Transmission Fundamentals

Chapter 2 (Stallings Book)

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Electromagnetic Signal
 is a function of time
 can also be expressed as a function of
frequency
 Signal consists of components of different
frequencies

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Time-Domain Concepts
 Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time
 No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
 Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
 Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +
where T is the period of the signal
 Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that doesn't repeat over time
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4
Time-Domain Concepts (cont.)
 Peak amplitude (A)
 maximum value or strength of the signal over
time
 typically measured in volts
 Frequency (f )
 Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), at
which the signal repeats

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Time-Domain Concepts (cont.)
 Period (T)
 amount of time it takes for one repetition of the
signal
 T = 1/f
 Phase () - measure of the relative position
in time within a single period of a signal
 Wavelength () - distance occupied by a
single cycle of the signal
 Ex: Speed of light is v = 3x108 m/s. Then the
wavelength is f = v (or  = vT)
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Sine Wave Parameters
 General sine wave
 s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
 note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period
 Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the
three parameters
 (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s
 (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
 (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
 (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees)

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Sine Wave Parameters
Frequency-Domain Concepts
 An electromagnetic signal can be made up
of many frequencies.
 Example: s(t) = (4/)x(sin(2ft) +
(1/3)sin(2(3f)t))
 Fig. 2.4(a) + Fig. 2.4(b) = Fig. 2.4(c)
 There are two component frequencies: f and 3f
 Based on Fourier analysis, any signal is made
up of components at various frequencies,
 in which each component is a sinusoid wave
 at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.

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Frequency-Domain (cont.)
 Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal
contains
 In Fig. 2.4(c), spectrum extends from f to 3f
 Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a
signal
 In Fig. 2.4(c), it is 3f – f = 2f
 Effective bandwidth –
 A signal may contain many frequencies
 But most of the energy may concentrate in a narrow
band of frequencies
 These frequencies are effective bandwidth

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Frequency-Domain (cont.)
 Fundamental frequency –
 when all frequency components of a signal are
integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred
to as the fundamental frequency
 (earlier example) f and 3f  fund. freq = f
 The period of the total signal is equal to the
period of the fundamental frequency
 refer to Fig. 2.4 again!

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Data vs. Signal
 Data - entities that convey meaning, or
information
 Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
 Transmission - communication of data by
the propagation and processing of signals

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Approximating Square Wave
by Signals
 adding a frequency of 5f to Fig. 2.4(c)  Fig.
2.5(a)
 adding a frequency of 7f to Fig. 2.4(c)  Fig.
2.5(b)
 adding all frequencies of 9f, 11f, 13f, ... 
Fig. 2.5(c), a square wave
 This square wave has an infinite number of
frequency components, and thus infinite
bandwidth

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Data Rate vs. Bandwidth
 Case I: (Fig. 2.5(a))
 Let f = 106 cycles/sec = 1 MHz
 frequency components: 1f, 3f, 5f
 absolute bandwidth = 5f – 1f = 4f = 4 MHz
 Note that for f = 1 MHz, the period of the
fundamental frequency is T = 1/10 = 1 μs 6

 If we treat this waveform as a bit string of 1s and

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Data Rate vs. Bandwidth
 Case II: (Fig. 2.5(a))
 Let f = 2x106 cycles/sec = 2 MHz
 frequency components: 1f, 3f, 5f
 absolute bandwidth = 10MHz – 2MHz = 8 MHz
 T = 1/f=1/2.10 = 0.5 μs
6

 one bit occurs every 0.25 μs

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 Case III: (Fig. 2.4(c))
 Let f = 2x106 cycles/sec = 2 MHz
 frequencies: 1f, 3f
 absolute bandwidth = 6MHz – 2MHz = 4MHz
 T = 1/f=1/2.10 = 0.5 μs
6

 one bit occurs every 0.25 μs

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 Bandwidth=4 MHz; data rate = 2 Mbps
 Bandwidth=8 MHz; data rate = 4 Mbps
 Bandwidth=4 MHz; data rate = 4 Mbps
 In general, any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
 If we attempt to transmit this waveform as a signal over any
medium, the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
 for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth transmitted, the
greater the cost
 digital information be approximated by a signal of limited
bandwidth
 economic and practical reasons, vs.
 creates distortions, which makes the task of interpreting the
received signal more difficult

