment happens in three stages: sedimentation, filtration and
chlorination. In sedimentation, larger solids separate out from the water to form sludge, whilst water
and lighter particles which float on top are drained into another tank. This liquid is then passed
through gravel and sand filters in filtration to remove any particles still left in the water. Finally,
chlorine is added to the water to kill microorganisms such as bacteria which makes the water safe to
consume.

Conservation of endangered species: When the number of surviving organisms in a species

becomes very low, the species is classed as endangered. This is harmful to a species as it greatly
reduces the gene pool by decreasing the number of alleles available. This makes the species more
susceptible to disease and less able to adapt to changes. Species can become endangered for a variety
of reasons, such as habitat destruction, climate change, hunting, pollution, and competition from
introduced species. If an endangered species is not protected, it can become extinct. There are many
measures that can be used to protect a species from extinction:
● Monitoring - endangered animals can be monitored. This allows the number of organisms left to be
tracked over time and can also highlight their preferred habitats and migration patterns, allowing
important habitats to be protected.
● Education - this allows people to understand why a species is becoming extinct so that protective
measures can be implemented.

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● Captive breeding programmes - endangered animals can be bred in captivity where their chance of
survival is greater. They can later be reintroduced to habitats in the wild.
● Seed banks - seeds from endangered plant species can be preserved so that the plants may be grown
in the future.
Conservation is important to prevent the extinction of species and to protect the environment. It is
important to protect these things to improve sustainability and to make sure that there are resources
available in the future.

Unit 29 Biotechnology and genetic engineering

Biotechnology involves using microorganisms and biological substances to carry out functions in
manufacturing processes:
● Yeast is a microorganism which can respire anaerobically (without oxygen) to release carbon
dioxide. This can be used in bread-making to make dough rise as bubbles of carbon dioxide form.
Ethanol is also released during this reaction, which can be used to make biofuels that are used as an
alternative to fossil fuels.
● Pectinase is an enzyme used in fruit juice production. Pectinase breaks down pectin, which is found
in plant cell walls and is used to hold the cell wall together. Adding pectinase therefore breaks down
these walls to release the contents of the cell, which increases the yield of fruit juice.
● Biological washing powders contain enzymes to break down different molecules. Amylases break
down starch, lipases break down fats and oils, and proteases break down proteins. Enzymes break
these into smaller products that are water soluble, thus can be washed out easily. As enzymes are
denatured at high temperatures and extreme pH, a lower washing temperature is needed, and the
enzymes may not work in acidic or alkaline water.
● The enzyme lactase can be used to make lactose-free milk. When lactase is added to milk, it breaks
down the lactose into glucose and galactose, which can be safely consumed by lactose-intolerant
people.
● Penicillium is a fungus used to produce penicillin, an antibiotic. The fungus is placed in a fermenter
to keep it at the optimum temperature and pH, so the penicillin yield is high. There is also an air inlet
so that aerobic respiration can take place, and all other microorganisms are killed to limit
contamination and competition.

Genetic engineering: When a gene from one species is put into another species. Ex: The gene
which codes for human insulin can be cut out of a human chromosome with a restriction enzyme (a
restriction enzyme is an enzyme the cuts DNA) and then put into a bacteria. Bacteria have one circular
chromosome, and also 1 or more small circular plasmids which are made of DNA. The human insulin
gene can be connected to these plasmids using an enzyme. After this has been done, the bacteria
reproduces, also copying the human insulin gene. Because the bacteria has the human insulin gene,
it makes insulin. This insulin can be given to diabetics who are unable to make their own insulin.

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Process of genetic engineering:
1. The gene which codes for the desired protein is isolated and cut with restriction enzymes. The
isolated gene has “sticky ends”.
2. The plasmid from the bacterial cell is cut with the same restriction enzymes. This leaves
complementary sticky ends to the isolated gene.
3. The gene is inserted into the plasmid. The complementary sticky ends are joined using the enzyme
DNA ligase. This forms a recombinant plasmid.
4. This plasmid is inserted into the bacteria, which will then produce this protein as the inserted gene
is expressed.
5. The bacterial cell reproduces, making more cells which produce the protein.

