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Introduction
By Quan Le-Trung, Dr.techn.
 Contents

 History and Background

 Evolution and Future Generation
 Current Wireless Systems
 Is there a future for wireless?
Some history
 Ancient Systems: Smoke Signals, Carrier Pigeons, …
 Radio invented in the 1880s by Marconi
 Many sophisticated military radio systems were
developed during and after WW2
 Cellular has enjoyed exponential growth since
1988, with almost 1 billion users worldwide today
 Triggered by the recent wireless revolution
 Fast growth rate
 3G (voice+data) supports many applications
 Many spectacular failures recently
 1G Wireless LANs/Iridium/Metricom
 Need of Wireless Networks

 Internet and laptop use exploding

 2G/3G wireless LANs growing rapidly
 Low rate data demand is high
 Military and security needs require wireless
 Emerging interdisciplinary applications
 Background

 # wireless (mobile) phone subscribers now

exceeds # wired phone subscribers!
 computer nets: laptops, palmtops, PDAs,
Internet-enabled phone promise anytime
untethered Internet access
 two important (but different) challenges
 communication over wireless link
 handling mobile user who changes point of
attachment to network
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks 6-5
Wireless Link Characteristics
Differences from wired link ….

 decreased signal strength: radio signal

attenuates as it propagates through matter
(path loss)
 interference from other sources: standardized
wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz)
shared by other devices (e.g., phone); devices
(motors) interfere as well
 multipath propagation: radio signal reflects off
objects ground, arriving ad destination at
slightly different times

…. make communication across (even a point to point)

wireless link much more “difficult”
Wireless network characteristics
Multiple wireless senders and receivers create
additional problems (beyond multiple access):

A B C
C
A’s signal C’s signal
strength
B strength
A
space
Hidden terminal problem
 B, A hear each other Signal fading:
 B, C hear each other  B, A hear each other
 A, C can not hear each other  B, C hear each other
means A, C unaware of their  A, C can not hear each other
interference at B interferring at B
Elements of a wireless network

wireless hosts
 laptop, PDA, IP phone
 run applications
 may be stationary (non-
mobile) or mobile
network  wireless does not
infrastructure always mean
mobility
Elements of a wireless network
base station
 typically connected to
wired network
 relay - responsible for
sending packets between
wired network and
network wireless host(s) in its
“area”
infrastructure
 e.g., cell towers
802.11 access points
Elements of a wireless network
wireless link
 typically used to connect
mobile(s) to base station
 also used as backbone
link
 multiple access protocol
network coordinates link access
infrastructure  various data rates,
transmission distance
Elements of a wireless network
infrastructure mode
 base station connects
mobiles into wired
network
 handoff: mobile changes
base station providing
network connection into wired
network
infrastructure
Elements of a wireless network
Ad hoc mode
 no base stations
 nodes can only transmit
to other nodes within link
coverage
 nodes organize
themselves into a
network: route among
themselves
 Future Wireless Networks
Ubiquitous Communication Among People and Devices
Wireless Internet access
Nth generation Cellular
Wireless Ad Hoc Networks
Sensor Networks
Wireless Entertainment
Smart Homes/Spaces
Automated Highways
All this and more…
•Hard Delay Constraints
•Hard Energy Constraints
 Design Challenges
 Wireless channels are a difficult and capacity-
limited broadcast communications medium
 Traffic patterns, user locations, and network
conditions are constantly changing
 Applications are heterogeneous with hard
constraints that must be met by the network
 Energy and delay constraints change design
principles across all layers of the protocol stack
 Wireless Media
 Physical layers used in wireless networks
– have neither absolute nor readily observable
boundaries outside which stations are unable to
receive frames
– are unprotected from outside signals
– communicate over a medium significantly less reliable
than the cable of a wired network
– have dynamic topologies
– lack full connectivity and therefore the assumption
normally made that every station can hear every other
station in a LAN is invalid (i.e., STAs may be “hidden”
from each other)
– have time varying and asymmetric propagation
properties
Limitations of the mobile environment
 Limitations of the Wireless Network
 limited communication bandwidth
 frequent disconnections
 heterogeneity of fragmented networks