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Examples of
Analog and Digital Data
 Analog
 Video
 Audio
 Digital
 Text
 Integers

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Analog vs. Digital Signals
 Analog  Digital
 A continuously varying  A sequence of voltage
electromagnetic wave that pulses that may be
may be propagated over a transmitted over a copper
variety of media, depending wire medium
on frequency  Generally cheaper than
 Examples of media: analog signaling
 Copper wire media  Less susceptible to noise
(twisted pair and coaxial interference
cable)
 Suffer more from
 Fiber optic cable
attenuation
 Atmosphere or space
propagation  Digital signals can
propagate analog and digital
 Analog signals can data
propagate analog and digital
data
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Analog Signaling
Digital Signaling
Reasons for Choosing Data and
Signal Combinations
 Digital data, digital signal
 Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-
to-analog equipment
 Analog data, digital signal
 Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment
 Digital data, analog signal
 Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
 Examples include optical fiber and satellite
 Analog data, analog signal
 Analog data easily converted to analog signal
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Concepts Related to Channel
Capacity
 Data rate - rate at which data can be
communicated (bps)
 Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal as constrained by the transmitter and the
nature of the transmission medium (Hertz)
 Noise
 Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which
data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under given
conditions
 Error rate - rate at which errors occur
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Nyquist Bandwidth
 Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal
transmission rate is 2B:
 C = 2B
 Ex: B=3100 Hz; C=6200 bps
 With multilevel signaling
 C = 2B log2 M, where M is the number of
discrete signal or voltage levels

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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise that’s present at a particular
point in the transmission
 Typically measured at a receiver
 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
signal power
( SNR) dB  10 log10
noise power
 = 10 log10 SNR
 A high SNR means a high-quality signal
 SNR sets an upper bound on the achievable data rate

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Shannon Capacity Formula
 The max. channel capacity:
C  B log 2 1  SNR 
 note: SNR not in db
 In practice, only much lower rates achieved
 Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
 Impulse noise is not accounted for
 Short duration “on/off” noise pulses
 Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not
accounted for

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Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
 Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and
4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24 dB

 By Shannon’s formula, What is the max.

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Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
 Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and
4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24 dB
B  4 MHz  3 MHz  1 MHz
SNR dB  24 dB  10 log10 SNR 
SNR  251
 By Shannon’s formula, the max. capacity:

C  10  log 2 1  251  10  8  8Mbps

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 To achieve the max. capacity of 8 Mbps,
how many signaling levels are required?

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 To achieve the max. capacity of 8 Mbps,
how many signaling levels are required?
C  2 B log 2 M
6
 
8 10  2  10  log 2 M
6

4  log 2 M
M  16

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Classifications of Transmission
Media
 Transmission Medium
 Physical path between transmitter and receiver
 Guided Media
 Waves are guided along a solid medium
 E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical
fiber
 Unguided Media
 Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
 Usually referred to as wireless transmission
 E.g., atmosphere, outer space

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General Frequency Ranges
 Microwave frequency range
 1 GHz to 40 GHz
 Directional beams possible
 Suitable for long-distance, point-to-point transmission
 Used for satellite communications
 Radio frequency range
 30 MHz to 1 GHz
 Suitable for omnidirectional applications
 Infrared frequency range
 Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
 Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications
within confined areas
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Multiplexing
 Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds the required capacity
 Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on
a single medium
 More efficient use of transmission medium

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Multiplexing Techniques
 Frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM)
 Takes advantage of the fact
that the useful bandwidth of
the medium exceeds the
required bandwidth of a
given signal
 Time-division
multiplexing (TDM)
 Takes advantage of the fact
that the achievable bit rate
of the medium exceeds the
required data rate of a
digital signal

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Summary
 signal
 analog vs. digital transmissions
 channel capacity
 transmission media
 multiplexing

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