Examples of genetic engineering:

● Insulin production
● Herbicide and insect resistant plants
● Vitamin-rich plants

Disadvantages of genetic engineering:

● Loss of biodiversity.
● Potential development of weeds that are resistant to herbicides.
● GM crops are more expensive.
● GM crops may contaminate wild species by crossbreeding.
● Long-term health impacts not known.

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 Unit 30 Classification
Classification means putting things into groups based on finding SIMILAR characteristics or features
eg all the animals in the Class Birds have feathers.

All living organisms can be placed into one of 5 Kingdoms.

KINGDOM Multicellular Nucleus in cells Chloroplast Cell Wall

Prokaryote (bacteria) No No Some Yes
Protoctists (amoeba) No Yes No No
Fungi Most Yes No Yes
(mushroom/yeast)
Plants Yes Yes Yes Yes
Animals Yes Yes No No

Kingdoms then divide into Phyla (phylum), Classes (class), Orders (order), Families (Family), Genera
(genus) and species.

Kingdom Animal Animal Animal

Phylum Vertebrate Vertebrate Vertebrate
Class Mammal Mammal Mammal
Order Primate Primate Pholidota
Family Homonid Homonid Manidae
Genus Homo Pans Manis
Species sapiens paniscus gigantea
Human Chimpanzee Giant Pangolin

The table above shows the classification of 3 animals (Human, Chimpanzee and Giant Pangolin). Two
are closely related (human and the chimpanzee) they have the same kingdom, phylum, class, order
and family. They have a different Genus and species. Each organism is named by giving its genus and
species. Humans are Homo sapiens (note the genus has a capital letter). This is a two part or binomial
name. Organisms from different species cannot sexually reproduce to have fertile offspring. Lion x
Tiger = Liger (Liger is sterile). Zebra x Donkey =Zonkey (Zonkey is sterile). Sterile = cannot
reproduce/infertile

In this course we are ONLY interested in 4 kingdoms the Animals, Plants, Prokaryote and Fungi. In the
animal kingdom we will look at:

The phylum vertebrates and the classes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

The phylum arthropods and the classes crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods.

The phylum annelid, the phylum molluscs and phylum nematode.

Vertebrates are animals with a support running the length of their bodies an example is a backbone
or a spine. Invertebrates have no backbone.

The phylum flowering plants.

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 Animal Kingdom

Phylum Characteristics/Features Class Characteristics/Features

Vertebrates Have a backbone (spine) Fish Scaly skin/cold blooded/ gills/ fins/soft eggs
Amphibian Moist, smooth skin/cold blooded/soft eggs
Mammals Fur or hair/warm blooded/feed young milk/
four chambered heart
Reptiles Dry scaly skin/cold blooded/eggs with rubbery
shell
Birds Feathers/beak/warm blooded/eggs with hard
shell
Arthropods Hard exoskeleton/several Crustacean More than 4 pairs of jointed limbs/gills
pairs of jointed
legs/eyes/mouth
Arachnids 4 pairs of jointed limbs/gills or book lungs
Myriapods Body has many segments/each segment has a
pair of jointed legs
Insects 3 pairs of jointed legs/two pairs of wings (often
vestigial)/use tracheae to breathe
Nematodes Worm with no segments
Annelids Worms with tube like
body
Molluscs Un-segmented body may
have a shell

Plant Kingdom

Phylum Characteristics/Features Class Characteristics/Features

Flowering Reproduce using Monocotyledenous Long strap like leaves/parallel
Plants seeds/roots/stems/leaves/chlorophyll veins/one cotyledon (food store
Dicotyledenous Broad leaves/branching
veins/two cotyledons (food
stores) in seed

Bacteria and Fungi Kingdoms

Kingdom Characteristics/Features
Bacteria Unicellular/no nucleus/cell wall/ sometimes chlorophyll
Prokaryotes
Fungi Mostly multi-cellular/nucleus/cell wall/ feed by decomposing other organisms or as a parasite

Viruses are not considered to be alive as they do not have the 7 characteristics of life (they need a
host to reproduce).They are made of a simple strand of RNA wrapped in a protein coat.

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