CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION
PLANNING AND ENGINEERING
TERM PAPER | GROUP NO. 1

Submitted by:

CAÑABANO, CIALIDINE
DABASOL, ALEX LYN
DE LA CRUZ, MARY JOYCE
DEL ROSARIO, WILBUR
DELANTAR, JHELIAN RAMONA
DUARTE, MARY ANN
TORREON, JOSHUA EMEL
VEGA, MARKJUN
BSCE-4

Submitted to:

ENGR. JUNE CARLO S. ENCABO

Instructor
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 The Profession of Transportation …………………………………………………... 1
1.2 Importance of Transportation ……………………………………………………… 1
1.2.1 Transportation and Economic Growth ……………………………………… 1
1.2.2 Social Costs and Benefits of Transportation ……………………………… 2

II. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ……………………………...…………………. 2

2.1 Importance of Transportation Engineering ……………………………………….. 2

III. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING ……………………………………………………… 2

3.1 Importance of Transportation Planning …………………………………………… 2

IV. THE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS ………………..………………… 3

4.1 Basic Elements of Transportation Planning …………………………………….... 3
4.1.1 Situation Definition …………………………………………………………… 3
4.1.2 Problem Definition …………………...………………………………………. 4
4.1.3 Search for Solutions …………………………………………………………. 4
4.1.4 Analysis of Performance …………………………………………………… 4
4.1.5 Evaluation of Alternatives …………………………………………………… 4
4.1.6 Choice of Project ……………………………………………………………. 4
4.1.7 Specification and Construction ……………………………………………... 5
4.2 Transportation Planning Institutions ………………………………………………. 6
4.2.1 Transportation Planning Organization …………………………………….. 6

V. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE ……………………………. 7

5.1 The Purpose of Planning …………………………………………………….... 7
5.2 Governance in Transportation ……………………………………………….. 8

VI. References ……………………………………………………………………………….. 10

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

I. INTRODUCTION
A country's growth and development depend heavily on its transportation system. Opportunities
for engineering employment in transportation are interesting and gratifying, in both the public and
commercial sectors. The world's highway, rail, airport, and mass transit networks are continually
being expanded, and new methods are being used to operate and maintain them in a safe and
cost-effective manner. Numerous organizations and agencies exist to plan, develop, build, run,
and maintain the country's transportation system.

1.1 The Profession of Transportation

Transportation plays a vital role in society. It enables us to accomplish trade, commerce, conquest,
and social interaction. The primary reason for mobility has been economic, which involves individual
travel for the goal of finding food or employment, travel to exchange goods and commodities,
exploration, and societal progress. The movement of people is the basis of transportation. It helps
to accomplish basic tasks that require the transfer of people or goods, from one location to another.
For example, a farmer must deliver his or her produce to the market, a doctor must visit a patient in
the clinic or the hospital, and a salesperson must make client visits across a region. Millions of
individuals depart their homes every day to commute to work, whether it's in a factory, office,
classroom, or far-off city.

1.2 Importance of Transportation

The ability for trade, commerce, and communication that create civilization is the significance of
transportation. Good planning controls traffic flows and makes it possible for people to go from one
place to another quietly and steadily. The need for transportation is a reality of life, making any type
of travel from one location to another difficult without efficient and economical transit. At every stage
of the world's history of civilization, transportation has played a crucial role in the development of all
nations. The world we live in today would be very different if the existing modes of transportation
did not exist. The leading nations in commerce and industry include those with developed
transportation infrastructure, like the United States, Canada, Asia, and Europe. The speed, cost,
and capacity of available transportation greatly influenced the economic vitality of an area. Without
the ability to transport manufactured goods and raw materials and without technical expertise, a
country is unable to maximize the competitive advantage it may have in the form of natural human
resources. Most countries that lack natural resources rely heavily on transportation to import raw
materials and export manufactured products.

1.2.1 Transportation and Economic Growth

Good transportation, by itself, cannot guarantee success in the marketplace, since the ability of
a country or region to realize its economic potential will be constrained or hampered by the lack
of supported transportation services. Therefore, a strong internal transportation network
consisting of excellent roads, rail systems, and links to the rest of the globe by sea and air is
required if society is to advance and expand. Good transportation enables specialization in
business or industry, lowers the cost of raw materials or produced goods, and boosts regional
rivalry, all of which lead to lower pricing and more options for consumers.
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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

1.2.2 Social Costs and Benefits of Transportation

It takes a tremendous amount of land, energy, and material resources to build massive
transportation systems. In large cities, transportation uses up to 50% of the total land area. Other
drawbacks of transportation exist as well. However, society has shown a willingness to bear
some risks and environmental impacts to benefit from modern transportation system
construction. Moreover, society values the numerous social advantages brought about by
efficient transportation. Providing medical care and other services to remote areas and allowing
individuals who live far apart to socialize are just a few advantages that transportation offers.

The capability to strike a balance between society's need for quick and economical
transportation and the costs involved is a key responsibility for today's modern transportation
engineers. So, to ensure that the highest quality transportation systems are created in
accordance with available money and acceptable social policy, the transportation engineer must
engage closely with the public and elected leaders while also being knowledgeable of modern
engineering procedures.

II. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering involves planning, design, construction, traffic management and
operations, and maintenance. It takes advantage of the latest advances in transportation and
applies them to build the most effective and efficient systems for various areas. These transportation
systems planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance fall under the scope of the
transportation engineer.

2.1 Importance of Transportation Engineering

Building network connections and significant terminals to meet transportation demand is a crucial
task of the transportation engineer. To ensure the safe, effective, and practical movement of people
and products, the transportation engineer must rightfully plan, design, construct, operate, and
maintain these transportation systems. The transportation engineer must be knowledgeable in this
field.

III. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

Transportation Planning deals with the selection of projects for design and construction (design
entails the specification of all features of the transportation project, while construction involves all
aspects of the building process). It begins by identifying the problem, collecting, and analyzing data,
and assessing potential solutions. It provides the knowledge, tools, and chances for public
involvement to improve the effectiveness of the transportation system.

3.1 Importance of Transportation Planning

Transportation Planning addresses current and future transportation, land use, traffic demand,
public safety, health, and social needs. It helps to efficiently manage existing resources like the
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effective use of transportation systems, technology, land use, and resource control. It reduces the
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negative impact of traffic and meets all the travel demands and responses of the community.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

IV. THE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS

The development of the country's transportation system has not been the result of a master plan,
but rather has been evolutionary. The current system results from numerous individual decisions to
choose projects for construction or improvement, including bridges, highways, tunnels, harbors,
railway stations, and airport runways. These transportation projects were chosen as a result of an
assessment that they will enhance the system as a whole.

The improvement of traffic flow and safety, energy consumption, travel time, economic growth, and
accessibility are some of the elements that may support a transportation project. Some
transportation projects may have been chosen for factors other than their direct benefits, such as to
boost employment in a certain area, compete with other cities or states for prestige, draw in industry,
give in to political pressure, or benefit personally from a certain route location or construction project.
Sometimes those who would be negatively impacted by transportation projects prevent them from
being chosen. For example, the construction of an airport may result in unwanted noise from low-
flying aircraft or require the expropriation of residential or wetland acreage to make room for a
runway expansion. Whatever the rationale for choosing or rejecting a transportation project, a
certain process resulted in the decision of whether to build or not.

A rational planning method for transportation systems should provide fair information on the impacts
that a proposed transportation project would have on the users and the impacted community. If
noise or air pollution is a concern, for instance, the procedure will look into an estimate how much
more of either will be produced if the transportation facility is built. Cost is typically an important
consideration; thus, the process will include estimates of the expenses associated with construction,
maintenance, and operation.

Although it can be in some quite straightforward situations, the transportation planning process is
not meant to provide a judgment or a single solution that must be adopted. Instead, the procedure
aims to give the necessary information to people who will be impacted and those who will be
deciding whether the transportation project should move forward.

4.1 Basic Elements of Transportation Planning

There are seven fundamental components to the transportation planning process, all are
interconnected and need not be done sequentially. The elements in the process include:

4.1.1 Situation Definition

Situation definition, the first phase in the planning process, entails all of the activities necessary
to comprehend the circumstance that led to the perception of a requirement for a transportation
improvement. This can be applied in transportation planning by delineating the scope of
transportation facilities and obtaining information about the surrounding area, its people, and
their travel habits. Investigation of travel patterns and gathering as many people as possible to
describe the transportation services in their area can also help in concluding the transportation
situation. This initial element is applied in local, regional, or national transportation planning
through survey and data collection.
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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

4.1.2 Problem Definition

Problem definition is as simple as it suggests, in which problems are laid out according to the
assessment of the situation. In this element, objectives are given importance in transportation
planning. Transportation planning aligns with the following objectives: reduce traffic congestion;
reduce traffic accidents; make more people-friendly roads; enhance road-user benefits; and
improve safety. When the objectives are presented, ranking and prioritization of criteria then take
place. If there are criteria that are hard to attain, constraints are established and are addressed
by countering with design standards which are then discussed in the next element.

