EVAPORATION

Chapter 8 Transport Processs and Unit Operations

(Geankoplis, 1993)
Intro…
• Heat is added to a solution to vaporize the solvent, which is usually water.
• Case of heat transfer to a boiling liquid.
• Vapor from a boiling liquid solution is removed and a more concentrated
solution remains.
• Refers to the removal of water from an aqueous solution.
• Example: concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar. In these cases the
crystal is the desired product and the evaporated water is discarded
Processing Factors
• Concentration
dilute feed, viscosity µ↓, heat transfer coefficient, h↑
concentrated solution/products, µ↑, and h ↓.

• Solubility
concentration ↑, solubility ↓ , crystal formed.
solubility ↑ with temperature ↑.

• Temperature
heat sensitive material degrade at higher temperature & prolonged heating.
• Foaming/frothing
caustic solutions, food solutions, fatty acid solutions form foam/froth
during boiling.
entrainment loss as foam accompany vapor.

• Pressure and Temperature

pressure ↑, boiling point ↑.
concentration ↑, boiling point↑.
heat-sensitive material operate under vacuum.

• Material of construction
minimize corrosion.
Effect of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation

• TF
TF < Tbp, some of latent heat of steam will be used to heat up the cold feed, only
the rest of the latent heat of steam will be used to vaporize the feed.
Is the feed is under pressure & TF > Tbp, additional vaporization obtained by
flashing of feed.
• P1
desirable ΔT ↑ [Q = UA(TS – T1)]
A ↓ & cost ↓.
T1 depends on P1 will ↓ T1.
• PS
↑ PS will ↑ TS but high-pressure is costly.
optimum TS by overall economic balances.
• BPR
The concentration of the solution are high enough so that the cP and Tbp are
quite different from water.
BPR can be predict from Duhring chart for each solution such as NaOH and sugar
solution.
• Enthalpy–concentration of solution.
for large heat of solution of the aqueous solution.
to get values for hF and hL.
Simplified Diagram of Single-Effect Evaporator
Single-effect evaporators

• the feed (usually dilute) enters at TF and saturated steam at TS enters

the heat-exchange section.
• condensed leaves as condensate or drips.
• the solution in the evaporator is assumed to be completely mixed and
have the same composition at T1.
• the pressure is P1, which is the vapor pressure of the solution at T1.
• wasteful of energy since the latent heat of the vapor leaving is not
used but is discarded.
• are often used when the required capacity of operation is relatively
small, but it will wasteful of steam cost.
Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporator
Objectives: to calculate
• vapor (V) and liquid (L) flowrates
• heat transfer area (A)
• overall heat-transfer coefficient (U)
• Fraction of solid content, (xL)

• To calculate V & L and xL

solve simultaneously total material balance & solute/solid balance.
F = L + V total material balance
F (xF) = L (xL) solute/solid balance
• To calculate A or U
no boiling point rise and negligible heat of solution:
calculate hF, hL, Hv and λ
where, λ = (HS – Hs)
h = cP(T – Tref)
where, Tref = T1 (as datum)
cPF = heat capacity (dilute as water)
HV = latent heat at T1
solve for S:
F hF + S λ = L hL + V HV
solve for A and U:
q = S λ = U A ΔT = UA (TS – T1)
• To get BPR and the heat of solution:
• calculate T1 = Tsat + BPR
• get hF and hL from Figure 8.4-3.
• get λS & HV from steam tables for superheated vapor or
HV = Hsat + 1.884 (BPR)
• solve for S:
F hF + S λ = L hL + V HV
• solve for A and U:
q = S λ = U A ΔT = UA (TS – T1)
Example 8.4-1:
Heat-Transfer Area in Single-Effect Evaporator
A continuous single-effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg/h of a 1.0
wt % salt solution entering at 311.0 K (37.8 oC) to a final concentration
of 1.5 wt %. The vapor space of the evaporator is at 101.325 kPa (1.0
atm abs) and the steam supplied is saturated at 143.3 kPa. The overall
coefficient U = 1704 W/m2 .K. calculate the amounts of vapor and
liquid product and the heat-transfer area required. Assumed that, since
it its dilute, the solution has the same boiling point as water
For the total balance,
F = L + V
9072 = L + V

For the balance on the solute alone,

F xF = L xL
9072 (0.01) = L (0.015)
L = 6048 kg/h of liquid

Substituting into total balance and solving,

V = 3024 kg/h of vapor
Since we assumed the solution is dilute as water;
cpF = 4.14 kJ/kg. K (Table A.2-5)

