INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SPACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

AE 241: THERMAL AND FLUID LAB

Instructions:

1. Promptness is required in attendance and in submission of reports.

2. Precaution in handling of equipment ( personal safety is very important in the lab )

(a) No machine should be started nor should any adjustment be made without proper instruction.
(b) Valves should be opened, or closed slowly.

3. Lab class: Observation of experimental data should be written in tabular form given in the respective
handout. All calculations should be completed after the conduct of the experiment before leaving the
lab.
4. Sample calculation should be get signed from Teaching Assistant’s/Lab instructor/Faculty, by each
student, before leaving the lab.

5. Final Experimental report is in ASME format (shall be mailed to you). It is to be ensured the group doing
the experiment gives one report with mandatory Appendix I & Appendix II. Appendix I should have a
table of observation followed by a sample calculation. Appendix II will have a compilation of error
analysis showing the influence of your measurements on the major quantified reporting. You will not be
permitted to do the next experiment if the report of your previous experiment is not given in hard copy
(Reference: IIT Bombay UG heat transfer lab Instruction handout)
Sample ASME format
 THERMAL ENGINEERING LAB
Experiment No:- 1
PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL AIR BLOWER

Objective:

To conduct a performance test on the blower and to plot the following curves for backward / forward /
radial vanes,
Total head Vs Discharge
Efficiency Vs Discharge
Input Vs Discharge
Specifications:

Power of motor - 5 HP (3.75 kW)

Speed - 2880 rpm

Pipe Diameter - 100 mm

Throat diameter - 60 mm

Arm Length - 230 mm

Brief theoretical consideration:

The main components of a blower are the rotor and the Diffuser. Because of the high
rotational speed of the rotor, air contained in the rotational passage is subjected to a centrifugal
force, which caused air to flow radially outward. The pressure difference between the centre of the
rotor and the atmosphere causes fresh air to be sucked in. Rotor could have forward, backward or
radial type vanes. All the mechanical energy driving the blower is transmitted to the fluid stream in
the impeller where it is converted into kinetic energy with a slight pressure rise.

Procedure:

1. Start the blower at NO LOAD condition by keeping the delivery valve in closed position.
2. Open the delivery valve in to FULL open condition.
3. Take the manometer readings for static pressure and across venturi.
4. Note the speed of motor and load on dynamometer and time for 20 impulses of energy
meter.
5. Repeat the experiment by gradually closing and setting the delivery valve at different
positions.
6. Finally take the readings at the closed condition of the delivery valve.
7. Close the delivery valve and switch OFF the blower.
 Static head Venturi head Temperatur Head Total
Time for Density Static Dynamic Outpu Input
measured by difference in e of inlet causing Discharge Velocity Head
Load Speed 20 of air head head t Power
Sl manometer manometer air flow Q V H= 
impulse ρa Hs Hd Power W
. hs Hw T Ha Hs+Hd
No

m of m of
Kgf RPM sec m of water m of water K kg/m3 m of air m3/s m/s m of air W a b %
air air
Typical table of observations and consolidated results:
Typical calculation:

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

1.03  10 4  lb  9.81
Pa = N / m2
760

Where, lb = Barometer Reading in mm of Hg

DENSITY OF AIR AT THE DELIVERY CONDITION

Pa
a = kg/m3
RT

Where, R = Characteristic gas constant = 287.14 J/kg K

T = Atmospheric Temperature in K

Flow Measurement

HEAD ACROSS VENTURIMETER

w
Ha = H w  m of air
a

Where,  w = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

DISCHARGE

C d  a1 a 2  2 gH a
Q= m3/sec
a1  a 2
2 2

Where, Cd=Coefficient of Discharge of Venturimeter = 0.9

a1= Area of Venturi inlet pipe in m2

a2= Area of throat in m2

VELOCITY OF AIR IN TH E PIPE

Q
V= m/sec
A

Where, A = Area of cross section of the pipe in m2

Estimation of Blower Power

 STATIC HEAD

w
Hs = h s  m of air
a

Where, hs = Static pressure manometer reading in m of water.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE HEAD

V2
Hd = m of air
2g

TOTAL HEAD

H = Hs + Hdm of air

OUTPUT =  a  Q  H Watts

Where,  a  a  g (Specific weight of air)

Estimation of Power Input

(a) Using Dynamometer

2NT
INPUT TO THE BLOWER = Watts
60

Where, N = Speed of the motor in RPM

T = Torque = Load X Arm length N-m

(b) Using Energy meter

20 3600
INPUT TO THE BLOWER =   1000 Watts
K t

Where, K = Energy meter constant = 1600 Impulses/kWh

t = Time for 20 impulses in seconds

EFFICIENCY

Output
=  100 %
Input

Make a plot of (i) total head (ii) Efficiency of the pump (iii) Input power variations with
Pump discharge in m3/sec
Result:

Inference and Discussions:

 Experiment No:- 2
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION TEST RIG
Objective:

To determine Coefficient of Performance (COP) of the given Vapour Compression System.