4.1.3 Search for Solutions

This element can also be considered as an idea-generating phase or brainstorming stage. This
part of the planning process addresses the problem by presenting ideas, alternatives, design,
locations, addition to the system, system configuration, etc. Some of the considerations in this
phase are building tunnels, eradicating possible transportation obstruction, adding bike lanes,
alternate route, and obligating toll charges and its method of collection. Practicality and financial
feasibility are weighed and compared among alternatives/solutions being presented.

4.1.4 Analysis of Performance

The goal of performance analysis is to predict how each suggested alternative would perform in
both the present and the future. Performance of proposed alternatives is calculated through the
list of criteria formulated. Measures of effectiveness in each alternative are compared and
blending qualities of alternatives may happen, if ever there are alternatives having equal
advantages and disadvantages. This part of the process uses mathematical models for
estimation. Trip length, travel at different times of day, and vehicle occupancy are some of the
criteria for analysis of user benefits. System supply on a network with travel demand is
forecasted to show equilibrium travel flows. Environmental implication of the alternative or
proposed transportation system is also considered in deciding the effectiveness of the system.
The results of the analysis will serve as the foundation of the project design.

4.1.5 Evaluation of Alternatives

This element highlights the result of the performance data from the analysis stage. Some criteria
for evaluation include air quality, noise, tax loss, trees removed, and runoff. The application of
this process uses the benefit-cost ratio to test the economic value of the proposed alternative to
ensure a great return of the project. This type of presentation can also be more elaborated to
cost-effectiveness matrix when there are many factors/criteria in engineering, economic, and
environmental aspects.

4.1.6 Choice of Project

After careful consideration of all the relevant factors, a project is chosen. A single criterion (like
cost) might be employed in a straightforward situation, where the project has been approved
and is in the design phase, for instance, and the project that has the lowest cost would be picked.
Deciding among the alternatives is the most crucial part in transportation planning since it is the
finality without the actuality (construction). This is where initial implementation is done. Budget
is being laid out, the site location is to be approved, and the surrounding area is to be notified
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through public hearing or project major information signage. Engineers must have strong

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

opinions upon the selection of alternatives or projects and settle disagreements with the
stakeholders to ensure the successful implementation of the plan.

4.1.7 Specification and Construction

Following the selection of the transportation project, the project enters a phase of detailed design
when each element of the facility is described. Transportation plans are as detailed as
construction building plans. This means precise placement, geometrical specifications, and
structural layout of a transportation facility. The site location is finalized along with the geometric
dimensions and structural configuration. The design of the project is already done following the
design standards. Bidding of the project takes place where contractors are deliberated. The
design is being handed over to contractors for them to estimate the cost of the bidding. Credibility
is being tested upon handing over the project to the contractors because they are challenged to
do what is expected of them. The completion of the project is then turned over to the
transportation authority and operated accordingly.

Basic Elements Applied to Consider the Feasibility of a New Bridge:

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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

4.2 Transportation Planning Institutions

This method of planning transportation is quite generic in structure and is based on a systems
approach to problem-solving. The method is not just limited to highways; it may also be used in a
wide range of other contexts, including feasibility studies for high-speed intercity rail, airport location,
port and harbor development, and urban transportation systems. All transportation projects in
urbanized areas with populations of 50,000 or more be based on a transportation planning process
that was continuous, comprehensive, and cooperative, also known as the "3C" process, and this is
where it is most frequently used. The word "continuous" emphasizes that the procedure should be
regularly reviewed and treated as an ongoing issue. In this context, being comprehensive means
taking into account all types of transportation. In a cooperative approach, all municipalities in an
urbanized region and the state (or states) collaborate.

4.2.1 Transportation Planning Organization

The urban transportation planning process is carried out by several groups that represent
different community interests and opinions. The policy committee, technical committee, and
citizens' advisory committee are these committees. Additionally, they collaborate with ongoing
planning organizations like the regional metropolitan planning agency (MPO).

Policy Committee
The mayor and the director of public works are two examples of elected or appointed
representatives from the governing bodies or agencies that would be impacted by the decisions
made by the policy committee. This group serves as the study's board of directors and
determines the fundamental policies. They will make decisions regarding the study's
management as well as significant financial or political challenges.

Technical Committee
The engineering and planning staff who are in charge of carrying out the work or assessing the
technical components of the project as they have been prepared by consultants make up the
technical committee. This team will make sure that all necessary assessments and cost
comparisons for each project alternative are finished, and they'll also keep an eye on the
6

process' technical intricacies. Highway, transit, and traffic engineers are typically members of
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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

the technical committee, together with experts in land-use planning, economics, and computer
modeling.

Citizens’ Advisory Committee

A cross-section of the community makes up the citizens' advisory council, which may also
include business, labor, and community interest group representatives. The committee's duties
include expressing the goals and objectives of the community, offering suggestions for
alternatives, and responding to those alternatives. An open discussion is made possible between
the community, technical staff, and policymakers through this committee structure. The citizens'
advisory committee serves as a way to improve communication to ensure that the final plan that
results from the process reflects community interests. When a choice is made and
recommendations are produced, they should be based on the consensus of all interested
parties.

Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO)

A metropolitan planning organization (MPO) is a group that develops transportation policies and
is composed of local government and transportation authority representatives. A policy board
for an MPO, for instance, might comprise five voting members: two from the city council, two
from the county Board of Supervisors, and one from the state transportation department. Non-
voting representatives of various local transit providers, municipal planning commissions, and
other transportation organizations, such as state public transportation authorities and the
Federal Highway Administration, may also be included on the MPO policy board.

V. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE

The public provision and financing of transportation infrastructure, particularly highways and mass
transportation networks, is the main focus of transportation planning.

5.1 The Purpose of Planning

Traditionally, lower-tier governments have been preoccupied with transportation planning, which
typically handles specific issues or general transportation concerns at a local level (state, county,
municipal). Because of this, urban areas are where transportation planning is most advanced and
where the most expertise has been gained. However, there are a number of similarities between
the planning and policymaking processes. Planning also includes the critical processes of problem
identification, alternative exploration, and strategy implementation.

The common perception is that planning is the responsibility of the public sector, although the private
sector owns and operates a significant amount of transportation assets. Planning was for a long
time an engineering-dominated field, giving it a very mechanistic feel. The planning process was
considered as a series of rigorous procedures conducted to measure anticipated impacts and
provide engineering solutions. This common methodology consisted of four main steps: trip
generation, trip distribution, modal split, and route selection. The four-stage sequence's predictions
of future traffic levels are utilized to identify planning possibilities.
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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

5.2 Governance in Transportation

Planning and implementing transportation policies involve governance, which is linked to better
resource allocation and the effective use of already-available resources. Since both the public and
private sectors are actively involved in transportation, it has a distinct set of governance features
like all other sectors of activity.

Governance concerns the ownership and management of assets and resources to fulfill goals such
as profit or welfare through the exercise of authority and institutional resources. It affects both the
public and private sectors, although its application tends to vary depending on whether public or
private interests are involved. Performance, or how efficiently utilized resources are, is a major
consideration in both situations.

The strategic, economic, and social significance of transportation and the cross-jurisdictional nature
of many infrastructures, such as highway, rail, and telecommunication networks, make the
governance of transportation infrastructure particularly pertinent. Transport is a vital infrastructure
that must be consistently and systematically made available to its customers. It is not only a matter
of convenience. Since it is unrelated to a particular governance structure, effective governance is
difficult to evaluate, although it generally has the following benefits:
• Confidence. It gives a degree of assurance that a task, like managing a terminal or a logistics
area, is done well. This may include routine operations in addition to the conceptualization,
design, and financing of new infrastructure. Consistent and dependable services, as well as a
high level of reactivity and input when an unforeseen issue emerges, are all associated with
effective governance.
• Capital Costs. Lowers capital costs as financial institutions and investors are more certain that
the funds allocated will be used to build and expand profitable assets that will generate returns.
• Competitiveness. Improves the capacity to compete by attracting new consumers and retaining
existing ones. Lower expenses are just one way to do this; other important elements include
transparency and expectations that are crystal clear. Businesses with superior governance are
typically more competitive than organizations with less effective governance, holding other
factors in the market constant.
• Stability. It grants the firm long-term resilience, which contributes to a degree of stability in the
capital markets and the financial institutions that support them. A stable governance system can
be more efficiently administered because many transportation infrastructures have long
lifespans.