 Limitations Imposed by Mobility

 route breakages
 lack of mobility awareness by system/applications

 Limitations of the Mobile Device

 short battery lifetime
 limited capacities
 Wireless v/s Wired networks
 Regulations of frequencies
– Limited availability, coordination is required
– useful frequencies are almost all occupied
 Bandwidth and delays
– Low transmission rates
• few Kbps to some Mbps.
– Higher delays
• several hundred milliseconds
– Higher loss rates
• susceptible to interference, e.g., engines, lightning
 Always shared medium
– Lower security, simpler active attacking
– radio interface accessible for everyone
– Fake base stations can attract calls from mobile phones
– secure access mechanisms important
 Multimedia Requirements

Voice Data Video

Delay <100ms - <100ms
Packet Loss <1% 0 <1%
BER 10-3 10-6 10-6
Data Rate 8-32 Kbps 1-100 Mbps 1-20 Mbps
Traffic Continuous Bursty Continuous

One-size-fits-all protocols and design do not work well

Wired networks use this approach
 Wireless Performance Gap
LOCAL AREA PACKET SWITCHING WIDE AREA CIRCUIT SWITCHING

100 M ATM 100,000 ATM

100,000
Ethernet
10,000 FDDI 10,000
wired- wireless
Ethernet bit-rate "gap"
1000 User 1000 User wired- wireless
Bit-Rate Bit-Rate ISDN bit-rate "gap"
(kbps) 2nd gen (kbps)
100 WLAN 100 28.8 modem
1st gen 32 kbps
Polling WLAN 9.6 modem PCS
10 10 14.4
9.6 cellular digital
2.4 modem cellular
Packet 2.4 cellular
1 1
Radio

.1 .1

.01 .01
1970 1980 1990 2000 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR YEAR
 Evolution of Current Systems
 Wireless systems today
 2/3-G Cellular: ~30-300 Kbps
 WLANs: ~10-100 Mbps
 Technology Enhancements
 Hardware: Better batteries. Better circuits/processors
 Link: Antennas, modulation, coding, adaptivity, DSP, BW
 Network: Dynamic resource allocation, Mobility support
 Application: Soft and adaptive QoS
 Wireless Technology Landscape

72 Mbps
Turbo .11a
54 Mbps 802.11{a,g}
5-11 Mbps 802.11b .11 p-to-p link
1-2 Mbps
Bluetooth
802.11 µwave p-to-p links

3G
384 Kbps WCDMA, CDMA2000
2G
56 Kbps IS-95, GSM, CDMA

Indoor Outdoor Mid range Long range Long distance

outdoor outdoor com.

10 – 30m 50 – 200m 200m – 4Km 5Km – 20Km 20m – 50Km

ICPWC'02
 Future Generations
Other Tradeoffs:
Rate Rate vs. Coverage
4G Rate vs. Delay
802.11b WLAN Rate vs. Cost
3G Rate vs. Energy

2G

2G Cellular

Mobility
Fundamental Design Breakthroughs Needed
 Crosslayer Design
 Hardware
 Link
Delay Constraints
 Access Rate Constraints
Energy Constraints
 Network
 Application
Adapt across design layers
Reduce uncertainty through scheduling
Provide robustness via diversity
 Current Wireless Systems
 Cellular Systems
 Wireless LANs
 Satellite Systems

 Paging Systems
 Bluetooth
 Self-Organized/Emerging Systems
 Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs)
 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
 Internet of Things (IoT): RFID
 Cellular Wireless
 Single hop wireless connectivity to the wired
world
– Space divided into cells, and hosts assigned to a cell
– A base station is responsible for communicating with
hosts/nodes in its cell
– Mobile hosts can change cells while communicating
– Hand-off occurs when a mobile host starts
communicating via a new base station
 Cellular Systems:
Reuse channels to maximize capacity
 Geographic region divided into cells
 Frequencies/timeslots/codes reused at spatially-separated locations.
 Co-channel interference between same color cells.
 Base stations/MTSOs coordinate handoff and control functions
 Shrinking cell size increases capacity, as well as networking burden