Specification:

Compressor : 1/3 HP.

Refrigerant : R134 a
Condenser : Forced air-cooled condenser.
Evaporator : SS vessel with copper coil wound and soldered around. Properly insulated,
Provided with a thermocouple sensor to measure the water temperature.
Diameter of the vessel = 295 mm
Energy meter constant = 750 rev/kWh
Expansion devices : Capillary tube and Thermostatic expansion valve.
Location of temperature sensor and pressure gauges : p1, T1 corresponds to state point 1, and
p2, T2, p3, T3, and p4, T4, corresponds to points 2, 3, and 4 respectively.

Typical vapour compression Cycle:

Vapour compression system (Saturated Compressor exit conditions)

Procedure:
 For expansion through capillary, open hand shut off valve before and after capillary. Close all other
valves and keep Solenoid valve in off position.
 Put on the main switch for compressor, condenser fan and Temperature indicator.
 Fill water in the evaporator vessel to sufficient level. Note the level of water using a measuring scale (h).
 Note the initial temperature of water in the vessel T5 prior to starting the experiment.
 Now power the unit noting down the starting time.
  Observe the fall in temperature of water in the evaporator vessel.
 For fall in 50C in the evaporator vessel note down the time taken say for about 3 instances ie, from 25 0C,
180C, 140C.
 Note the time for 10revolutions of energy meter disc during each of the above instances.
 When the temperature T3 and T4 are almost equal note the following.
 Note the final temperature of water T5 and note the time.
 Note pressure gauge reading P1, P2, P3 and P4 at different state points.
 Note temperatures at different state points T1, T2, T3, and T4 using the selector switch provided on the
temperature indicator.
 Plot the state points on p-h chart and find the enthalpy of each state point.
 For throttling through the automatic expansion valve, close all hand valves. Put on the solenoid switch,
however the main hand valve in the line must be open.
 Repeat the above procedure and note down the readings.
 Switch off the compressor, condenser fan, temperature indicator switch, etc and finally off the main
switch.

Observations:
Diameter of the vessel =
Height of the water level =
Energy meter constant =
Experimental determination of COP,
Case 1:
T5initial = ____________ 0C , t1 = 0s
T5final = ____________ 0C , t2 = _______ s
Time taken for 10 revolution of energy meter disc = ______ s
Case 2:
T5initial = ____________ 0C , t1 = 0s
T5final = ____________ 0C , t2 = _______ s
Time taken for 10 revolution of energy meter disc = ______ s
Case 3:
T5initial = ____________ 0C , t1 = 0s
T5final = ____________ 0C , t2 = _______ s
Time taken for 10 revolution of energy meter disc = ______ s
Typical calculation:

(a) To find the COP by experimental method.

To find the refrigerating effect:

Mass of water in the evaporator vessel (m) = ( ) Kg
Where, h = height of water level
= density of water
d = diameter of the vessel.
T5initial  T5final
Rate of fall in temperature of water = = °K/s
Timeduration
Cpof water = 4.182 kJ/kg o K

Refrigerating effect = m x Cp x kW

Tonnage = tonnes

The work done by the compressor may be calculated using the time taken (seconds) for 10 revolution of energy
meter disc. E is the energy meter constant (Rev/kWh) .
Work done by the compressor = kW

Where, te= time taken for 10 revolution of energy meter disc.

E = Energy meter constant
Work Input for Refrigeration = _______________ kW
Hence,

COP of the refrigerating system =

(a) To find the COP using p -h chart. ( For finally achieved steady state condition)
An estimate of Thermodynamic cycle COP can be determine under assumptions of equilibrium
conditions using p-h chart. Note the enthalpy at each point. P1, T1 corresponds to point 1, and p2, T2, p3, T3, and
p4, T4, corresponds to points 2, 3, and 4 respectively after steady state has reached (constant water temperature
in the evaporator vessel).
Convert the pressure gauge readings to absolute pressures.
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

Temperature reading of each state points after stable condition,

T1 =
T2 =
T3 =
T4 =
Pressure gauge reading of each state points after stable condition,
p1 =
p2 =
p3 =
p4 =
Plot different state points on the p-h chart, using the absolute Pressure and Temperature readings.
From p - h Chart
h1 = …………………… kJ/kg
h2 = …………………… kJ/kg
h3 = …………………… kJ/kg
h4 = …………………… kJ/kg

h4  h3
COPR =
h1  h 4

Result:

Inference and Discussions:

 Experiment No:- 3
MULTI CYLINDER FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE TEST RIG

Objective:
To conduct a performance test on Multi-cylinder four stroke diesel engine and to prepare heat
balance chart of Multi-cylinder four stroke diesel engine.