Many various types of governance are in place for transportation facilities such as port terminals,
airports, motorways, inland ports, or logistics zones, which define modes of funding, operations,
functioning, and external linkages. This is particularly crucial given the complexity, capital-intensive
nature, and strategic significance of big transport infrastructure for the economic well-being of entire
areas. Therefore, the requirement for strong governance to guarantee that the infrastructures are
sufficiently funded, maintained, operated, and extended is highlighted by the capital intensiveness
and lengthy life cycle of transportation infrastructures.
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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Transport governance is divided into two primary parts: ownership and operations. Who owns the
terminal site and its infrastructure, including its equipment, is referred to as ownership:
• Public ownership is common because of the economic and strategic importance of many types
of terminals. In a number of countries, such as China, Europe, and North America, the state-
owned railway business is in charge of the passenger stations because the national government
owns the passenger railroads in such countries. In the US, public ownership of airports mostly
occurs at the state or municipal levels of government, but it is still a common practice. Under
public ownership, public funds or public guarantees for capital acquired from private markets are
used to invest in infrastructure and prepare for future expansion by the public authority. Then,
prospects for leasing with negotiable terms and duration are presented to the private sector.
• Private ownership is less evident in transport terminals. There are many exceptions for specific
modes, including road freight (distribution centers), North American rail freight (terminals and
rights of way), and ports and airports in the UK and New Zealand that have undergone
privatization. In this case, infrastructure is provided via private funding.

Operations include managing and carrying out terminal activities daily:

• Public Control. Many ports, like Singapore and Hampton Roads, many state-controlled
railroads, including in China, and publicly owned airports, including those in the United States,
frequently have public control over operations. Here, the public authority operates the train,
airport, and port terminals, supplies the handling equipment, and enters into labor agreements.
• Private Companies. Privately owned terminals are managed and operated by private
businesses. A concession agreement allows them to operate several facilities that are held by
the government. In the latter, facilities are leased to terminal operators for predetermined
periods, which is an increasing trend in ports and airports. In terms of duration and requirements,
the different types of concessions differ greatly. Some of them are temporary, lasting only a few
years, but they're usually long-term concessions lasting 15 to 30 years. In others, like gantry
cranes in ports, the owner supplies some of the equipment. In some cases, concessionaires are
required to make equipment purchases. They can utilize their staff in some cases, but they must
use public employees in others.

Given the strategic importance of transportation and the long-term expenditures that may be
necessary, the public sector has played a significant role in numerous modes of operation and
ownership. The terminals can be owned, run, and linked with public regional and national economic
policies in this way as public goods. On the other hand, some people believe that public facilities
are sluggish to adapt to market changes, tend to overinvest in non-economic projects, and have
high user fees. Since inertia is typically the standard for managing huge infrastructures, it is
frequently the default to leave the governance structure as it is. 9
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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

VI. References

Garber, N. J., Hoel, L. A., & University of Virginia. (2009). Traffic and Highway Engineering (4th
ed.). Cengage Learning.

Rodrigue, J. (2020, May 28). The Geography of Transport Systems (5th ed.). Routledge.

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CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Transportation as a System & Philippine Transportation System

TOPIC 2 - TERM PAPER

Submitted by:
GROUP 2
Acero, Thea Marie
Almacin, Klienn
Cabarubbias, Mylen
Kimilat, Excelsy Joy P.
Monterola, Mark
Nelmida, Yna Sophia
Rivera, Jervey
Yang, Patricia Jean

Submitted to:
ENGR. JUNE CARLO S. ENCABO
Instructor
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Table of Contents

Transportation as a System

The Transportation System and the Activity System --------------------------------------- 1

Components of Transportation System -------------------------------------------------------- 3

Forces That Change the Transportation System -------------------------------------------- 4

Philippine Transportation System

Roads --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

Urban Transport ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6

Local Public Transport Route Planning--------------------------------------------------------- 6

References -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

CE431 – PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Transportation as a System
Transportation systems are a fundamental part of logistics and planning whenever vehicles are
used to move people or items from one location to another. They allow people to get to work on
time using the local bus or train service, and they allow airlines to tell their customers when they
can expect an airplane to arrive at its destination.

The transportation system in a developed nation is an aggregation of vehicles, guide-ways,

terminal facilities, and control systems that move freight and passengers. These systems are
usually operated according to established procedures and schedules in the air, on land, and on
water. The set of physical facilities, control systems, and operating procedures referred to as the
nation’s transportation system is not a system in the sense that each of its components is part of a
grand plan or was developed in a conscious manner to meet a set of specified regional or national
goals and objectives. Rather, the system has evolved over a period of time and is the result of
many independent actions taken by the private and public sectors, which act in their own or in the
public’s interest.

The purpose of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people, goods and
vehicles in order to utilize routes most efficiently. When implemented, transportation systems seek
to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through effective timetabling and route
management. Periodic re-evaluations and the development of alternative routes allow for timely
changes to the transportation system in order to maintain efficiency.
1
The Transportation System and the Activity System
Land transportation systems include all roadway and parking facilities dedicated to moving and
storing private, public, and commercial vehicles. Those facilities serve two principal but
contradicting functions: mobility and accessibility. Mobility is the common-sense objective of
transportation, aiming at the fastest but safe movement of people or goods. Access to terminal
points (homes, businesses) is also essential at trip ends. Mobility requires least friction with
terminal points, while accessibility requires slow speeds and hence contradicts mobility.

Fortunately, roads systems evolved in a hierarchical manner to serve both without conflict. For
urban areas, for instance, the American Association for State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) defines the hierarchy of roads as follows:
1. Urban principal arterial system, including interstate highways, freeways, and other urban
arterials, all have some level of access control to promote mobility; typified by high volumes
and speeds.
2. Urban minor arterial street system, which augments the freeway system, emphasizes
relatively high mobility while connecting freeways to collectors.
3. Urban collector street system, collecting traffic from local streets and streaming it onto
arterials, with somewhat balanced emphasis on both mobility and accessibility.
4. Urban local street system, primarily provides access to terminal points, and hence
deliberately discourages high mobility and emphasizes low volumes and speeds.

CE431 – PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

The transportation system that exists at any point in time is the product of two factors that act on
each other. These are (1) the state of the economy, which produces the demand for transportation
and (2) the extent and quality of the system that is currently in place, which constitutes the supply
of transportation facilities and services.

Source: Cascetta, E. (2001). Trasportation Systems Engineering: Theory and Methods

The activity system of an urban area can be schematically decomposed into three sub-systems
consisting of:
 the households divided into categories (by income level, life-cycle, composition, etc.) living
in each zone;
 the economic activities located in each zone and divided by sectors (different industrial and
service sectors), by economic (e.g. added value) and physical (e.g. the number of
employees) indicators;
 the floor-space (or volumes) available in each zone for various uses (industrial production,
offices, residences, shops, building areas, etc.) and relative market prices (real estate
system).

CE431 – PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Components of Transportation System

Source: Rodrigue, J. (2022). The Transport System. Transport Geography

.
A transport system can be conceptualized as the set of relationships between nodes, networks,
and demand. These relationships involve locations spatially expressing this demand, flows
between them, and infrastructures designed to handle and link these flows. All the components of 3
a transport system are designed to facilitate the movements of passengers, freight, and
information, either as separate or joint components.

1. Demand - a derived function for the mobility of people, freight, and information for a variety
of socioeconomic activities.
2. Nodes - where movements are originating, ending, and transiting (intermediacy), entry or
exit points in a transport system. And it vary according to the geographical scale from local
nodes (such as a subway station) to global nodes (such as port or airport terminals).
3. Networks - composed of a set of linkages expressing the connectivity between places and
the capacity to handle passenger or cargo volumes. Networks are a system of linked
locations that are used to represent the functional and spatial organization of transportation.
This system indicates which locations are connected and how they are serviced. Some
locations within a network are more accessible (more connections) than others (fewer
connections).
4. Locations - the level of spatial accumulation of socioeconomic activities (production and
consumption) jointly defines demand and where this demand is taking place.
The location of activities encompasses the concepts of the site and its situation. The site
relates to the characteristics of a specific location while the situation concerns the
relationships of a location in relation to other locations. Three interdependent factors in the
global location of cities:

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College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

 Connectivity - the city is located at a load breakpoint where cargoes are moved from
one mode to the other, connecting two or more systems of circulation. This is
particularly the case for port cities, which explains, for a large part, the coastal
location of most of the world’s largest cities.
 Proximity - the city is located in proximity to a major (or several) resources and
serves as a convenient point of collection, distribution, and transformation. The
resource can exist at a specific location (e.g. a mine) or encompassing an area (e.g.
agriculture).
 Accessibility - the city serves a hinterland in providing goods and services, with its
size a function of the density.
5. Flows - the amount of traffic over a network, which is composed of nodes and linkages.
This is jointly a function of the demand and the capacity of the linkages to support them.
This includes movements of people, freight, and information over their respective networks.
Flows have origins, intermediary locations, and destinations. An intermediary location is
often required to go from an origin to a destination. For instance, flying from one airport to
another may require a transit at the hub airport.
6. Infrastructures - the conveyances such as roads and terminals expressing the physical
reality of a network and are designed to handle demand with specific volume and frequency
characteristics. These are the physical support of transport modes, where routes (e.g. rail
tracks, canals, or highways) and terminals (e.g. ports or airports) are the most significant
components.
4
A historical perspective on the evolution of transport systems underlines the impacts of
technological innovations and how transportation improvements were interdependent with
economic, social, and spatial changes. Thus, the current transport systems are the outcome of a
long historical evolution marked by periods of rapid changes where new transport technologies
were adopted.