From steam table, (A.2-9)

At P1 = 101.325 kPa, T1 = 373.2 K (100 oC)
HV = 2257 kJ/kg
At PS = 143.3 kPa, TS = 383.2 K (110 oC)
λ = 2230 kJ/kg

The enthalpy of the feed can be calculated from,

hF = cpF (TF – T1)
hF = 4.14 (311.0 – 372.2)
= -257.508 kJ/kg
Substituting into heat balance equation;
F hF + S λ = L hL + V HV
with hL = 0, since it is at datum of 373.2 K.
9072 (-257.508) + S (2230) = 6048 (0) + 3024 (2257)
S = 4108 kg steam /h
The heat q transferred through the heating surface area, A is
q = S (λ)
q = 4108 (2230) (1000 / 3600) = 2 544 000 W
Solving for capacity single-effect evaporator equation;
q = U A ΔT = U A (TS – T1)
2 544 000 = 1704 A (383.2 – 373.2)
Solving, A = 149.3 m2
Example 8.4-3: Evaporation of an NaOH Solution

An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/h of a 20 % solution of

NaOH in water entering at 60 oC to a product of 50 % solid. The
pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4 kPa and the pressure in
the vapor space of the evaporator is 11.7 kPa. The overall heat-
transfer coefficient is 1560 W/m2.K. calculate the steam used, the
steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam used, and the heating
surface area in m2.
Total balance:
F = 4536 = L + V
For the balance on the solute:
F xF = L xL
4536 (0.2) = L (0.5)
L = 1814 kg/h of liquid

Substituting into total balance and solving:

V = 2722 kg/h of vapor
To determine T1 = Tsat + BPR of the 50 % concentrate product, first we
obtain Tsat of pure water from steam table. At 11.7 kPa, Tsat = 48.9 oC.

From Duhring chart (Fig. 8.4-2), for a Tsat = 48.9 oC and 50 % NaOH , the
boiling point of the solution is T1 = 89.5 oC. hence,
BPR = T1 - Tsat = 89.5-48.9 = 40.6 ºC

From the enthalpy-concentration chart (Fig.8.4-3), for

TF = 60 oC and xF = 0.2 get hF = 214 kJ/kg.
T1 = 89.5 oC and xL = 0.5 get hL = 505 kJ/kg.
For saturated steam at 172.4 kPa, from steam table, we get
TS = 115.6 oC and λ = 2214 kJ/kg.

To get HV for superheated vapor, first we obtain the enthalpy at Tsat = 48.9 oC
and P1 = 11.7 kPa, get Hsat = 2590 kJ/kg. Then using heat capacity of 1.884
kJ/kg.K for superheated steam. So
HV = Hsat + cP BPR = 2590 + 1.884 (40.6) = 2667 kJ/kg.

Substituting into heat balance equation and solving for S,

F hF + S λ = L hL + V HV
4535 (214) + S (2214) = 1814 (505) + 2722 (2667)
S = 3255 kg steam /h
The heat q transferred through the heating surface area, A is
q = S (λ)
q = 3255 (2214) (1000 / 3600) = 2 002 000 W

Solving for capacity single-effect evaporator equation;

q = U A ΔT = U A (TS – T1)
2 002 000 = 1560 A (115.6 – 89.5)
Solving,
A = 49.2 m2
Steam economy = 2722/3255
= 0.836
Simplified diagram of forward-feed triple-effect evaporator
Forward-feed multiple/triple-effect evaporators

• the fresh feed is added to the first effect and flows tothe next in the
same direction as the vapor flow
• operated when the feed hot or when the final concentrated
product might be damaged at high temperature.
• at steady-state operation, the flowrates and the rate of evaporation in
each effect are constant.
• the latent heat from first effect can be recovered and reuse. The
steam economy ↑, and reduce steam cost.
• the Tbp ↓ from effect to effect, cause P1 ↓.
Calculation Methods for Multiple-effect Evaporators

• Objective to calculate;
• temperature drops and the heat capacity of evaporator.
• the area of heating surface and amount of vapor leaving the
last effect.