Specification:

Make : Maruti Suzuki (Swift Diesel)

No of cylinders : 4
Cylinder Bore : 69.6 mm
Stroke length : 82 mm
Cubic capacity : 1248 cc
Compression ratio : 17.6: 1
Area of Piston : 0.003 m2
Rated Speed : 1400 -1500 rpm
Type of fuel injection : CRDI
Cooling : Water
Dynamometer : Eddy current
Dynamometer constant : 2000
Diameter of orifice : 30 mm
Cd of orifice : 0.62

Brief theoretical consideration:

Multi-cylinder four stroke petrol engine is basically a internal combustion engine. Since ignition in these
engines takes place due to compression process itself, these are called compression ignition engines.
One can understand its working by basically looking at the various operations (strokes) during the
reciprocating motion.
SUCTION STROKE: With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. during this stroke, the
inlet valve opens and the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn inside the engine cylinder; the exhaust
valve however remains closed. This operation is represented by the line 5-1.

Theoretical p- V diagram of a four-stroke Diesel Engine

COMPRESSION STROKE: The air drawn at atmospheric pressure during the suction stroke is
compressed to high pressure and temperature as the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. Both the inlet
and exhaust valves do not open during any part of this stroke. This operation is represented by 1-2.
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE: As the piston starts moving from T.D.C to B.D.C, the
quantity of fuel is injected into the hot compressed air in fine sprays by the fuel injector and it (fuel)
starts burning at constant pressure shown by the line 2-3. At the point 3 fuel supply is cut off. The fuel
is injected at the end of compression stroke but in actual practice the ignition of the fuel starts before
the end of the compression stroke. The hot gases of the cylinder expand adiabatically to point 4. Thus
doing work on the piston.
EXHAUST STROKE: The piston moves from the B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases escape to the
atmosphere through the exhaust valve. When the piston reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve closes
and the cycle is completed. This stroke is represented by the line 1-5.

The given engine for testing is a has a common rail Diesel Engine, which is appropriately instrumented
to carry out the performance and heat balance test.

Procedure:
 Ensure sufficient lubrication oil and fuel oil is there.
 Remove air in the fuel line, if any.
 Switch on the main panel and the computer system.
 Allow sufficient water flow for the engine and calorimeter. (For engine minimum is 60 ml/s)
 Ensure the dynamometer load knob is in zero position.
 Start the engine with key switch.
 Maintain the speed to 1500 rpm by controlling the accelerator knob.
 Note down the readings as per the tabular column.
 Export the data for pressure Vs volume to excel format in the system.
 Slowly increase the load to 10 to 20 % of full load and keep the speed to 1500 rpm.
 Note down the readings and export the data.
 Repeat the experiment for different load up to maximum load.
  Reduce the load and speed gradually to minimum and then turn off the engine and mains.
 Close the water lines.
 Tabulate all the readings and do the calculations.

Typical calculation:

2NT
Brake Power, BP = kW
60  1000
WN
= kW
C
Where, N = Engine speed in rpm
W = Load on dynamometer in kg
C = Dynamometer constant
10 x  x 3600
Total fuel consumption (TFC) = kg/hr.
t × 1000
Where, t = Time taken for 10cc of Fuel consumption in seconds
Ρ = Density of fuel in gm/ cc (ρ = 0.82gm/ cc for diesel)
TFC
Brake Specific fuel consumption (BSFC) = kg/kW hr.
BP

w
Air intake, Va = C d  ao  2gh m3/s
a

Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice (0.62)

 2
ao = Area of orifice = d m2
4
d = Diameter of orifice in m
h = Differential head across orifice in m of water
w = Density of water in kg/m3
p
a = Density of air in kg/m3 =
RT
P = Atmospheric pressure in kg/m2
R = Gas constant
T = Ambient Temperature in 0K
Mass of Air intake, ma = a  Va kg/s
Frictional Power, FP
(i) From p-v diagram
FP = IP – BP
Where, IP = Indicated Power in kW
N
Workdone/c ycle/cycle   number of cylinders
= n
60  1000
Workdone/c ycle/cycle = Area of p - v diagram  Xscale factor  Y scale factor N-m
N = Speed of engine in rpm
 n = no of revolutions for one cycle = 2 ( for 4 stroke )
IP is calculated form area under the PV diagram.
(ii) By Willan’s line method
Frictional power of the engine can find from TFC Vs BP graph. Extend the straight
portion of the TFC Vs BP curve backward to intercept the X- axis in the negative direction as shown.