Forces That Change the Transportation System

At any point in time, the nation’s transportation system is in a state of equilibrium as expressed by
the traffic carried (or market share) for each mode and the levels of service provided (expressed
as travel attributes such as time, cost, frequency, and comfort). This equilibrium is the result of
market forces (state of the economy, competition, costs, and prices of service), government
actions (regulation, subsidy, and promotion), and transportation technology (speed, capacity,
range, and reliability). As these forces shift over time, the transportation system changes as well,
creating a new set of market shares (levels of demand) and a revised transportation system. For
this reason, the nation’s transportation system is in a constant state of flux, causing short-term
changes due to immediate revisions in levels of service (such as raising the tolls on a bridge or
increasing the gasoline tax) and long-term changes in lifestyles and land-use patterns (such as
moving to the suburbs after a highway is built or converting auto production from large to small
cars). If gasoline prices were to increase significantly, there could be a measurable shift of long-
haul freight from truck to rail. In the long run, if petroleum prices remained high, there might be
shifts to coal or electricity or to more fuel-efficient trucks and autos.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Philippine Transportation System

Transport is a key sector in the Philippine economy, linking population and economic centers
across the islands. While the transport infrastructure has been developed and spread across the
country (about 215,000 kilometers [km] of roads, 1,300 public and private ports, and 215 public
and private airports), the level of service has not been sufficient due to the lack of sustainable
financing. Improving transport infrastructure is critical for strengthening the investment climate and
enhancing economic growth. The Philippines has seen modest improvement in the quality of its
transport services, but a large part of the road network remains in poor condition and intermodal
integration is generally weak. Poor sector governance also impedes efficient operation of the
sector.

The public transportation system in the Philippines is regulated by the Land Transportation
Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) which is responsible for promulgating, administering,
enforcing, and monitoring compliance of policies, laws, and regulations of public land
transportation services.

The main challenges faced by the transport sector, many of which are interrelated, include (i) the
poor quality of the road network, (ii) poor intermodal integration, (iii) weak sector governance and
institutional capacity, (iv) lack of quality urban transport systems, and (v) limited private investment
in transport infrastructure.

Roads 5
As of 2011, the country’s road system comprised about 215,000 km, of which about 15% were
classified as national roads, thereby falling under the jurisdiction of the Department of Public
Works and Highways (DPWH). The remaining 85% of the network is defined as local roads and
falls under the jurisdiction of a variety of local government units. As of November 2011, 79% of
national roads and only 18% of local roads were paved with either asphalt or concrete. The
percentage of national roads that are paved has risen only slowly from 71% in 2001 and remains
well below the government’s original target of 95% by 2010.

Of the 31,400 km of national roads in the system, only about 45% (14,200 km) were assessed as
being in good or fair condition in November 2011. This figure is lower than the percentages in
1982 (about 52%) and 2001 (about 47%). When the quality of the road system is considered—
both in terms of the percentage of paved roads and the percentage of roads in good or fair
condition—the Philippines lags well behind its regional neighbor countries.

The major cause of the overall low quality of the road network is poor and inadequate
maintenance. This is the result of (i) insufficient financial resources being made available for
maintenance, and (ii) inadequate institutional capacity of agencies responsible for road
maintenance.

The poor quality of the road network is a contributing factor to the rising number of road accidents.
There were 14,794 recorded road accidents in 2008, a 28% increase from 2007. Deaths from road

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

accidents in the first half of 2009 reached 624, which was 9% more than in the equivalent period in
2008. According to the Department of Health, in 2008 road accidents became the fourth leading
cause of death in the Philippines.

Urban Transport
The Philippines is experiencing rapid urbanization, and by 2030, about 77% of the population will
live in urban areas. There are 120 cities in the country, including 16 in Metro Manila, which is the
only metropolitan area in the Philippines. Transport systems in these cities are almost entirely road
based, with the exception of Metro Manila. Transport services consist mainly of jeepneys (public
utility vehicles), taxis, tricycles, and pedicabs that are privately owned and operated.

Most notably, the public transport system is one of the infrastructures that are unable to catch up
with the country’s fast-paced lifestyle. At present, it has become the norm for commuters to wait
for hours for their transportation, if it will be available at all. In addition to the wait time for their
commute, many have grown accustomed to spending hours on the road due to traffic volume,
making their total time spent on travel much longer. Although restrictions on vehicle usage are in
place, their effectiveness is decreasing as rates of motorization increase; consequently,
congestion in Metro Manila is increasing rapidly and is estimated to cause economic losses
equivalent to about 4.6% of GDP. While congestion in urban areas outside of Metro Manila is less
severe, increasing urban populations combined with higher rates of motorization suggest that
traffic congestion in those urban areas will worsen in the near future.
6
Local Public Transport Route Planning (DOTR)
The Philippine Development Plan 2011–2016 (PDP) sets five objectives for infrastructure
development, including the transport sector: (i) optimize resources and investments, (ii) attract
investments to infrastructure, (iii) foster transparency and accountability in infrastructure
development, (iv) adapt to climate change and mitigate the impacts of natural disasters, and (v)
provide productive employment opportunities.

In addition to the PDP, the government established the National Environmentally

Sustainable Transport Strategy in 2011 through Presidential Administrative Order No. 254, with
the Department of Transportation and Communications and the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources responsible for implementation. One of the strategies established is the Local
Public Transport Route Planning (LPTRP).

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

The Department of Transportation (DOTr), Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board
(LTFRB), and the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) formulated a route
planning course as part of the capacity building activities for the PUV Modernization Program.

The Local Public Transportation Route Planning and Management (LPTRPM) Course for LGUs is
designed to help local officials prepare their Local Public Transport Route Plans (LPTRP) as a pre-
requisite for the opening of PUV franchises within their respective areas. It is one of the main
components of the route rationalization program, which is aimed to guide LGUs in determining the
appropriate public transportation routes within its locality, based on passenger demand and
corresponding public transport services. Currently, the LPTRP manual contains the list and map of
existing and proposed public transportation routes, and proposed transportation facilities.

Source: Local Public Transport Route Planning Presentation by UP Diliman

LPTRP is basically a detailed plan route network with specific modes of transportation and
required number of units per mode for delivering land transport services. This is the basis now in
the minimum requirement prescribed for the issuance of PUV franchises. We integrate the local
transport masterplan or even the comprehensive land use plan (CLUP) and comprehensive
development plan (CDP) of LGUs.

Also, the LPTRP envisions to make the routes more responsive to demand, since LGUs now have
the authority to propose routes based on local demands. It also envisions to assign appropriate
vehicle types depending on demand, road hierarchy, and configuration. LGUs need to come up
with evidence-based recommendations and plans since we also have prescribed passenger per
hour per direction for each specific mode of transportation. So an LGU cannot just propose without
evidence based on passenger demand and plan public transport reforms, considering the local
situation and goals.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Source: Local Public Transport Route Planning Presentation by UP Diliman

Policy Issuances
DOTr Department Order 2017-11. Omnibus Guidelines on the Planning and Identification of Public
Road Transportation Services and Franchise Issuance
 Section 3. The Local Public Transport Route Plan shall be the minimum requirement
prescribed for the issuance of Public Utility Vehicle (PUV) franchises. This shall form part of
the Local Transport Master Plan (LTMP) which relates land use to transport modes and
provides measures for traffic management. 8
 Section 4.1. The LPTRP shall include the following: List and map of existing public
transportation routes, List and map of proposed routes, Estimated existing and forecasted
passenger demand for each proposed route, and Inventory of available transport facilities.
 Section 4.2. All LPTRP submitted by LGUs shall be consistent with the LGU's respective
plans embodied in their Comprehensive Development Plan (DCP), Comprehensive Land
Use Plan (CLUP), Zoning Ordinance and Zoning Map.