BASE
STATION
MTSO

Mobile Telephone
Switching Office
 Cellular Phone Networks
San Francisco

BS
BS

Internet
New York
MTSO MTSO
PSTN

BS
Components of cellular network architecture
MSC
cell  connects cells to wide area net
 manages call setup (more later!)
 covers
 handles mobility (more later!)
geographical region
 base station (BS)
Mobile
analogous to 802.11 Switching
AP Center
Public telephone
 mobile users network, and
Internet
attach to network
Mobile
through BS Switching
 air-interface: Center

physical and link

layer protocol wired network
between mobile and
BS
Cellular standards: brief survey
2G systems: voice channels
 IS-136 TDMA: combined FDMA/TDMA (north
america)
 GSM (global system for mobile communications):
combined FDMA/TDMA
 most widely deployed
 IS-95 CDMA: code division multiple access

GSM
Cellular standards: brief survey
2.5 G systems: voice and data channels
 for those who can’t wait for 3G service: 2G extensions
 general packet radio service (GPRS)
 evolved from GSM
 data sent on multiple channels (if available)

 enhanced data rates for global evolution (EDGE)

 also evolved from GSM, using enhanced modulation
 Date rates up to 384K

 CDMA-2000 (phase 1)
 data rates up to 144K
 evolved from IS-95
Cellular standards: brief survey
3G systems: voice/data
 Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS)
 GSM next step, but using CDMA
 CDMA-2000

….. more (and more interesting) cellular topics due to

mobility (stay tuned for details)
 Evolution of cellular networks
 First-generation: Analog cellular systems (450-900 MHz)
– Frequency shift keying; FDMA for spectrum sharing
– NMT (Europe), AMPS (US)
 Second-generation: Digital cellular systems (900, 1800
MHz)
– TDMA/CDMA for spectrum sharing; Circuit switching
– GSM (Europe), IS-136 (US), PDC (Japan)
– <9.6kbps data rates
 2.5G: Packet switching extensions
– Digital: GSM to GPRS; Analog: AMPS to CDPD
– <115kbps data rates
 3G: Full-fledged data services
– High speed, data and Internet services
– IMT-2000, UMTS
– <2Mbps data rates
 3G Cellular Design:
Voice and Data
 Data is bursty, whereas voice is continuous
 Typically require different access and routing strategies
 3G “widens the data pipe”:
 384 Kbps.
 Standard based on wideband CDMA
 Packet-based switching for both voice and data
 3G cellular struggling in Europe and Asia
 Evolution of existing systems (2.5G,2.6798G):
 GSM+EDGE
 IS-95(CDMA)+HDR
 100 Kbps may be enough

 What is beyond 3G? The trillion dollar question

 Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs)
01011011 0101 1011

Internet
Access
Point

 WLANs connect “local” computers (100m range)

 Breaks data into packets
 Channel access is shared (random access)
 Backbone Internet provides best-effort service
 Poor performance in some apps (e.g. video)
 Wireless LANs

 Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan)

 Advantages
– very flexible within the reception area
– Ad-hoc networks possible
– (almost) no wiring difficulties
 Disadvantages
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks
– many proprietary solutions
• Bluetooth, HiperLAN and IEEE 802.11
 Wireless LANs vs. Wired LANs

 Destination address does not equal destination

location
 The media impact the design
– wireless LANs intended to cover reasonable
geographic distances must be built from basic
coverage blocks
 Impact of handling mobile (and portable)
stations
– Propagation effects
– Mobility management
– Power management
 Infrastructure vs. Ad hoc WLANs
infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP

AP wired network
AP

ad-hoc network
 Wireless LAN Standards
 802.11b (Current Generation)
 Standard for 2.4GHz ISM band (80 MHz)
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum
 1.6-10 Mbps, 500 ft range

 802.11a (Emerging Generation)

 Standard for 5GHz NII band (300 MHz)
 OFDM with time division
 20-70 Mbps, variable range
 Similar to HiperLAN in Europe
 802.11g (New Standard)
 Standard in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
 OFDM
 Speeds up to 54 Mbps
802.11 LAN architecture
 wireless host communicates
with base station
Internet
 base station = access point
(AP)
 Basic Service Set (BSS) (aka
“cell”) in infrastructure mode
hub, switch contains:
AP or router  wireless hosts
 access point (AP): base
BSS station
1 AP  ad hoc mode: hosts only

BSS 2
 Satellite Systems

 Cover very large areas

 Different orbit heights
 GEOs (39000 Km) versus LEOs (2000 Km)
 Optimized for one-way transmission
 Radio (XM, DAB) and movie (SatTV) broadcasting
 Most two-way systems struggling or bankrupt
 Expensive alternative to terrestrial system
 A few ambitious systems on the horizon
 Paging Systems
 Broad coverage for short messaging
 Message broadcast from all base stations
 Simple terminals
 Optimized for 1-way transmission
 Answer-back hard
 Overtaken by cellular
 Bluetooth
 Cable replacement RF technology (low cost)
 Short range (10m, extendable to 100m)
 2.4 GHz band (crowded)
 1 Data (700 Kbps) and 3 voice channels
 Widely supported by telecommunications,
PC, and consumer electronics companies
 Few applications beyond cable replacement
8C32810.61-Cimini-7/98
 Emerging Systems

 Ad hoc wireless networks

 Sensor networks
 Distributed control networks
 Ad-Hoc Networks

 Peer-to-peer communications
 No backbone infrastructure
 Routing can be multihop
 Topology is dynamic
 Fully connected with different link SINRs
 Multi-Hop Wireless
 May need to traverse multiple links to reach
destination

 Mobility causes route changes

 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
 Do not need backbone infrastructure support
 Host movement frequent
 Topology change frequent

B
A A
B

 Multi-hop wireless links

 Data must be routed via intermediate nodes
 Applications of MANETS
 Military - soldiers at Kargil, tanks, planes
 Disaster Management – Orissa, Gujarat
 Emergency operations – search-and-rescue, police and
firefighters
 Sensor networks
 Taxicabs and other closed communities
 airports, sports stadiums etc. where two or more people
meet and want to exchange documents
 Presently MANET applications use 802.11 hardware
 Personal area networks - Bluetooth
 Design Issues
 Ad-hoc networks provide a flexible network
infrastructure for many emerging applications
 The capacity of such networks is generally
unknown
 Transmission, access, and routing strategies for
ad-hoc networks are generally ad-hoc

 Cross-layer design critical and very challenging

 Energy constraints impose interesting design
tradeoffs for communication and networking
 Sensor Networks
Energy is the driving constraint

 Nodes powered by non-rechargeable batteries

 Data flows to centralized location
 Low per-node rates but up to 100,000 nodes
 Data highly correlated in time and space
 Nodes can cooperate in transmission, reception,
compression, and signal processing
 Energy-Constrained Nodes
 Each node can only send a finite number of bits
 Transmit energy minimized by maximizing bit time
 Circuit energy consumption increases with bit time
 Introduces a delay versus energy tradeoff for each bit
 Short-range networks must consider transmit,
circuit, and processing energy
 Sophisticated techniques not necessarily energy-efficient
 Sleep modes save energy but complicate networking

 Changes everything about the network design:

 Bit allocation must be optimized across all protocols
 Delay vs. throughput vs. node/network lifetime tradeoffs
 Optimization of node cooperation
 Distributed Control over
Wireless Links
Automated Vehicles
- Cars
- UAVs
- Insect flyers

 Packet loss and/or delays impacts controller performance

 Controller design should be robust to network faults
 Joint application and communication network design
 Joint Design Challenges
 There is no methodology to incorporate random
delays or packet losses into control system designs
 The best rate/delay trade-off for a communication
system in distributed control cannot be determined
 Current autonomous vehicle platoon controllers are
not string stable with any communication delay

Can we make distributed control robust to the network?

Yes, by a radical redesign of the controller and the network
 Spectrum Regulation

 Spectral Allocation in US controlled by FCC

(commercial) or OSM (defense)
 FCC auctions spectral blocks for set applications
 Some spectrum set aside for universal use

 Worldwide spectrum controlled by ITU-R

Regulation can stunt innovation, cause economic

disasters, and delay system rollout
 Standards
 Interacting systems require standardization
 Companies want their systems adopted as standard
 Alternatively try for de-facto standards

 Standards determined by TIA/CTIA in US

 IEEE standards often adopted

 Worldwide standards determined by ITU-T

 In Europe, ETSI is equivalent of IEEE

Standards process fraught with

inefficiencies and conflicts of interest
 Main Points
 The wireless vision encompasses many exciting
systems and applications

 Technical challenges transcend across all layers

of the system design

 Wireless systems today have limited

performance and interoperability

 Standards and spectral allocation heavily impact

the evolution of wireless technology