Chapter 2 – COMPUTER HARDWARE

 Hardware is the physical machinery that make up a computer system such as a hard
drive, monitor, mouse, keyboard, CD-ROM drive, network card, system board, power
supply, case, and video card.
 In personal computers, the main system board is sometimes called the motherboard, it is
the central printed circuit board (PCB) in and holds many of the crucial components of
the system, providing connectors for other peripherals.
 The main component on the main system board is the central processing unit (CPU),
the brain of a computer system. The CPU carries out the instructions of computer
programs, performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the
system. 
 System boards will have expansion slots, a CPU socket or slot, location for memory
cache and RAM, and a keyboard connector. Other components may also be present.
 Primary storage is RAM (Random Access Memory), which holds programming code and
data that is being processed by the CPU.
 A hard drive is called secondary storage while memory is called primary storage
because programs cannot be executed from secondary storage but must first be moved to
primary storage. Basically, the CPU cannot "reach" the program still in secondary storage
for execution.
 ROM is read-only memory. ROM chips, located on circuit boards, are used to hold
programming code that is permanently stored on the chip.
 BIOS stands for basic input-output system. It is used to manage the start-up of the
computer and ongoing input and output operations of basic components, such as a floppy
disk or hard drive.
 Computer software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide
the instructions for telling a computer what to do.
 System software provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps run the
computer hardware.
 An operating system is a type of software that controls a computer’s output and input
operations, such as saving files and managing memory. Common operating systems are
typically Windows based, but personal computers can also use an Apple or Linux based
operating system as well.
 Application software is computer software designed to perform specific tasks. Common
applications include word processing such as OpenOffice.org Writer, a spread sheet such
as Microsoft Excel, and business accounting such as Quick Books by Intuit.

Microprocessor Basics

Microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the functions of a

computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC),[1] or at most a few
integrated circuits.
The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock driven, register based, programmable
electronic device which accepts digital or binary data as input, processes it according to
instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. Microprocessors contain both
combinational logic and sequential digital logic. Microprocessors operate on numbers and
symbols represented in the binary numeral system.
Speeds – Microprocessor speeds are typically measured in megahertz (MHz), which
measures the amount of processing cycles that can be performed per second in millions.
 Multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent
actual processing units (called "cores"), which are the units that read and execute program
instructions.
The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions (such as add, move data, and branch), but
the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, increasing overall speed for
programs amenable to parallel computing.
A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a single physical package.
Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely.
Parts of Microprocessor
Memory:
–Storage of data
–Storage of a program
–Either can be temporary or “permanent” storage
•Registers: small, fast memories
–General purpose: store arbitrary data
–Special purpose: used to control the processor

Arithmetic Logic Unit

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a combinational digital electronic circuit that
performs arithmetic and bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.
This is in contrast to a floating-point unit (FPU), which operates on floating point
numbers. An ALU is a fundamental building block of many types of computing circuits,
including the central processing unit (CPU) of computers, FPUs, and graphics processing units
(GPUs).
Cache Memory
The basic purpose of cache memory is to store program instructions that are frequently
re-referenced by software during operation. Fast access to these instructions increases the overall
speed of the software program.
Instruction Set and Registers.
An instruction set, or instruction set architecture (ISA), is the part of the computer
architecture related to programming, including the native data types, instructions, registers,
addressing modes, memory architecture, interrupt and exception handling, and external I/O. An
ISA includes a specification of the set of opcodes (machine language), and the native commands
implemented by a particular processor.
How Microprocessors Works?
 Computation – the ALU allows a microprocessor or CPU to perform simple
mathematical and logic functions.
 Data – The CPU has the ability to store data and move the data from one memory
location to another.
  Instructions – instructions include one or more memory addresses and an operation so
the CPU can perform the requested operation on the selected memory addresses.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Random-access memory, or RAM, provides large quantities of temporary and volatile
storage in a computer system.
– Memory cells can be accessed to transfer information to or from any desired
location, with the access taking the same time regardless of the location

• Volatility
– Most RAMs lose their memory when power is removed
– NVRAM = RAM + battery
– Or use EEPROM
• SRAM (Static RAM)
– Memory behaves like latches or flip-flops
• DRAM (Dynamic Memory)
– Memory lasts only for a few milliseconds
– Must “refresh” locations by reading or writing

Types of RAM

The following are some common types of RAM:

 SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for
each memory cell but doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.
 DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells with a paired transistor
and capacitor requiring constant refreshing.
 FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form
of DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row
and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2
cache is approximately 176 MBps.
 EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for
all of the processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the
address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about
five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264
MBps.
 SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst
mode concept to greatly improve performance. It does this by staying on the row
containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns, reading each bit as
it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence.
SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in
desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.
 DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM
except that is has higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2
cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).
 RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the
previous DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line
memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard
DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus
called the Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data
rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate
much more heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips
are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are
 smaller versions of DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook
computers.
 Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM
memory module that plugs into a special slot for use in notebook computers.
 PCMCIA Memory Card: Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards
of this type are not proprietary and should work with any notebook computer whose
system bus matches the memory card's configuration.
 CMOS RAM: CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by your
computer and some other devices to remember things like hard disk settings -- see Why
does my computer need a battery? for details. This memory uses a small battery to
provide it with the power it needs to maintain the memory contents.
 VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory
(MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators.
The "multiport" part comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two independent
access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the RAM
simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats,
many of which are proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a determining factor in the
resolution and color depth of the display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific
information such as 3-D geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to
be expensive, so today, many graphics cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM)
instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is cheaper.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and

other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not
at all, so it is mainly used to store firmware (software that is closely tied to specific hardware and
unlikely to need frequent updates) or application software in plug-in cartridges.

There are five basic ROM types:

1. ROM - Read Only Memory

2. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
3. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
4. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
5. Flash EEPROM memory

Function of ROM

The contents on ROM are meant to be stored on a permanent basis. This characteristic
makes it difficult or impossible to alter or erase the contents stored on ROM. The memory is also
non-volatile, meaning it does not lose its contents when there is no power, unlike random-access
memory, better known as RAM, which is volatile. As a result, ROM is the preferred storage for
important data such as the basic input output instruction set (BIOS) in computers.

 Storage Devices

• Storage devices hold data, even when the computer is turned off.
• The physical material that actually holds data is called a storage medium. The surface of
a floppy disk is a storage medium.
• The hardware that writes data to or reads data from a storage medium is called a storage
device. A floppy disk drive is a storage device.
• The two primary storage technologies are magnetic and optical.

Magnetic Storage Devices

 • Diskettes (floppy disks) (FDD)
• Hard disks (HD)
• High-capacity floppy disks (ZIP Disk)
• USB flash drive
• Magnetic tape

Optical Storage Devices

• Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)

• Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM)
• CD-Recordable (CD-R)
• CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)
• PhotoCD

Input Devices
• Input device captures information and translates it into a form that can
be processed and used by other parts of your computer.
• Keyboards
• Pointing devices
• Game controllers
• Scanners
• Styluses
• Microphones
• Digital cameras
• Web cams
Output Devices
• Output devices take information within your computer and present it to you in a form that
you can understand
• Main output devices:
– Monitors
– Printers
– Speakers
Input and Output Devices

1. Modems
2. Network cards
3. Touch Screen
4. Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone.
Speaker act Output Device and     Microphone act as Input device.
5. Facsimile (FAX)  (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to Print the 
document)
6. Audio Cards / Sound Card