Air flow ma
Air Fuel ratio = =
Fuel flow mf

TFC
mf = kg/s
3600
Actual Air Flow Va
Volumetric Efficiency, vol = =
Swept Volume Vs
π 2 N 1
Vs = D L   No of cylinders m3/s
4 n 60
Where, D = Cylinder bore diameter in m
L = Stroke length in m
Brake Thermal efficiency
BP  3600  100
b.th = %
TFC  CV

Where, CV = Calorific value of fuel (45208.8 kJ/ kg for diesel)

Mechanical efficiency
BP
mech =  100 %
IP
Indicated Thermal efficiency
IP  3600  100
I th = %
TFC  CV
Heat Balance
TFC  CV
Heat supplied by fuel, Hf = kJ/min
60
Heat equivalent to useful work, Hb = BP 60 kJ/min
 Hb
%Hb =  100 %
Hf

Heat carried by engine cooling jacket, Hc = m1  Cpw  T4  T3  kJ/min

Hc
%Hc =  100 %
Hf

Heat carried by exhaust gas, Hg = ma  mf  60  Cpg  T5  T3  kJ/min

Hg
%Hg =  100 %
Hf

m2  C pw  T5  T3 
Cpg = kJ/min
ma  m f  60  T1  T2 
Heat unaccounted, Hu = 
Hf  Hb  Hc  Hg  kJ/min

Where, Cpw = Specific heat of water in kJ/kg 0K

m1 = Engine cooling water flow in kg/min
m2 = Calorimeter water flow in kg/min
Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gas in kJ/kg 0K
T1 = Exhaust gas Temperature at inlet of calorimeter in 0K
T2 = Exhaust gas Temperature at exit of calorimeter in 0K
T3 = Inlet water Temperature in 0K
T4 = Engine cooling water outlet Temperature in 0K
T5 = Calorimeter water outlet Temperature in 0K
T6 = Ambient Temperature in 0K
 Time taken for Engine Exhaust gas Exhaust gas Engine Calorimeter
Manometer reading Calorimeter Inlet water
Sl. Load Speed 10 cc of fuel cooling Temp before Temp after cooling water water outlet
across orifice water flow temp
No (kg) (rpm) consumption water flow Calorimeter Calorimeter outlet temp temp
(cm of water) rate (ml/s) (deg C)
(sec) rate (ml/s) (deg C) (deg C) (deg C) (deg C)

- W N t h1 h2 - - T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

1
Typical table of observations:

Ambient temperature, T6

2
=

9
 Va
BP TFC BSFC ma mf Vs Air-fuel vol B.Th mech I.Th
(m3/s)
(kW) (kg/hr) (kg/kWhr) (kg/s) (kg/s) (m3/s) ratio (%) (%) (%) (%)
Typical table for consolidation of results of performance test:
 Heat balance sheet
Heat Input Heat Consumed
%
kJ/min kJ/min
Heat equivalent to useful work

Heat Carried away by cooling water

Heat carried away by exhaust gas

Heat unaccounted

Heat balance chart

Graphs to plot:
1. Total Fuel Consumption (TFC) VsBrake Power (BP)
2. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) Vs BP
3. Brake Thermal Efficiency (bth) Vs BP
4. Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ith) Vs BP
5. Mechanical Efficiency (mech) Vs BP
6. Volumetric Efficiency (vol) Vs BP
A typical plot for the performance test. (This is only a schematic and
does not represent the observed changes from the engine.)

Result:

Inference and Discussions:

 HEAT TRANSFER LAB
EXTENDED SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER
EXPERIMENT NO:-1A
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
EXPERIMENT NO:-1B
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO 2

Experiment on forced convective heat transfer

Objective:
To determine the effect of forced convection on heat transfer from the surface of a cylinder at
varying air velocities and surface temperatures.

Theory and Introduction:

Fig. Experimental set up

By measuring the temperature on the surface of a horizontal cylinder subjected to heat loss by
radiation and forced convection in combination then comparing the results with those
obtained from a theoretical analysis.

In free/natural convection the heat transfer rate from a surface is limited by the small
movements of air which are generated by changes in the density of the air as the air is heated
by the surface. In forced convection the air movement can be greatly increased resulting in
improved heat transfer rate from a surface. Therefore a surface subjected to forced
convection will have a lower surface temperature than the same surface subjected to free
convection, for the same power input.

If a surface, at a temperature above that of its surroundings, is located in moving air at the
same temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air
and the surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of forced convection to the
air (heat is transferred to the air passing the surface) and radiation to the surroundings. A
horizontal cylinder is used in this exercise to provide a simple shape from which the heat
transfer can be calculated

Note: Heat loss due to conduction is minimised by the design of the equipment and
measurements mid way along the heated section of the cylinder can be assumed to be
unaffected by conduction at the ends of the cylinder. Heat loss by conduction would normally
be included in the analysis of a real application.