• Assumption made in operation;

• no boiling point rise (BPR)
• no heat of solution
• neglecting the sensible heat necessary to heat the feed to the
boiling point
• Heat balances for multiple/triple-effect evaporator
the amount of heat transferred in the first effect is approximately
same with amount of heat in the second effect,
q = U1 A1 ΔT1 = U2 A2 ΔT2 = U3 A3 ΔT3

usually in commercial practice the areas in all effects are equal,

q/A = U1 ΔT1 = U2 ΔT2 = U3 ΔT3

to calculate the temperature drops in evaporator,

Σ ΔT = ΔT1 + ΔT2 + ΔT3 = TS – T3
hence we know that Σ ΔT are approximately inversely proportional to
the values of U,
1 U1
ΔT1 = ΣΔT
1 U1 + 1 U 2 + 1 U 3

similar eq. can be written for ΔT2 & ΔT3

if we assumed that the value of U is the same in each effect, the

capacity equation,
q = U A (ΔT1 + ΔT2 + ΔT3 ) = UA Σ ΔT
Simplified diagram of backward-feed triple-effect evaporator
Backward-feed multiple/triple-effect evaporators;

• fresh feed enters the last and coldest effect and continues on until
the concentrated product leaves the first effect.
• advantageous when the fresh feed is cold or when concentrated
product is highly viscous.
• working a liquid pump since the flow is from low to high pressure.
• the high temperature in the first effect reduce the viscosity and
give reasonable heat-transfer coefficient.
Step-by-step Calculation Method for Triple-effect Evaporator
(Forward Feed)
Ex. 8.5-1 :
Evaporation of Sugar Solution in a Triple-Effect Evaporator
A triple-effect forward-feed evaporator is being used to evaporate a sugar
solution containing 10 wt% solids to a concentrated solution of 50 %. The
boiling-point rise of the solutions (independent of pressure) can be
estimated from (BPR ºC = 1.78x + 6.22 x2 ), where x is wt fraction of sugar in
solution. Saturated steam at 205.5 kPa and 121.1ºC saturation temperature
is being used. The pressure in the vapor space of the third effect is 13.4 kPa.
The feed rate is 22 680 kg/h at 26.7 ºC. the heat capacity of the liquid
solutions is cP = 4.19 – 2.35x kJ/kg.K. The heat of solution is considered to be
negligible. The coefficients of heat transfer have been estimated as U1 =
3123, U2 = 1987, and U3 = 1136 W/m2.K. If each effect has the same surface
area, calculate the area, the steam rate used, and the steam economy.
Step 1,
From steam table, at P3 = 13.4 kPa, get Tsat = 51.67 ºC. Using the BPR
equation for third effect with xL = 0.5,
BPR3 = 1.78 (0.5) + 6.22 (0.52) =2.45 ºC.
T3 = 51.67 + 2.45 = 54.12 ºC. (BPR = T – Ts)

Step 2,
Making an overall and a solids balance.
F = 22 680 = L3 + (V1 + V2 + V3)
FxF = 22 680 (0.1) = L3 (0.5) + (V1 + V2 + V3) (0)
L3 = 4536 kg/h
Total vaporized = (V1 + V2 + V3) = 18 144 kg/h
Assuming equal amount vaporized in each effect,
V1 = V2 = V3 = 18 144 / 3 = 6048 kg/h

Making a total material balance on effects 1, 2, and 3, solving

F = 22 680 = V1 + L1 = 6048 + L1, L1 = 16 632 kg/h.
L1 = 16 632 = V2 + L2 = 6048 + L2, L2 = 10 584 kg/h.
L2 = 10 584 = V3 + L3 = 6048 + L3, L3 = 4536 kg/h.

Making a solids balance on each effect, and solving for x,

22 680 (0.1) = L1 x1 = 16 632 (x1), x1 = 0.136
16 632 (0.136) = L2 x2 = 10 584 (x2), x2 = 0.214
10 584 (0.214) = L3 x3 = 4536 (x3), x3 = 0.5 (check)
Step 3, The BPR in each effect is calculated as follows:
BPR1 = 1.78x1 + 6.22x12 = 1.78(0.136) + 6.22(0.136)2. = 0.36 ºC.
BPR2 = 1.78(0.214) + 6.22(0.214)2 =0.65 ºC.
BPR3 = 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.5)2 =2.45 ºC. then,
ΣΔT available = TS1 – T3 (sat) – (BPR1 + BPR2 + BPR3 )
= 121.1 – 51.67 – (0.36+0.65+2.45) = 65.97 ºC.