DOTr-DILG Joint Memorandum Circular No. 001 Series of 2017. Guidelines on the Preparation
and Issuance of Local Ordinances, Orders, Rules and Regulations Concerning the Local Public
Transport Route Plan (LPTRP)
 Section 4 (c). LGUs shall prepare their respective LPTRPs based on and/or consistent with
the Manual prescribed in this JMC and submit the same to the LTFRB for review, copy
furnished the DILG, within six (6) months from the formal notice of the DOTr.
 Section 4 (d) (iv). An approved LPTRP shall be one of the bases for the prioritization of the
road transport network development projects of the government.
 Section 4 (f). The LPTRP shall be revised at least once every three years after the last
approval.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

References
 Garber, N. & Hoel, L. (2001).Highway and Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing,
27-33.
 Kutz, M. (2004). Handbook of Transportation Engineering. McGraw-Hill Handbooks, 121.
 Cascetta, E. (2001). Trasportation Systems Engineering: Theory and Methods. Springer
Science Business Media, 2.
 Rodrigue, J. (2022). The Transport System. Transport Geography. Retrieved from
https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-
system-overview/
 Rodrigue, J. (2022). Core Components of Transportation. Transport Geography. Retrieved
from https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-
components-transportation/
 Philippines Transport Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map. Asian Development
Bank. Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-
document/33700/files/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf
 Local Public Transport Route Planning. UP Diliman. Retrieved from
http://ncts.upd.edu.ph/tssp/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Joemier-PontaweLPTRP_RTD-
9
TSSP.pdf

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING CONCEPTS

TERM PAPER

Submitted by:

GROUP 3
ALEGARBES, GERARD NIÑO
ANDIT, CRISSA MAE
BALIQUIG, MARY LEEGIN
EMPINADO DANICA
PADICA, JOVERLY
SANTILLAN, KAYE ANGELIE
SUICO, MARY PEACH
TAHIL, NIÑO

Submitted to:

ENGR. JUNE CARLO S. ENCABO

Instructor
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Table of Contents

I. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
II. Urban Transport Planning ........................................................................ 1
i. Inventory of Existing Travel and Facilities ...................................................................... 3
ii. Establishment of Goals and Objectives .......................................................................... 3
iii. Generation of Alternatives .............................................................................................. 3
iv. Estimation of Project Cost and Travel Demand .............................................................. 3
v. Evaluation of Alternatives ............................................................................................... 4
vi. Choice of Projects .......................................................................................................... 4
III. Problems of Urban Transport ................................................................... 4
i. Traffic Movement and Congestion ................................................................................. 5
ii. Public Transport Crowding ............................................................................................. 5
iii. Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport ...................................................................... 5
iv. Difficulties for Pedestrians ............................................................................................. 5
v. Parking Difficulties ......................................................................................................... 5
vi. Environmental Impact .................................................................................................... 5
vii. Traffic Noise ................................................................................................................... 6
IV. Relationship of Land Use and Transportation ........................................ 6
V. Application of Land Use in Transport Planning Process ....................... 7
i. Assessment of Integrated Environmental Strategies for Metro Manila ........................... 8
VI. References ................................................................................................. 9

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

I. Introduction
In response to the expanding city area and the complexity of urban transportation issues,
a thorough urban transportation planning process was added. This process provided guidelines
for managing urban transportation and guaranteed that the necessary transportation
infrastructure would be available for upcoming land development.

Urban transportation planning involves the evaluation and selection of highway or transit
facilities to serve present and future land uses. For example, the construction of a new
shopping center, airport, or convention center will require additional transportation services.
Also, new residential development, office space, and industrial parks will generate additional
traffic, requiring the creation or expansion of roads and transit services.

Urban transportation planning is concerned with two separate time horizons. The first is a
short-term emphasis intended to select projects that can be implemented within a one- to three-
year period. These projects are designed to provide better management of existing facilities by
making them as efficient as possible. The second time horizon deals with the long-range
transportation needs of an area and identifies the projects to be constructed over a 20-year
period.

II. Urban Transportation Planning

The aim of urban transport planning is to generate alternatives for improving transportation
system to meet future demand and selecting the best alternative after proper evaluation.

Short-term projects involve programs such as traffic signal timing to improve flow, car and
van pooling to reduce congestion, park-and-ride fringe parking lots to increase transit ridership,
and transit improvements. Long-term projects involve programs such as adding new highway
elements, additional bus lines or freeway lanes, rapid transit systems and extensions, or access
roads to airports or shopping malls.

The urban transportation planning process can be carried out in terms of the procedures
outlined previously and is usually described as follows. Figure 2.1 illustrates the comprehensive
urban area transportation planning process.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Figure 2.1 Comprehensive Urban Area Transportation Planning Process

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

i. Inventory of Existing Travel and Facilities

This is the data-gathering activity in which urban travel characteristics are described
for each defined geographic unit or traffic zone within the study area. Inventories and surveys
are made to determine traffic volumes, land uses, origins and destinations of travelers,
population, employment, and economic activity. Inventories are made of existing
transportation facilities, both highway and transit. Capacity, speed, travel time, and traffic
volume are determined. The information gathered is summarized by geographic areas called
traffic analysis zones (TAZ).

ii. Establishment of Goals and Objectives

The urban transportation study is carried out to develop a program of highway and
transit projects that should be completed in the future. Thus, a statement of goals, objectives,
and standards is prepared that identifies deficiencies in the existing system, desired
improvements, and what is to be achieved by the transportation improvements.

iii. Generation of Alternatives

In this phase of the urban transportation planning process, the alternatives to be
analyzed will be identified. It also may be necessary to analyze the travel effects of different
land-use plans and to consider various lifestyle scenarios. The options available to the urban
transportation planner include various technologies, network configurations, vehicles,
operating policies, and organizational arrangements.

iv. Estimation of Project Cost and Travel Demand

This activity in the urban transportation planning process involves two separate tasks.
The first is to determine the project cost, and the second is to estimate the amount of traffic
expected in the future. The estimation of facility cost is relatively straightforward, whereas the
estimation of future traffic flows is a complex undertaking requiring the use of mathematical
models and computers.

1. Planning-Level Cost Estimation

Project cost estimation at the planning stage may be hampered either because the
project has not yet been well-defined or because a significant amount of time has passed
since the project’s cost was estimated, rendering the older estimate out of date. To
address the first problem, many transportation agencies maintain a set of unit costs which
allows for a quick determination in the absence of more detailed data.

2. Planning-Level Demand Estimation

Future travel is determined by forecasting future land use in terms of the economic
activity and population that the land use in each TAZ will produce. With the land-use
forecasts established in terms of number of jobs, residents, auto ownership, income, and
so forth, the traffic that this land use will add to the highway and transit facility can be
determined. This is carried out in a four-step process that includes the determination of
the number of trips generated, the origin and destination of trips, the mode of
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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

transportation used by each trip (for example, auto, bus, rail), and the route taken by each
trip. The urban traffic forecasting process thus involves four distinct activities: trip
generation, trip distribution, modal split, and trip/network assignment.

• Trip generation – based on production and attraction factors

• Trip distribution – growth factor models and synthetic (gravity) models
• Modal split – choice of mode
• Trip assignment – which route? (Leading to future capacity analysis of roads)

v. Evaluation of Alternatives
This phase of the process is similar in concept to what was described earlier but can
be complex in practice because of the conflicting objectives and diverse groups that will be
affected by an urban transportation project.

Among the groups that could be affected are the traveling public (user), the highway
or transit agencies (operator), and the non-traveling public (community). Each of these
groups will have different objectives and viewpoints concerning how well the system
performs. The traveling public wants to improve speed, safety, and comfort; the transportation
agency wishes to minimize cost; and the community wants to preserve its lifestyle and
improve or minimize environmental impacts.

vi. Choice of Project

Selection of a project will be based on a process that will ultimately involve elected
officials and the public. In other cases, a vote by a state legislature may be required before
funds are committed. A multiyear program then will be produced that outlines the projects to
be carried out over the next 20 years. With approval in hand, the project can proceed to the
specification and construction phase.