Total heat loss from the cylinder, Qtot = Qf + Qr

Heat loss due to forced convection, Qf = Hf A (Ts – Ta)
Heat loss due to radiation, Qr = Hr A (Ts – Ta) =
Heat transfer area, A = (π D L)
Hr = σ ε F (Ts4-Ta4)/(Ts-Ta)
Hf = k Nu/D
Nu is calculated from the empirical formula.
Corrected air velocity can be taken as 1.22 actual velocity.
The cylinder causes a blockage in the duct resulting in a local increase in the air velocity.
Values for k, V and Pr depend on the temperature of the air.

Procedure.

• Familiarize yourself with the conduction experimental station.

• Start the centrifugal fan.
• Set the heater voltage to 20 Volts
• When the equipment reaches steady state note down air velocity, temperatures,
voltage and current.
• Do the experiment by changing the air velocity in steps of 1.0m/s until the air velocity
is 7.0 m/s.

Tabulations

Diameter of cylinder d = 0.01m

Length of cylinder L = 0.07 m

No V I T9 T10 Ua

Calculations
Heat flow (Power to heater) = Watts
Heat transfer area As = m2
Corrected air velocity = m/s.
Heat transfer coefficient ( forced convection ) Hf =
Heat transfer coefficient ( radiation) Hr =
Heat transfer by forced convection Qf =
Heat transfer by radiation Hr =
Total heat transferred = Qtot =

Results

Compare the theoretical value obtained for Qtot, with the measured value of Qin and explain
the difference between the values.
Compare the calculated heat transfer due to forced convection and radiation.
Plot a graph of surface temperature T10 against the corrected air velocity.

Perform an uncertainty analysis on the calculated values of Qf, Qr and Qtot

 ` EXPERIMENT NO 3

Laws of radiant heat transfer and radiant heat exchange

Objective

Show that the intensity of radiation measured by the radiometer is directly related to the
radiation emitted from a source by the view factor between the radiometer and the source.

Determine the emissivity of radiating surfaces with different finishes, namely polished and
gray compared with black.

Design an experiment to show that the emissivity of radiating surfaces in proximity to each
other will affect the surface temperatures and the heat emitted.

Theory and Instrumentation

(a) View factor experiment

The radiation emitted by a black surface (qb) is given by = qb = σ (Ts4-Ta4)

The rate at which radiation is transferred from surface to radiometer is related the
view factor F.

Radiation received by the radiometer = qr = F σ (Ts4-Ta4)

It can be shown that this view factor F is related to the angle of view and that for a
circular surface.

In the present set up F is given by sin2 θ, where θ is the half angle of view from the
radiometer to the surface.

(b) emmissivity

The Stephan Boltszman Law states that qb = ε F σ (Ts4-Ta4)

Since for a black surface ε = 1, the actual view factor can be determined using the
black plate. F = qb/R.

Then for the non black surfaces, ε = R/ F σ (Ts4-Ta4)

Procedure

Familiarize yourself with the conduction experimental station.

(a) View factor experiment

 • Connect the thermal radiation source (on left of linear radiation unit) to the power
supply.
• Turn the power control to its 65-70% of the maximum setting.
• Place the radiometer 100 from the heat source.
• Allow the system to reach steady state and then record the distance and the radiometer
reading.
• Repeat the procedure in steps of 50mm until the radiometer is 300mm away from the
heated plate.
• Repeat the procedure for at least one other temperature by decreasing the power
supply.

(b) Emissivity

• Connect the thermocouples.

• Set the heater voltage to 20Volts.
• Allow the system to reach steady state and allow radiometer to stabilise for 90s.
• Place the black plate and place the radiometer to a position 300mm from the plate.
• Note down T10, T9, T7 and Radiometer readings.

• The radiometer must be moved away from the heat source and returned to the same
position for each reading to avoid heating of the radiometer body.
• Place the other plates after carefully removing the black plate.
• Repeat the above procedure and note down the reading in each case.

Tabulations

No. Heater Voltage Heater current Radiometer Radiometer

distance reading

Radiometer correction factor C = 30.12

The heat source diameter is 100mm.

No Plates Temperature Temperature Temperature Radiometer

used of the heat of the of the plate reading
source surroundings

Calculations.

Data is tabulated under the following headings

Heater Voltage V Volts
Heater current I Amps
Temperature of the heated plate T10 °C
Temperature of the surroundings T9°C
Distance from the heated plate to the radiometer x m
Radiometer reading W/m2

Ts = (T10 + 273)

Ta = (T9 + 273)

qb = σ(Ts4-Ta4)

F = sin2 θ

qr = F x qb

Emissivity calculations as per the procedure described in the theory.

Results

Estimate the cumulative influence of the experimental errors on the calculated values for θ, qb
and qr.

Compare the calculated values of qr and the radiometer readings.

Compare the results obtained from the emissivity test and explain the differences in terms of
the emissivity combinations. Estimate and record the experimental errors for these
measurements.
 FLUID MECHANICS LAB

CALIBRATION OF ORIFICE METER

 Calibration of Orifice meter

Orifice meter :

Observations :

Diameter of pipe, d1 = ______ cm

Diameter of orifice, d0 = ______ cm

Area of collecting tank, A = ______ x ______ = ________ cm2

Graph :

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 2

 Calibration of Orifice meter

Exp no: ……………..