Using Eq.(8.5-6) for ΔT1 , ΔT2 , and ΔT3

1 U1 (65.97 )(1 3123)
ΔT1 = ΣΔT =
1 U1 + 1 U 2 + 1 U 3 (1 3123) + (1 1987) + (1 1136)

ΔT1 = 12.40 ºC ΔT2 = 19.50 ºC ΔT3 = 34.07 ºC

However, since a cold feed enters effect number 1, this effect requires
more heat. Increasing ΔT1 and lowering ΔT2 and ΔT3 proportionately as
a first estimate, so
ΔT1 = 15.56ºC ΔT2 = 18.34 ºC ΔT3 = 32.07 ºC

To calculate the actual boiling point of the solution in each effect,

T1 = TS1 - ΔT1 = 121.1 – 15.56 = 105.54 ºC.
T2 = T1 - BPR1 - ΔT2 = 105.54 – 0.36 – 18.34 = 86.84 ºC.
TS2 = T1 –BPR1 = 105.54 – 0.36 = 105.18 ºC.
T3 = T2 - BPR2 - ΔT3 = 86.84 – 0.65 – 32.07 = 54.12 ºC.
TS3 = T2 –BPR2 = 86.84 – 0.65 = 86.19 ºC.
The temperatures in the three effects are as follows:
Effect 1 Effect 2 Effect 3 Condenser
TS1 = 121.1ºC TS2 = 105.18 TS3 = 86.19 TS4 = 51.67
T1 = 105.54 T2 = 86.84 T3 = 54.12

Step 4,
The heat capacity of the liquid in each effect is calculated from the equation
cP = 4.19 – 2.35x.

F : cPF = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.1) = 3.955 kJ/kg.K

L1 : cP1 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.136) = 3.869 kJ/kg.K
L2 : cP2 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.214) = 3.684 kJ/kg.K
L3 : cP3 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.5) = 3.015 kJ/kg.K
The values of the enthalpy H of the various vapor streams relative to water at 0 ºC
as a datum are obtained from the steam table as follows:

Effect 1:
H1 = HS2 + 1.884 BPR1 = 2684 + 1.884(0.36) = 2685 kJ/kg.
λS1 = HS1 – hS1 = 2708 – 508 = 2200 kJ/kg.

Effect 2:
H2 = HS3 + 1.884 BPR2 = 2654 + 1.884(0.65) = 2655 kJ/kg.
λS2 = H1 – hS2 = 2685 – 441 = 2244 kJ/kg.

Effect 3:
H3 = HS4 + 1.884 BPR3 = 2595 + 1.884(2.45) = 2600 kJ/kg.
λS3 = H2 – hS3 = 2655– 361 = 2294 kJ/kg.
Write the heat balance on each effect. Use 0ºC as a datum.
FcPF (TF –0) + SλS1 = L1cP1 (T1 –0) + V1H1 ,, ………(1)
22680(3.955)(26.7-0)+2200S = 3.869L1(105.54-0)+(22680-L1)2685

L1cP1 (T1 –0) + V1λS2 = L2cP2 (T2 –0) + V2H2 ………(2)

3.869L1(105.54-0)+(22680-L1)2244=3.684L2(86.84-0)+(L1-L 2)2655

L2cP2 (T2 –0) + V2λS3 = L3cP3 (T3 –0) + V3H3 ………(3)

3.68L2(86.84-0)+(L1-L2)2294=4536(3.015)(54.1-0)+(L2-4536)2600

Solving (2) and (3) simultaneously for L1&L2 and substituting into(1)
L1 = 17078 kg/h L2 = 11068 kg/h L3 = 4536 kg/h
S = 8936kg/h V1 = 5602kg/h V2 = 6010kg/h V3 = 6532kg/h
 Step 5, Solving for the values of q in each effect and area,

⎛ 8936 ⎞ 6
q1 = SλS 1 = ⎜ ⎟(2200 x1000 ) = 5.460 x10 W
⎝ 3600 ⎠
⎛ 5602 ⎞ 6
q2 = V1λS 2 = ⎜ ⎟(2244 x1000 ) = 3.492 x10 W
⎝ 3600 ⎠
⎛ 6010 ⎞ 6
q3 = V2 λS 3 = ⎜ ⎟(2294 x1000) = 3.830 x10 W
⎝ 3600 ⎠

q1 5.460 x10 6 q2 3.492 x10 6

A1 = = = 112.4m 2 A2 = = = 95.8m 2
U1ΔT1 3123(15.65) U 2 ΔT2 1987(18.34 )

q3 3.830 x10 6 ( A1 + A2 + A3 )
A3 = = = 105.1m 2 Am = = 104.4m 2
U 3ΔT3 1136(32.07 ) 3
Am = 104.4 m2, the areas differ from the average value by less than 10 % and
a second trial is really not necessary. However, a second trial will be made
starting with step 6 to indicate the calculation methods used.

