Intro to Topology

1. Basics

2. Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions

In real numbers, we know that a set A (⊆ R) is said to be an open set if for each x ∈ A
there exists a positive real number r > 0 such that the open interval (x − r, x + r) ⊆
A then A is an open subset of R. We also consider, ϕ to be an open set in R.
Lets say we have a collection of indexed set Aα ⊂ R , such that Aα is open in R. Then
⋃α∈J Aα is open in R.

💡 Here as the index set can be ϕ, even ϕ can be an open set.

R is also open in R (Trivial)

Lets say we have a collection of indexed set Aα ⊂ R , such that Aα is open in R. Then
⋂α∈J Aα is open in R.

Now we “Abstractify” this to a further extent with Topology

Let X be any non-empty set, with sub-collection τ ⊆ P(X) , this collection τ is

said to be a topology on X if it satisfies:

1. ϕ, X ∈ τ

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 2. ∪α∈J Aα ∈ τ (J =
 ϕ)
3. A1 , A2 ∈ τ ⟹ A1 ∩ A2 ∈ τ

Metric Space

d is said to be a metric on X iff:

(i) d(x, y) ≥0
(ii) d(x, y) = 0 iff x = y
(iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x)
(iv) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y)

In this case (X,d) is called a metric space.

Metric Topology is a topology induced by metric g defined on a metric space X. The

open sets are all subsets that can be realized as unions of open balls.

B(X0 , r) = [x ∈ X∣g(x0 , x) < r]

where x0 ∈ X, and r >0

(Standard Topology is also a metric topology)

Suppose that τ and τ ′ are two topologies on a given set X, if τ ′ ⊆ τ we say that τ ′ is
coarser than τ , and τ is finer τ ′ . We say that τ, τ ′ are strictly finer and strictly coarser if
we know they cannot be equal.

Sometimes the terms larger is used instead of finer and smaller is used instead of
coarser.

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 Basis for a Topology

If X is a set, a basis for a topology on X is a collection B of subsets of X (called basis

elements) such that:
(i) For each x ∈ X there is atleast one basis element Bx ∈ B containing x.
(ii) If x belongs to the intersection of two basis elements B1 , B2 then there is a basis
element B3 containing x such that, B3 ⊂ B1 ∩ B2

We Definie the Topology generated by B as: A subset U of X is said to be open in X

(Element in topology), if for each x ∈ u THERE IS A BASIS ELEMENT b ∈ B such that
x ∈ B and B ⊂ U

Proof that the collection τ generated by Basis is Toplogy: ϕ is part of topology vacuously,
and by definition of Basis, every element in X has some basis containing it, which means
that even X is part of the subcollection τ . Let there be some indexed family of elements in
τ , their union is also in τ as lets take some random x in this union, it will be part of some
indexed element, and since the indexed element is subset of this subcollection, we can
say union is also open. Similarily you can prove for intersections as well using these
principles.

Topology Generated by B [alternative definition]

Let X be a set, let B be a basis for a topology τ on X. Then τ equals the collection
of all unions of elements in B.

Basis of a Topology

Let X be a topological space, suppose C is a collection of open sets of X, such that for
each open set U of X, there is an element c of C, such that x ∈ C ⊂ U , then C is a
basis for the topology of X.

Let there be two topologies, τ, τ ′ with basis B, B′ then:

τ ′ is finer than τ ⟺ For each x ∈ X and each basis element B ∈ B containing x,

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 there is a basis element B′ ∈ B′ such that x ∈ B′ ⊂ B

A Subbasis S for a topology on X is a collection of subsets of X whose union equals X.

The topology generated by the subbasis S is defined to be the collection τ of all unions
of finite intersections of elements in S

Important Topologies

1. (ϕ, X) = τ is the Indiscrete Topology, it is indiscrete as all the “Open Sets” are
just part of X rather than having their individual identity.

2. P(X), the power set of X is the Discrete Topology on X, it contains every open set
as an individual

3. For an Infinite Set X , τf = (A ⊆ X : AC is finite or AC = X), is a topology on X

, known as Co-Finite/ Finite Complement Topology on X .

4. The Topology of Open Balls in real numbers, described in the first section is the
Standard Topology. Also the topology generated by Basis that is the collection of all
open intervals on real line (a, b) = [x∣a < x < b]
5. Lower Limit Topology is defined as the topology generated with the basis
containing all half open intervals of the form [a, b) = [x∣a ≤ x < b], this is
denoted using Rl

6. Upper Limit Topology is defined as the topology generated with the basis
containing all half open intervals of the form (a, b] = [x∣a < x ≤ b], this is
denoted using Ru

7. K-Topology is defined to be the topology generated by all open intervals on real line
(a,b) along with sets (a,b)-K (K being set of all numbers of the form n1 with n being the
set of all positive integers.

Order Topology

If X is a simply ordered set there is a standard topology for X, defined using order
relation, it is called the order toplogy.

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 Order Topology is the topology generated by the basis B on ordered set X, where B is
the collection of all sets of the following types:
(i) All open intervals (a,b) in X

(ii) All intervals of the form [a0 ,b) where a0 is the smallest element(if any) of X
(iii) All intervals of the form (a,b0 ], where b0 is the largest element (if any) of X

If X is an ordrered set, and a is an element of X, there are four subsets of X that are
called the rays determined by a. They are the following

(a, +∞) = {x∣x > a}

(−∞, a) = {x∣x < a}

[a, +∞) = {x∣x ≤ a}

(−∞, a] = {x∣x ≥ a}

The first two types are called open rays, and the last two are called closed rays

Open Rays form a subbasis for Order Topology

Product Topology on X ∗Y

Product Topology on X ∗ Y is the topology having as basis the collection, B of all sets
of the form UxV where U is an open subset of X and V is an open subset of Y.

If B is a basis for the topology of X and C is a basis for the topology of Y, then the
collection

D = [B ∗ C∣B ∈ B, C ∈ C]

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 is a basis for the topology X x Y

Projections: Let π1 : X ∗ Y → X be defined by the equation π1 (x, y) = x; Let π2 :

X ∗ Y → Y be defined by the equation π2 (x, y) = y. The maps π1 , π2 are called the
projections of X ∗ Y onto its fifrst and second factors respectively.

The inverse of these maps can also be discussed for open sets, such that the inverse of
an open set is the product of the open set and the other factor whole topology.

The union of inverse of all open sets in X and inverse of all open sets in in Y, is a
subbasis for product topology on X * Y

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