Date : ………….....
CALIBRATION OF ORIFICE METER
Aim :

i) Determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of the given orifice meter for different
rates of flow.
ii) Calibrate the Orifice meter.
iii) Draw the following graphs

a) Cd Vs Hm
b) Log Qa Vs log Hm
c) Qa Vs Hm

Specifications :

Diameter of pipe - 25 mm

Diameter of Orifice - 15 mm

Collecting tank size - 500 x 500 mm

Apparatus :

Orifice meter fitted across a pipeline leading to a collecting tank, Stop Watch, U-Tube
manometer connected across entry and throat sections etc.

Formula :

Theoretical discharge through Orifice meter

a 1 a 0 2gh
Q th  cm3/s
(a 1  a 0 )
2 2

Where:

a1 = Cross section area of pipe at inlet i.e, entry section.

a0 = Cross section area of Orifice.

h = Pressure head difference in terms of fluid flowing through pipeline.

ρ 
= H m  m 1 cm of water
 ρw 

Hm = Mercuric level difference in manometer in cm.

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 3

 Time for 5 cm rise
Actual Theoretical Coefficient of
Manometer Reading in collecting tank log Qa log Hm
Discharge Discharge discharge
(t)

Sl.
No: Right
Left limb Difference mean
limb 1 2 t Qa Qth Cd - -
h1 Hm = h2-h1
Observation Table :

h2

cm cm cm of Hg s s s cm3/s cm3/s - - -

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST

1

7
Calibration of Orifice meter

Page 4
 Calibration of Orifice meter

Actual discharge through Orifice meter,

V A. Δh
Q act   cm3/s
t t

Where,

V = (A. Δh), volume of water collected in collecting tank in cm3.

A = Cross section area of collecting tank in cm2.

Δh = Height of water collected in collecting tank in cm.

t = Time required to collect the water up to a height Δh in the collecting tank.

Hence,
Qa
Coefficient of discharge of the Orificemeter, Cd =
Q th

Theory :

It works on Bernoulli’s principle and device use for measuring the rate of fluid flowing through
a pipe. An Orificemeter is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared
to venturimeter. An Orifice meter in its simplest form consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular
hole known as an orifice. The plate is fixed inside the pipe, which is concentric with pipe. A mercury
U-tube manometer is inserted to know the difference of pressure head between the two tapping.

Orificemeter works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter i.e. by reducing the area of
flow passage a pressure difference is developed between the two sections and the measurement of
pressure difference is used to find the discharge.

The actual discharge through an orifice meter is given by,

a 1 .a 0 2 g h
Qa  Cd cm3/s
(a 1  a 0 )
2 2

ρ 
Where, h = H m  m 1 cm of water
 ρw 

ρ 
a 1 .a 0 2 g H m  m  1
 ρw 
ie, Qa  Cd cm3/s
(a 1  a 0 )
2 2

Hm = manometric difference in cm.

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 5

 Calibration of Orifice meter

Sample Calculations: Set No _____

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 6

 Calibration of Orifice meter

ρm = Density of mercury

ρw = Density of water

The above equation can be expressed as,

Q a  K H m n cm3/s .............(1)

Where, K - a constant

n - exponent

Calibration of orifice meter is to find out the numerical values of ‘K’ and ‘n’.

The graph of equation (1) can make linear by taking logarithms on both side.

ie, log Q = log K + n log Hm

The graph of the above equation is linear and the values of ‘K’ and ‘n’ can find from the graph.
While plotting the graph by taking log Qa on Y axis and log Hm on X axis, the slope of the line will give
the value of ‘n’ and Y-intercept will give the value of ‘log K’.

Plotting a curve Qa Vs Hm , we get calibration curve. This enables to find the Qa values directly
corresponding to the manometer reading.

Procedure :

 Note the diameter at the inlet of pipe (d1) and the diameter of an orifice (do).
 Note the density of manometric liquid i.e. mercury (ρm) and that of fluid flowing through
pipeline i.e. water (ρw).
 Connect the U-tube manometer to the pressure toppings of orifice meter, one end at the inlet
section and the other end at the section where jet of water leaves from orifice forming a vena
contracta.
 Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipeline to get the required discharge.
 Measure the pressure difference (Hm) between two sections of orifice meter by using U-tube
mercury manometer.
 Measure flow rate i.e. actual discharge (Qact) through Orificemeter by collecting the water in
collecting tank for a specified period of time.
 Change the flow rate by adjusting the control valve and repeat the process for at least five
times.
 Tabulate the readings and find the values of log Qa and log Hm.
 Plot the graph log Qa Vs log Hm.
 Determine the value of constant ‘K’ and ‘n’ from the graph.
 Draw the Calibration Curve by plotting the graph Qa Vs Hm.