Step 6,
Making a new solids balance by using the new L1 = 17078, L2 = 11068, and
L3 = 4536, and solving for x,

22 680 (0.1) = L1 x1 = 17 078 (x1), x1 = 0.133

17 078 (0.130) = L2 x2 = 11 068 (x2), x2 = 0.205
11 068 (0.205) = L3 x3 = 4536 (x3), x3 = 0.5 (check)
Step 7. The new BPR in each effect is then,
BPR1 = 1.78(0.133) + 6.22(0.13)2 =0.35ºC.
BPR2 = 1.78(0.205) + 6.22(0.205)2 =0.63ºC.
BPR3 = 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.5)2 =2.45ºC. then,
ΣΔT available = 121.1 – 51.67 – (0.35+0.63+2.45) = 66.0 ºC.

The new ΔT are obtained using Eq.(8.5-11),

' ΔT1 A1 15.56(112.4) 'ΔT2 A2 18.34(95.8)
ΔT =
1 = = 16.77°C ΔT =
2 = = 16.86°C
Am 104.4 Am 104.4

' ΔT3 A3 32.07(105.1) ΣΔT = 16.77 + 16.86 + 32.34 = 65.97°C

ΔT =
3 = = 32.34°C
Am 104.4
These ΔT’ values are readjusted so that ΔT 1`= 16.77,
ΔT 2`= 16.87, ΔT 3` = 32.36, and ΣΔT = 66.0 ºC.
To calculate the actual boiling point of the solution in each effect,
(1) T1 = TS1 + ΔT 1` = 121.1 – 16.77 = 104.33ºC
(2) T2 = T1 – BPR1 - ΔT 2` = 104.33 – 0.35 – 16.87 = 87.11 ºC
TS2 = T1 – BPR1 = 104.33 – 0.35 = 103.98ºC
(3) T3 = T2 – BPR2 - ΔT 3` = 87.11 – 0.63 – 32.36 = 54.12 ºC
TS3 = T2 – BPR2 = 87.11 – 0.63 = 86.48 ºC.

Step 8;
Following step 4 to get cP = 4.19 – 2.35x,
F: cPF = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.1) = 3.955 kJ/kg.K
L1: cP1 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.133) = 3.877 kJ/kg.K
L2: cP2 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.205) = 3.705 kJ/kg.K
L3: cP3 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.5) = 3.015 kJ/kg.K
Then the new values of the enthalpy are,
(1) H1 = HS2 + 1.884 BPR1 = 2682 + 1.884(0.35) = 2683 kJ/kg.
λS1 = HS1 – hS1 = 2708 – 508 = 2200 kJ/kg.
(2) H2 = HS3 + 1.884 BPR2 = 2654 + 1.884(0.63) = 2655 kJ/kg.
λS2 = H1 – hS2 = 2683 – 440 = 2243 kJ/kg.
(3) H3 = HS4 + 1.884 BPR3 = 2595 + 1.884(2.45) = 2600 kJ/kg.
λS3 = H2 – hS3 = 2655– 362 = 2293 kJ/kg.
Writing a heat balance on each effect, and solving,
(1) 22680(3.955)(26.7-0)+2200S = 3.877L1(104.33-0)+(22680-L1)2683
(2) 3.877L1(104.33-0)+(22680-L1)2243 = 3.708L2(87.11-0)+(L1-L2)2655
(3) 3.708L2(87.11-0)+(L1-L2)2293 = 4536(3.015)(54.1-0)+(L2-4536)2600

L1 = 17005 kg/h L2 = 10952 L3 = 4536 S = 8960

V1 = 5675 V2 = 6053 V3 = 6416
Solving for q and A in each effect,

⎛ 8960 ⎞ 6 q1 5.476 x10 6

q1 = SλS 1 = ⎜ ⎟(2200 x1000 ) = 5.476 x10 W A1 = = = 104.6 m 2

⎝ 3600 ⎠ U1ΔT1' 3123(16.77 )

⎛ 5675 ⎞ q2 3.539 x10 6 2

q2 = V1λS 2 =⎜ 6
⎟(2243 x1000 ) = 3.539 x10 W A2 = = = 105.6 m
⎝ 3600 ⎠ U 2 ΔT2' 1987(16.87 )

⎛ 6053 ⎞ q3 3.855x10 6 2
q3 = V2 λS 3 = ⎜ 6
⎟(2293 x1000 ) = 3.855x10 W A3 = = = 104.9 m
⎝ 3600 ⎠ U 3ΔT3' 1136(32.36 )

The average area Am = 105.0 m2 to use in each effect

V1 + V2 + V3 5675 + 6053 + 6416
steam economy = = = 2.025
S 8960