III. Problems of Urban Transport

Figure 3.1 The Seven Facets of the Urban Transport Problem

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

i. Traffic Movement and Congestion

Traffic congestion occurs when urban transport networks are no longer capable of
accommodating the volume of movements that use them. The location of congested areas is
determined by the physical transport framework and by the patterns of urban land use and
their associated trip-generating activities. Levels of traffic overloading vary in time, with a very
well-marked peak during the daily journey-to-work periods.

ii. Public Transport Crowding

The ‘person congestion’ occurring inside public transport vehicles at such peak times
adds insult to injury, sometimes literally. A very high proportion of the day’s journeys are
made under conditions of peak-hour loading, during which there will be lengthy queues at
stops, crowding at terminals, stairways and ticket offices, and excessively long periods of hot
and claustrophobic travel jammed in overcrowded vehicles.

iii. Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport

If public transport operators provide sufficient vehicles to meet peak-hour demand,

there will be insufficient patronage off-peak to keep them economically employed. If on the
other hand they tailor fleet size to the off-peak demand, the vehicles would be so
overwhelmed during the peak that the service would most likely break down.

iv. Difficulties for Pedestrians

Pedestrians form the largest category of traffic accident victims. Attempts to increase
their safety have usually failed to deal with the source of the problem (i.e., traffic speed and
volume) and instead have concentrated on restricting movement on foot. Needless to say
this worsens the pedestrian’s environment, making large areas ‘off-limits’ and forcing walkers
to use footbridges and underpasses, which are inadequately cleaned or policed. Additionally,
there is obstruction by parked cars and the increasing pollution of the urban environment,
with traffic noise and exhaust fumes affecting most directly those on feet.

v. Parking Difficulties

Public transport is slowed by clogged streets and movement on foot in anything like
a straight line becomes impossible. The provision of adequate car parking space within or
on the margins of central business districts (CBDs) for city workers and shoppers is a
problem that has serious implications for land use planning.

vi. Environmental Impact

The operation of motor vehicles is a polluting activity. While there are innumerable
other activities which cause environmental pollution because of the tremendous increases in
vehicle ownership, society is only now beginning to appreciate the devastating and
dangerous consequences of motor vehicle usage. Pollution is not the only issue.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

vii. Traffic Noise

It is generally recognized that traffic noise is the major environment problem caused
by traffic in urban areas. Traffic noise is a serious problem in the central area of our towns
and cities and there are other environmental drawbacks brought about through trying to
accommodate increasing traffic volumes. The vast divergence between private and social
costs is one, which has so far been allowed to continue without any real check. Perhaps more
disturbing is that society is largely unaware of the longer-term effects of such action, and
while the motorcar is by no means the only culprit, it is a persistently obvious offender.

IV. Relationship of Land Use and Transportation

There is no way that land use can be discussed without also mentioning transportation,
as the two are interdependent and can be traced back to ancient times when patterns of
transportation routes were created via the use of ancient transport modes. Transportation
systems and land use patterns influence each other. Roads, transit, and other transportation
elements shape land development, while the distribution and types of land uses affect travel
patterns and transportation facilities.

Nevertheless, land use in a simple simplification is the appropriate classified usage of

available open space such that it meets the maximum wants of people either economically,
socially or in terms of aesthetics. Transportation on the other hand is the movement of people,
goods, and services from one region to another so as to meet human socio-economic means.

The objectives of an integrated land use and transport development strategy are to:
• Promote balanced spatial growth
• Minimize land requirements for transport
• Promote transit-oriented growth
• Reduce the need to travel
• Encourage walkable/cyclable neighborhoods

With the little introduction the following explanation explains factors that can influence
transportation in relationship to land use. Traffic volumes and choices of mode of travel are
influenced by the location, density, and mixture of land uses. Land use planning and
transportation infrastructure need to work together. Communities should plan for the future and
be aware of how their land use plans will affect the levels of traffic, appearance, and points of
congestion on highways.

Land use patterns also affect the utilization of transportation facilities. These interrelated
effects will occur regardless of whether city officials consider land use in determining their
transportation investments. Governments, developers, and citizens can work together to design
integrated land use and transportation plans that will help achieve a shared vision for the future.
Integrating land use and transportation more effectively can help shape priorities for
transportation investments and ensure that new transportation projects and land use plans
support and reinforce each other.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

V. Application of Land Use Plan in Transport Planning Process

Figure 5.1 Transportation – Land Use Interactions

Transportation and land use are part of a retroactive feedback system. Accessibility is shaped
by the structure, capacity, and connectivity of transportation infrastructure, which is not uniform.
Since accessibility differs, this attribute has an impact on land use, such as the location of new
activities, their expansion or densification. These changes will influence activity patterns in terms of
their distribution and level of transport demand. This change in the demand will shape the planning,
maintenance and upgrade of transportation infrastructure and services such as roads and public
transit. Again, these changes will further impact accessibility into a new cycle of interactions.

The interactions between transportation and land use are also part of a complex framework
that includes economic, political, demographic, and technological changes. Several characteristics
and processes have an influence on the dynamics between transportation and land use. Changes
in transportation technology, investment and service characteristics can alter overall accessibility
levels as well as the relative accessibility of different locations. The recent trend towards
digitalization is providing a new impetus to urban mobility such as on-demand services and the
availability of large amounts of information about the characteristics of urban travel. E-commerce by
itself is generating an entirely new set of patterns in urban freight distribution, particularly with home
deliveries.

Land use characteristics also affect activity patterns, such as zoning patterns and regulations,
the availability of land, public utilities, and telecommunication infrastructure. Of special importance
are the changes in trip generation, both for passenger and freight, which are influenced by economic
and demographic changes. Obviously, population growth is a vector for additional transportation
demand, but rising incomes as well. Trip patterns may change in a number of ways, such in terms
of the number of trips, the timing of trips, their origin or destination, the mode, and trip chaining.
These changes in travel demand exert considerable influence on the development of new
transportation infrastructure or services.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

i. Assessment of Integrated Environmental Strategies for Metro Manila

The modeling for the transportation demand covered Metro Manila and towns/cities of the
adjoining provinces of Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, and Laguna. The 1996 MMUTIS Study (JICA,
1999) established 265 traffic analysis zones for the 17 cities/towns of Metro Manila and 51
zones for the adjoining towns and cities. These zones were combined to form 98 traffic analysis
zones wherein 94 traffic analysis zones were constructed for Metro Manila and 4 other zones
corresponding to the 4 adjacent provinces, as shown in Figure 5.2. The objectives of this study
are to develop environmental strategies for Metro Manila for the reduction of air pollution and
evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies in terms of reduction in particulate matter emissions.

Figure 5.2. Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ) of Metro Manila

and Some Towns/Cities of the Adjoining Provinces

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Policy scenarios were developed based the review of past project studies and research
conducted by different local and international organizations. The scenarios aside from the business-
as-usual scenarios (BAU) can be generally classified into 3 categories based on a framework for
selecting instruments:
a) reducing vehicle-kilometers,
b) reducing fuel used per vehicle kilometer, and
c) reducing emissions per unit of fuel used.

Transportation demand modelling for the present and the future years requires a database of socio-
economic characteristics aggregated to the traffic analysis zones. The following socio-economic
characteristics were considered in the modelling:

• population
• employment by residence
• employment by workplace
• school attendance by residence
• school attendance by school
• car ownership

VI. References

Garber, N. J., & Hoel, L. A. (2008, June 4). Traffic & Highway Engineering, 4th Edition (4th
ed.). Cengage Learning.

Vergel, K. & Tiglao, N. & Tiglao, C. (2005). Assessment of integrated environmental strategies for
Metro Manila. J. East. Asia Soc. Transp. Stud. 6.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANDUSE AND TRANSPORTATION | Ashir Lanree - Academia.edu

Transportation-Land Use Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems (transportgeography.org)

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 9

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL DEMAND FORECASTING

(CLASSIC FOUR-STEP FORECASTING MODEL)

TERM PAPER | GROUP NO.4

Submitted by:

ALVAREZ, JAN MICHAEL

AMIT, MARIA FLORENCE
GUITGUITEN, STEPHEN JOHN
JAGMOC, GWENDINA
LEGASPI, ANGELA JANELLE
MONGKON, ELLA
REGUYA, SHANRAY JOHN
YPARRAGUIRRE, MARK ANGELO
BSCE-4

Submitted to:

ENGR. JUNE CARLO S. ENCABO

Instructor
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. FORECASTING TRAVEL DEMAND……………………………………………………….1

1.1 Demand Forecasting Approaches…………………...……………………..1
1.2 Factors Influencing Travel Demand…………………….…………………..1-2
1.3 Sequential Steps for Travel Forecasting…………..……………………….2

II. CLASSIC FOUR-STEP IN FORECASTING MODEL…………………………………….4

III. TRIP GENERATION……...………………………………………………………………….4

3.1 Cross-Classification………………………………………………………………….4
3.2 Rates Based on Activity Units………………………………….…………...5
3.3 Balancing Trip Productions and Attractions……………………………….7

IV. TRIP DISTRIBUTION………………………………………………………………………...7

4.1 Gravity Model………………………………………………………………………….8
4.2 Growth Factor Models………………………………………………………………..9

V. References……………………………………………………………………………………10

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

I. FORECASTING TRAVEL DEMAND

The number of individuals or vehicles anticipated to move on a given segment of a transportation
system per unit time under a given set of land-use, socioeconomic, and environmental factors
is referred to as travel demand. Travel demand forecasts are used to determine the vehicular
volume on future or modified transportation system alternatives. Forecasting travel demand can
be done in a variety of ways, ranging from a simple extrapolation of observed trends to an
advanced automated process that includes extensive data collection and mathematical
modeling.