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 Calibration of Orifice meter

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 Calibration of Orifice meter

Result :

Coefficient of discharge of Orifice, Cd =

The value of K =

The value of n =

The Calibration equation is, Qa =

A calibration chart for the given orificemeter is plotted. The Curve can be used for determining
discharge corresponding to any manometric head.

Calibration chart :

Sl Hm Qa
No ( cm of Hg ) 3
( cm /s )

Inference :

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 9

PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Observations :

Datum level difference, X = _______

Energy meter constant, K = _______

Dimension of collecting tank = _______

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 2

 PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Exp no: …………..

Date : …………..

PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Aim :

To conduct the performance test on given Centrifugal Pump and plot the following
characteristic curves.

1. Head Vs Discharge
2. Input Vs Discharge
3. Efficiency Vs Discharge
Specifications :

Motor power - 1 HP
Rated Speed - 1440 rpm
Datum level difference - 403 mm
Collecting tank size - 500 x 500 mm
Energy meter constant - 1600 Imp/kWh

Apparatus :

The centrifugal pump with motor mounted on a sturdy iron base plate. The suction pipe is
provided with a suction gauge, and a foot valve. The delivery pipe with a priming valve, delivery
control valve, and a pressure gauge. The discharge from the pump is measured using a collecting tank
with a gauge glass. Panel with switch starter and energy meter provided.

Theory :

For a constant discharge and head, the output power of the pump is given by;

 .g.Q.H
Po  kW
1000

Where,  = Density of the fluid in kg/m3

g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2

Q = Discharge in m3/s

H = Total head in m of water column

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 3

 Suction Delivery Time for 10 impulses Time for 10 cm rise
Suction Delivery Total Output Input
gauge gauge of energy meter in collecting tank Discharge Efficiency
Head Head Head Power Power
reading reading ( te ) (t)
Sl.
No:
Ps Pd 1 2 mean 1 2 mean Hs Hd H Q Po Pi 
Observation Table :

mm of m of m of m of
kg/cm2 s s s s s s m3/s W W %
Hg water water water

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST

1

Page 4
PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Total Head, H = Hd + Hs + X

Where, Hd = Delivery head in m of water

Delivery gauge reading in kg/cm2 X 10 4

= m of water
Density of water

Hs = Suction head in m of water

Suction gauge reading in mm of Hg Density of mercury

= X m of water
1000 Density of water

X = Datum level difference between gauges in m

Note: The velocity head and the loss of head in the suction pipe are neglected.

Discharge Q can be find through a collecting tank in specified time period.

A . h 3
Q  m /s
t

Where, A = Area of collecting tank in m2.

h = Rise of water in collecting tank in m.

t = time required for rise of water in s.

Input power to the motor,

n 1
Pim  X X 3600 kW
t K

Where, n = number of impulses of energy meter

t = time taken for ‘n’ number of impulses

K = Energy meter constant

Input power to pump (shaft power), Pi = Pim X m

Where, m = Efficiency of motor = 75 %

Efficiency of the pump,

Po
η  x 100 %
Pi

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 PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Sample Calculations: Set No _____

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 PERFORMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Procedure :

 Prime the pump, close the delivery valve and switch on the unit.

 Open the delivery valve and maintain required delivery head.

 Note the delivery and suction pressures.

 Measure the area of cross section of the collecting tank.

 Close the drain valve and note the time for 5 cm rise of water level in the collecting tank.

 For different delivery heads repeat the experiment.

 For every set of readings note the time taken for 10 impulses of energy meter.

Result :

Inference :

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST Page 7

PIPE FRICTION APPARATUS
 Friction factor
Diameter Manometer readings Time for H cm rise of Frictional Actual Velocity friction Reynold’s
from Moody’s
of Pipe water in Collecting Tank Head Loss Discharge of flow factor Number
chart
Sl.
No: Mean
d h1 h2 hm= h2-h1 t1 t2 hf Qact V f Re f
t
Observation Table :

3
m m m m of Hg s s s m /s m/s - - -

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST

1

Page 2
Determination of Pipe Friction Factor
 Determination of Pipe Friction Factor

Exp. No :............
Date :............

DETERMINATION OF PIPE FRICTION FACTOR

Aim :
To determine the Friction Factor (f) of the given pipes.
Apparatus :
U – tube manometer connected across a pipe line, Stop Watch, Collecting tank, etc.
Formula :
Head loss due to friction in pipe,
f l V2
hf 
2g d
Where, f = friction factor.
l = length of pipe.
V = Velocity of flow through pipe.
d = Diameter of pipe.
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
Theory :
The experimental set up consists of number of pipes of different diameters. The pipes have
tapping at certain distance so that a U – Tube manometer is connected in between them. The flow of
water through a pipeline is regulated by operating a control valve which is provided in main supply line,
for measuring the head loss. The length of the pipe is considered as a distance between the two pressure
tapping, to which a U – Tube mercury manometer is fitted. Actual discharge through pipe line is
calculated by collecting the water in collecting tank and by noting the time for collection.

Q  AH / t 
Velocity of flow, V = 
a a
Where,
A = Area of tank.
H = Height of water collected in tank.
t = Time required to collect the water up to a height “H” in the tank.
a = Area of pipe.
Q = Discharge through pipe.

For the flow of water through a horizontal pipe of uniform size, the total head of the fluid particle
on a stream line at any cross section ‘1’ is given by Bernoulli’s theorem as,
2
p1 V
 1  Z 1  Constant  1
ρg 2g

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 Determination of Pipe Friction Factor

Observation :

l = Length of Pipe = ______ m

d = Diameter of Pipes = ______ cm and ______ cm
A = Area of collecting tank = ______ x ______ = ______ m2
ρm = Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Graph

Sample Calculation : ( Set no:___ )

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 Determination of Pipe Friction Factor

At section 2, the total head of the fluid particle is again given by Bernoulli’s theorem as,
2
 2
p 2 V2
  Z 2  Constant
ρg 2g
Equation (1) and (2) would be equal if there is no frictional loss in the pipe. Fluid friction results in loss of
energy of the fluid particle. By adding the term hf to equation (2) to account for loss of energy due to
friction, we get,
2 2
p1 V p V
 1  Z1  2  2  Z2  h f
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Where p1 and p2 are pressures; V1 and V2 are velocities; Z1 and Z2 are the elevation of fluid
particles at section (1) and (2) respectively.
For a horizontal pipe of uniform diameter, Z1 = Z2 and V1 = V2
p1  p2
Hence, hf 
ρg
hf is also given by Darcy-Weisbach equation,
f l V2
hf 
2g d
 p1  p 2 
The difference in pressure head   between the two sections (1) and (2) is determined by using a

 ρg 
U-tube manometer.
p1  p2 ρ 
hf   h m  m  1 
ρg  ρw 
Where, ρm = density of the manometric liquid.
ρw = density of the fluid (water).
hm = manometric level difference in m of water.

Friction factor can also be found from the Moody’s chart.

The basic chart plots Darcy–Weisbach friction factor against Reynolds number for a variety of
relative roughness and flow regimes. The relative roughness being the ratio of the mean value of
ε
roughness for the pipe to the pipe diameter, ie .
d

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 Determination of Pipe Friction Factor

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 Determination of Pipe Friction Factor

The value of  for the GI pipe is 0.00015 m.

Vd
Reynold’s Number, Re =

Where,  = Density of the fluid.
 = Dynamic viscosity of fluid.
V = Velocity of flow.
d = Diameter of the pipe.
V2
The value of f is also determined by drawing graph Hf Vs .
2g
f l
From this graph the value of K = is obtained. By substituting the values of l and d , we get f .
d
Procedure :
1. Note down the diameter of pipe (d).
2. Note the density of manometric liquid (ρm) and that of fluid (water) flowing through the pipe i.e.
(ρw).
3. Connect the U – tube manometer to the corresponding pipe in between two pressure tappings.
4. Start the pump and adjust the control valve in pipe line for required discharge.
5. Measure the pressure difference at two points 1 & 2 of a pipe by means of a U– tube manometer.
6. Note the time taken for H cm rise of water in the collecting tank.
7. Determine the velocity of flow (V) and frictional head loss (h f) by using appropriate equations.
8. Determine the friction factor (f) in pipe by using Darcy – Weisbach formula.
9. Change the flow rate by adjusting the control valve & repeat the process for different flow rates.
V2
10. Find out the friction factor (f) the pipe by plotting the graph Hf Vs .
2g
11. Find out the Reynold’s number of flow and from Moody’s chart find the Friction Factor.
12. Plot a graph Reynolds number (Re) Vs friction factor (f).

Result :
Friction factor for the pipe,

Diameter of pipe

Friction factor from

experiment
Friction factor from
Moody’s chart

V2
The graphs Hf Vs and Re Vs f are plotted.
2g
Inference :

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 Determination of Pipe Friction Factor

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Procedure :

1) Keep the delivery valve open and switch on the pump.

2) Slowly close partially the delivery valve and maintain a constant head.

3) Note the delivery and suction gauge reading.

4) Note the time for 10 impulses of energy meter.

5) Close the valve through which water flows out of the collecting tank and note down the time
taken for 10 cm rise in water level in the collecting tank.

6) Note the speed of the crank in rpm using the digital tachometer.

7) Repeat the procedure for various openings of the delivery valve.

Result :

Inference :

Aerospace Engineering Department, IIST