The process of forecasting travel demand is both an art and a science. Decisions must be made
regarding the various parameters that serve as the foundation for a travel forecast, such as
population, car ownership, and so on. The methods used to forecast demand will be determined
by the availability of data as well as project-specific constraints such as funds and project
timelines.

1.1 Demand Forecasting Approaches

In transportation planning, there are two basic demand forecasting scenarios. The first is
concerned with urban travel demand studies, while the second is concerned with intercity
travel demand. When urban travel demand forecasts were first developed in the 1950s and
1960s, extensive databases were required to be created using home interviews and/or
roadside question and answer session surveys. The data gathered provided valuable
insights into the trip maker's characteristics, such as age, gender, income, auto possession,
and so on; the land use at each end of the trip; and the mode of travel. Travel data could
then be accumulated by zone and/or used more disaggregated level—
Specifically, household or individual—to develop relationships between variables and
calibrate models.

Data are generally aggregated to a greater extent in the intercity case than in the forecasting
urban travel, such as the population of the city, average city income, and travel time or cost
between city pairs. The formation of the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, now part of the
United States Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), greatly improved
the availability of travel data. Another encouraging development is the availability of data
from the Census Bureau's American Community Survey. This chapter describes the process
of forecasting urban travel. The underlying concepts can be applied to intercity travel demand
as well.

1.2 Factors Influencing Travel Demand

The three factors that influence the demand for urban travel are:

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

1) The location and intensity of land use

-The characteristics of land use are a major determinant of travel demand. The amount
of vehicular traffic generated by a parcel of land is determined by its use. Shopping malls,
residential complexes, and office buildings, for instance, develop various traffic patterns.

2) The socioeconomic characteristics of people living in the area

-The socioeconomic characteristics of the city's residents also impact transportation
demand. People's transportation choices are influenced by their lifestyles and values. A
residential area primarily populated by high-income workers, for example, will generate
more automobile trips per person than a residential area primarily populated by retirees.

3) The extent, cost, and quality of available transportation services

-The supply of transportation facilities and services, also known as the supply, influences
travel demand. Travelers are sensitive to the quality of service offered by substitute
transportation options. They consider factors such as travel time, cost, convenience,
comfort, and safety when deciding whether or not to travel at all.

1.3 Sequential Steps for Travel Forecasting

Travel forecasting is the sole responsibility of the transportation planner and is an essential
component of project planning and traffic engineering studies, as well as regional
transportation planning. This chapter introduces the topic and demonstrates how demand
forecasts can be determined by describing techniques that represent the state of the practice
for each task. The literature describes variations of each forecasting method.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

The most frequently used method for forecasting travel demand is based on land use and travel
characteristics, which serve as the foundation for the "four-step process" of trip generation, trip
distribution, modal choice, and traffic assignment depicted in Figure above. Simultaneous model
structures have also been utilized in practice, especially for intercity travel forecasting.

II. CLASSIC FOUR-STEPS FORECASTING MODEL

1. Trip Generation
2. Trip Distribution
3. Modal Split
4. Route/Traffic Assignment

III. TRIP GENERATION

The method for determining the number of trips that will start or finish in each traffic analysis
zone within a study area is known as trip generation. Trip ends are so-called because they are
determined without regard to destination. Each trip has two ends, which are defined in terms of
trip purpose, or whether the trips are produced by or drawn to a traffic zone. A home-to-work
trip, for example, would be considered to have a trip end generated in the home zone and allured
to the work zone.

Trip generation analysis has two functions:

(1) to develop a relationship between trip end production or attraction and land use

(2) to use the relationship to estimate the number of trips generated at some future date under a
new set of land use conditions

To illustrate the process, two methods are considered: cross-classification and rates based on activity
units. Another commonly used method is regression analysis, which has been applied to estimate both
productions and attractions. This method is used infrequently because it relies on zonal aggregated data.

3.1 Cross–Classification

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) devised the cross-classification method to count
the number of journeys that start or conclude at a particular residence. Home-based trip creation
can account for a sizable fraction of all journeys, making it a worthwhile asset. Establishing a
link between socioeconomic indicators and trip production is the first step. The two most often
utilized variables are average income and vehicle ownership. The fluctuation in the average
income within a zone is shown in Figure 3.1. The size of the household and its stage in the life

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

cycle are other factors that could be taken into account. The correlations are constructed using
income information and O-D survey findings.

Figure 3.1 Average Zonal Income versus Households in Income Category

SOURCE: Modified from Computer Programs for Urban Transportation Planning, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, D.C., April 1977.

3.2 Rates Based on Activity Units

The part that came before it showed how trip generation for residential zones where the
fundamental unit is the home is calculated. Household-generated travels are known as
productions, and they are drawn to zones for reasons including work, shopping, visiting
friends, and medical visits. As a result, metrics like the number of employees or square feet
of floor area may be used to represent an activity unit.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Trip Generation Characteristics

SOURCE: Trip Generation, 7th ed., Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C., 2003. www.ite.org.
Used with permission

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

3.3 Balancing Trip Productions and Attractions

The number of trip producers and trip attractions may not be equal as a result of the trip creation
process. Trip attractions are thought to be less accurate than trip productions, which are based on
census data. As a result, modifications are typically made to trip attractions to make them
comparable to trip performances.

The modifications are shown in Table 12.8a. For zones 1 through 3, the trip development process has
generated 600 home-based work products. However, the identical procedure resulted in 800 home-
based employment opportunities. Each attraction value for zones 1 through 3 is decreased by a factor
equal to 600/800, or 0.75, to correct this imbalance. The outcome is displayed in Table 12.8a's
"Balanced HBW Trips" column. As a result, both productions and attractions are now equal. Similar
steps are taken for excursions on HBO.

IV.TRIP DISTRIBUTION
Trip distribution is the process through which trips produced in one zone in the research area are
distributed to other zones. These journeys might be inside the research region (internal-internal) or
exterior to the study area (internal-external). Additionally, internal-external journeys that have one end
inside the study area and the other outside are taken into account by the trip distribution method (or
vice versa). a research area.

There are a few fundamental ways to distribute trips. These include the growth factor models, the
gravity model, and the intervening opportunities. The gravity model is recommended because it takes
into account both the peculiarities of land use and transportation systems and has been carefully

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

calibrated for numerous metropolitan regions. The gravity theory has almost universally been adopted
because of its accuracy, simplicity, and endorsement from the United States. Office of Transportation.
The origin-destination matrix for the base (or current) year must be known in order for growth factor
models, which were more extensively employed in the 1950s and 1960s, to be accurate. finish each
zone. Other models, such as the intervening opportunities model. Although there exist, models, they
are not frequently employed in real-world situations.

4.2 Gravity Model

The gravity model, which states that the number of trips between two zones is directly proportional
to the number of trip attractions generated by the zone of destination and inversely proportional to
a function of time of travel between the two zones, is the most commonly used and well-documented
trip distribution model.

Mathematically, the gravity model is expressed as

Where :
Tij = number of trips that are produced in zone i and attracted to zone j
Pi= total number of trips produced in zone i
Aj = number of trips attracted to zone j
Fij = a value which is an inverse function of travel time
Kij=socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij

The trip generating method has established the Pi and Aj values. There must be equality between the
sums of Pi and Aj throughout all zones. When the predicted trip interchange needs to be changed to
ensure that it agrees with the observed trip interchange, Kij values are employed.

The trip generation values as assessed by the O-D survey are dispersed using the gravity model in
order to calibrate the values for Fij. The proportion of trips in each trip length category generated by the
gravity model is compared with the percentage of trips reported in the O-D survey after each distribution
procedure is complete. If the percentages don't match, the Fij variables that were applied throughout
the distribution process are changed, and a new gravity model trip distribution is carried out. Up till the
trip duration percentages agree, the calibration process is repeated.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Calibration of F Factors

SOURCE: Modified from Computer Programs for Urban Transportation Planning, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, D.C., April 1

3.1 Growth Factor Models

The origins and destinations between each zone for the current or base year and the trip generation
values for each zone for the next year are the only data that can be used to compute trip dispersion.
This approach was frequently employed when O-D data were available but the gravity model and F
factor calibrations were not yet operational. The main application of growth factor models is trip
distribution. zones in cities outside the research region and zones inside the study area. They can't
be used to anticipate traffic between zones where there isn't any traffic right now since they rely on
an existing O-D matrix. Furthermore, the amount of current travel is the sole indicator of trip friction.

The Fratar technique, which uses a mathematical formula to proportion future trip generation
estimates to each zone as a function of the sum of existing trips between the two zones Tij and the
growth factor of the attractive zone Gj, is the most often used growth factor model. Thus,

Where:
Tij = number of trips estimated from zone Ti = tiGi = future trip generation in zone i
i to zone j
tix = number of trips between zone i and other zones x
Ti = present trip generation in zone i
tij = present trips between zone i and zone j
Gx = growth factor of zone x
Gj = growth factor of zone j
CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

V.REFERENCES
Garber, N.J., & Hoel, L. A., & University of Virginia. (2009). Traffic and Highway Engineering (4th
Edition). Cengage Learning

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

MODAL SPLIT AND ROUTE/TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT

TERMPAPER_NO.1

Submitted by: GROUP 5

AGUIPO, PHILIP ANTHONY

DALIDIG, NAJIER
CATAYAS, IZZA MAE
DORICO, FRANCIS ADRIAN
MALINAO, LORNLYHN
MIÑAO, MELVIN
SAAC, BRYAN CARL

BSCE-4

Submitted to:

ENGR. JUNE CARLO S. ENCABO

Instructor

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Four-step forecasting model

II. Modal Split

A. Characteristics influencing modal split/mode choice

1. Characteristics of the trip maker
2. . Characteristics of the journey
3. Characteristics of the transport facility
B. Types of modal split models
1. Trip-end modal split models
2. Trip-interchange modal split models
3. Aggregate and disaggregate models

III. Route/Traffic Assignment

A. Several basic methods are used for trip distribution

B. Basic Approaches
1. Diversion Curves
2. Minimum Path Algorithm
3. Capacity Restraint
3.1 Total System Cost Assignment

IV. Reference

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

I. FOUR-STEP FORECASTING MODEL

1 TRIP GENERATION

2 TRIP DISTRIBUTION

3 MODAL SPLIT

4 ROUTE/TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

II. MODAL SPLIT/MODE CHOICE

The third stage in travel demand modeling is modal split.

The choice of transport mode is probably one of the most important classic models in
transport planning. This is because of the key role played by public transport in policy making. Public
transport modes make use of road space more efficiently than private transport. Also they have
more social benefits like if more people begin to use public transport , there will be less congestion
on the roads and the accidents will be less. Again in public transport, we can travel with low cost. In
addition, the fuel is used more efficiently. Main characteristics of public transport is that they will
have some particular schedule, frequency etc.
On the other hand, private transport is highly flexible. It provides more comfortable and
convenient travel. It has better accessibility also. The issue of mode choice, therefore, is probably
the single most important element in transport planning and policy making. It affects the general
efficiency with which we can travel in urban areas. It is important then to develop and use models
which are sensitive to those travel attributes that influence individual choices of mode.
A model that is concerned with the trip-maker’s behavior regarding the selection of travel
mode. This model has both advantages and disadvantages for crime analysis. At a theoretical level,
it is the most developed of the four stages since there has been extensive research on travel mode
choice. For crime analysis, on the other hand, it represents the ‘weakest link’ in the analysis since
there is very little available information on travel mode by offenders. Since researchers cannot
interview the
general public in order to document crimes committed by respondents or, in most cases, even
interview offenders after they have been caught, there is very little information on travel mode by
offenders that has been collected.
Consequently, we have to depend on the existing theory of travel mode choice and
adapt it intuitively to crime data. The approach is solely theoretical and depends on the validity of
the existing theory and on the intuitiveness of guesses. Hopefully, in the future, there will be more
information collected that would allow the model to be calibrated against some real data. But, for
the time being, we are limited in what can be done.

A. CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING MODAL SPLIT/MODE CHOICE

1. Characteristics of the trip maker

retired, singles, etc.)

2. Characteristics of the journey

ake by

possible in the long run.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

3. Characteristics of the transport facility

Quantitative factors

Qualitative factors

B. Types of modal split models

1. Trip-end modal split models

Traditionally, the objective of transportation planning was to forecast the growth in demand for car
trips so that investment could be planned to meet the demand. When personal characteristics were
thought to be the most important determinants of mode choice, attempts were made to apply modal-
split models immediately after trip generation. Such a model is called trip-end modal split model. In
this way different characteristics of the person could be preserved and used to estimate modal split.
The modal split models of this time related the choice of mode only to features like income,
residential density and car ownership.
The advantage is that these models could be very accurate in the short run, if public transport is
available and there is little congestion. Limitation is that they are insensitive to policy decisions
example: Improving public transport, restricting parking etc. would have no effect on modal split
according to these trip-end models.

2. Trip-interchange modal split models

This is the post-distribution model; that is modal split is applied after the distribution stage. This has
the advantage that it is possible to include the characteristics of the journey and that of the
alternative modes available to undertake them. It is also possible to include policy decisions. This is
beneficial for long term modeling.

3. Aggregate and disaggregate models

Mode choice could be aggregate if they are based on zonal and inter-zonal information. They can
be called disaggregate if they are based on household or individual data.

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 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

III. ROUTE/TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT

The final step in the transportation forecasting process is to determine the actual street and
highway routes that will be used and the number of automobiles and buses that can be expected on
each highway segment. The procedure used to determine the expected traffic volumes is known as
traffic assignment. Since the numbers of trips by transit and auto that will travel between zones are
known from the previous steps in the process, each trip O-D can be assigned to a highway or transit
route. The sum of the results for each segment of the system results in a forecast of the average
daily or peak hour traffic volumes that will occur on the urban transportation system that serves the
study area.
To carry out a trip assignment, the following data are required: number of trips that will be
made from one zone to another (this information was determined in the trip distribution phase),
available highway or transit routes between zones, how long it will take to travel on each route, a
decision rule (or algorithm) that explains how motorists or transit users select a route, and external
trips that were not considered in the previous trip generation and distribution steps.

Trip distribution is a process by which the trips generated in one zone are allocated to other
zones in the study area. These trips may be within the study area (internal internal) or between the
study area and areas outside the study area (internal external).

A. Basic Approaches for Traffic Assignment

Three basic approaches can be used for traffic assignment purposes:

 diversion curves,
 minimum time path (all-or-nothing) assignment, and
 minimum time path with capacity restraint.

1. Diversion Curves

This method is similar in approach to a mode choice curve. The traffic between two
routes are determined as a function of relative travel time or cost.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

2. Minimum Path Algorithm

The traffic assignment process is illustrated using the minimum path algorithm. This method
is selected because it is commonly used, generally produces accurate results, and adequately
demonstrates the basic principles involved. The minimum time path method assigns all trips to those
links that comprise the shortest time path between the two zones. The minimum path assignment is
based on the theory that a motorist or transit user will select the quickest route between any O-D
pair. In other words, the traveler will always select the route that represents minimum travel time.
Thus, to determine which route that will be, it is necessary to find the shortest route from the zone
of origin to all other destination zones. The results can be depicted as a tree, referred to as a skim
tree. All trips from that zone are assigned to links on the skim tree. Each zone is represented by a
node in the network which represents the entire area being examined. To determine the minimum
path, a procedure is used that finds the shortest path without having to test all possible combinations.
The algorithm that will be used in the next example is to connect all nodes from the home
(originating) node and keep all paths as contenders until one path to the same node is a faster route
than others, at which juncture those links on the slower path are eliminated.

3. Capacity Restraint

A modification of the process just described is known as capacity restraint. The number of trips
assigned to each link is compared with the capacity of the link to determine the extent to which link
travel times have been increased by the additional volume placed on the formerly empty link. Using
relationships between volume and travel time (or speed), it is possible to recalculate the new link
travel time. A reassignment is then made based on these new values. The iteration process
continues until a balance is achieved, such that the link travel time based on the loaded volume
does not change with successive assignments.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

The speed–volume relationship most commonly used in computer programs was developed by the
U.S. Department of Transportation, and is depicted in Figure 2. It is called a link performance
function and expressed in the following formula:

The capacity restraint relationship given in previous Eq. can be generalized by allowing the
coefficients to be adjusted to corridor-specific or roadway-type, as follows.

One study of freeways and multilane highways found the parameters (as a function of free flow
speed) shown in Table 4. Alternatively, a traffic engineering study can be conducted for a specific
corridor and the model fitted to the collected speed and volume data to determine appropriate values
for a and b.

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

REFERENCE

https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/5/5_2021_06_06!12_27_33_AM.pdf
https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/5/5_2021_06_12!08_15_29_PM.pdf
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/205_lnTse/web/web.html#:~:text=4%20Types%20of%20modal
%20split%20models,-4.1%20Trip%2Dend
Kingsley E. Haynes (1984). Gravity and Spatial Interaction Models. SAGE Publications. pp. 9-13.
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/205_lnTse/web/web.html#:~:text=4%20Types%20of%20modal
%20split%20models,-4.1%20Trip%2Dend

CE 431- PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING