CHAPTER

10
Training and Doping in Sports
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completion of the chapter, students will learn and
will be able to know about the:
1. Concept and Principles of
Sports Training
2. Training Load: Over Load,
Adaptation, and Recovery
3. Concept of Doping and its
Disadvantages

Sports training is indispensable in the field of games and sports. In fact, without
appropriate training in the field of sports it is impossible to reach to the top
OSItion. Owing to this reason, sports training is widely used in this field.
ports training, directly or indirectly, aims at improving the personality of a
sportsperson, which ultimately helps in enhancing his/her sports performance.

1. MEANING AND CONCEPT OF SPORTS TRAINING

The word "Training' is not new; people have been using this word since archaic
period. Training means the process of preparation for some task. But in the field
of sports, our main task is fitness and conditioning for sports and games. It is
only due to this reason that this term is mostly used in sports and games. So, it
is called 'sports training'. The concepts of 'training and
sportsman's 'preparation'
eem to coincide, but are not identical.
Preparation broader both in volume
is
and content. In fact, preparation is a complex process and directly influences
the sportsperson's development and ensures the necessary degree of readiness
for success. This complex system includes: sports training,
sports competitions
(as a form of preparation), special nutrition, etc. Sports training is the main
component and the basic form of preparing the sportsperson. In other words.
t is a systematically planned preparation with the help of various exercises.
The content of sports training includes all the basic types of preparation of the
portsperson. Systematic training improves the athlete's fitness level. It is the
SS of his/her preparedness for achievements in the field ofsports. The physical
xercises which are used in training have a profound effect on the physical
development of an athlete.
TRAINING AND DOPING IN SPORTS 10.1
 exercises does not ensure further
systematic and regular use of physical
But the whieh a r e necessar
There nro other factors y
improvement in the performance,
rehabilitation treatments, use
a s special
for pertornance in sports such
good means of 1ssessment of
extra-competitions,
of supplementary, extra-training, factors, etc. So, in orda
pertormancecapacity, special nutrition, psychological a r e to be used alon
above-mentioned factors ong
to achieve the best results, all the
with physical exercise.
process all-round of
Sports training be understood as a specialised
must
sportspersons for
preparation of
physical strengthening aimed at the is a systematic and
performance in games and sports. Sports training duration. Sports
used for a longer
regular process, which is generally we want to get good results
should be based on scientific facts if
training on the results of
it should be based
in competition. If that is not possible,
successful practices
Definitions of Sports Training
to understand the meaning of sports
The following definitions may be helpful
training:
basic form of preparation of
According to Matwejew, "Sports training is the
sportsmen.
and controlled process
According to Martin, "Sports training is a planned
in which, for achieving a goal, changes in complex sports motor performance
of content, methods and
ability to act and behaviour are made through measures

organisation."
and a
According to Harre, "Sports training is based on scientific knowledge,
pedagogical process of sports perfection which, through systematic effect
on

psycho-physical performance ability and performance readiness, aims at leading

a sportsman to top level of performance."
Sports training is a systematic process with the objective of improving an

athlete's fitness in a selected activity. It is a long term process that is progressive

and recognises the individual athlete's needs and capabilities. Sports training
programmes use exercise or practice to develop the qualities required for
an

event.
So, it can be said that sports training is based on scientific principles. It helps
in preparing a sportsman for apex performance in sports competitions. Sports
training is a main element to get the highest achievement in sports. But, hignest
achievement cannot be achieved only through this training: other factors also
play major roles, But, it is a given fact that in preparing the sportsperso
basically for high level competitions, sports training plays an important role. All
other factors seem to be useless in its absence.

Principles of Sports Training

In fact, sports training is an intricate process of preparing sportspersons or
higher performances. The whole process does not depend only on successtu

10.2 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION=A

train practice
practice but on the
findings of sports medicine,
tra physiology., sports psychology, etc. The knowledge
exercise physi sports biomechanics,
exeoned sub-dis
mention from the
sub-disciplines of physical education has to be applied ahove
tice. The principles of sports into actual
ledge of these sub-disciplinestraining assist in the task of
pra
knowledge into practice. These applying the
waining serve as directIves for the coaches and principles of sports
sportspersons.
formulation of the training process, the important principles For the
of training
described below. are

1. The Principle of Continuity: According to this principle, training should

be a continuous process. There should not be
any break. In fact, there should
not be a long period of inactivity. It has been
observed that discontinuity of
training reduces the physiological capacities of
sportspersons. Along this.
the interval between two training sessions should be
maximum but not too
long.
2. The Principle of Overload: The principle of overload states that there
should be greater than normal load on the body as
required for training
adaptation to take place. It means that the training load should be
increased for improving the performance of sportspersons. The normal
training load cannot improve the performance. If the training load remains
static, the effectiveness of the load diminishes with the passage of time.
It can only maintain the achieved adaptation of load. It means that for
the continuous improvement of performance, the training load should be
increased after the adaptation of previous training load. For example, to
increase endurance, muscles must work for a longer period of time than
they used to.
3. The Principle of Individual Differences: According to this principle.
every sportsperson is different due to individual differences. Each
sportsperson's response to exercise or load will definitely vary. So, a
training programme should be modified to take individual differences into
following considerations.
(a) Large muscles heal slower than smaller muscles.
(6) Fast twitch muscle fibres recover quicker than slow twitch muscle fibres.
(c) Fast or explosive movements require more recovery time than slow
movements.
4. The Principle of General and Specific Preparation: For the
improvement of performance, both the general and specific preparations
are equally significant. General preparation serves as the base for specitie
preparation. As a matter of fact, the performance will be better if the
base is better. The general preparation increases the functional capacity
of all the body systems and organs. Specific preparation is then further
required to improve those systems and orgas on which the performance of
sportspersons directly depends. For example, the speed improved through
football.
running will also be beneficial in

TRAINING AND DOPING IN SPORTs 10.3

 to this principle, the overload
5. The Principle of Progression: According
overload is increased to0 rapicll.
should not be increased too rapidly. If the
Exercising above the ta racd
it may result in injury or muscle damage. get
of also makes us realise
progression
zone can be dangerous. The principle
The constant Overload can lead to
the need for proper rest and recovery.
exhaustion and injury.
This principle states that exercising
6. The Principle of Specificity: that art.
a certain part or component
of the body primarily develops
e x e r c i s e or skill, yo
It that to become better at a particular
means

must perform that exercise or

skill. For example, a runner should
swimming and a cyclist
trained by running, a swimmer by
get
by cycling. of an athlete
7. The Principle of Active Involvement: The performance
skill. The principle of active
is the result of athlete's efforts and coach's
the athlete
involvement means that for an effective training programme,
must participate actively and willingly.
and load
8. The Principle of Variety: Training is a long-term process
and recovery can become boring for both the athlete and the coach. So
a successful coach should build in variety
in the training programme to
maintain the interest and motivation of the athlete. Sometimes, change
and variety may be done by changing the nature of exercise, time of the

day of the session, training group and the environment.

9. The Principle of Warm-up and Cool Down: Warm-up through
low-intensity activity increases blood flow to the working muscles
and prepares them for high-intensity sports. Proper warm-up usually
increases the body temperature by one to two degrees. After training
cooling down helps in transferring blood from working muscles back
to vital organs of the body. It is also necessary for removing the
waste products.
10. The Principle of Rest and Recovery: We are well aware of the fact that
the body regenerates during rest and becomes better and stronger than
before. So the training programmes should be conceived in such a way that
there should be proper rest and interval between training activities.
11. The Principle of Ensuring Results: The apex aim of sports training is to
attain good results. It can be said that sports training's aim is to enable the
sportsperson to put up better pertormance in the competitions. Theretore
this principle aims at guaranteeing good performance and maintaining it
for longer period. However without implementation of other prineiples.
this principle cannot be applied. So, proper stress should be laid on the
implementation of other principles by the coach or physical educatin
teacher:
12. The Principle of Cyclicity: Sports training programmes are developea
through various training cycles such as macro cycle, meso eyele and micrO
cycle. Macro cycle is the longest eycle of training, the duration of which

HEALTH AND PHYSICAL

10.4 EDUCATION
 3 to 12 months approximately. Meso cycle is a training cycle for medium
duration and may be 3 to 6 weeks. Micro cycle is the shortest duration cycle
which may be for 3 to 10 days.

2. TRAINING LOAD: OVERLOAD, ADAPTATION AND REcoVERY

Meaning of Load
In the field of sports, load is known as training load. So, in that sense, a training
load is the work or exercise that a sportsperson performs in a training session. In
other words it can be said that training load is the psychological and physiological
demands put on the organism through movement resulting in improvement or
maintenance of performance capacity.

Meaning of Overload
During training phase of sportspersons or athletes, load is given to the players
according to their capacity. Whenever this training load goes beyond the
capacity of an individual, the physiological and psychological functions are
disturbed. However, this increased load does not affect the athlete l sportsperson
immediately. But if the administration of this over load continues for a longer
period, it decreases his/her performance. He/she may get fatigue, loss of interest
in sports, lose appetite and get injured. He/she may have lack of motivation and
sleep disorder.

Meanig of Adaptation
Adaptation is the process of long-term adjustment to a specific stimulus. In fact,
adaptation refers to your body's physiological response to training. When you do
new exercises or load your body in a different way, your body reacts by increasing
it's ability to cope with that new load. It generally takes four to six weeks for
your body to adapt to a training method. Adaptation occurs during the recovery
period after the training session is completed.
Meaning of Recovery
Recovery is to regain what was lost. Recovery is an essential part after exercise
or training load.
The Process of Stimulus-Recovery and Adaptation
Our body is made up of millions of very small hving cells. Each type of cell or
group of cells performs a different job. All the cells have the ability to adapt to
what is happening to the body. This general adaptation takes place inside the
body all the time. There is also an adaptation to the training for sport and games.
Training load is very significant is the field of sports training because it helps
to increase the sports performance. For improving the sports performance, the
training load has to be increased. Stagnation training load means stagnation in
performance. When a sportspersons' fitness is challenged by a new training load

TRAINING AND DOPING IN SPORTS 10.5

there is a response from the body. This response by the body 18 an adaptation
to the stimulus of the training load. The initial response is of fatigue. When tho
loading stops, there is a process of recovery from the fatigue and adaptation t
to
the training load.
The process of recovery and Overcompensation
Stimulus (Load) (adaptation)
adaptation returns the sportsperson
not just to his previous fitness
FrtnesSS
level but to an improved level. The
improved level of fitness is achieved
through the body's overcompensation
to the initial training load. So, Fatigue Recovery

overload causes fatigue, and recovery

and adaptation allow the body to Training too easy
overcompensate and reach improved Training adequate
level of fitness. Training too hard

If the training load is not much,

there is little or no compensation. If Effects of different training loads
the load is too much, it will cause the on sportsperson's recovery
sportsperson to have problems with
recovery and he may not return to the previous level of fitness. This condition
is caused by overtraining.
As a matter of fact, the main aim of training process is obviously enhanced
performance. However, to attain this aim is not so simple. In fact, it is actually
a process of intentionally repeating stimuli (exercise) which results in recovery
adaptation, while avoiding over-training.

3. CONCEPT AND CLASSIFICATION OF DOPING

Doping is not new to the people. In ancient Greece, there were specialists who
used to offer athletes nutritional ingredients in order to enhance their physical
performance. Those specialists may be compared to the current sports medicine
specialists. During the Olympic Games in the 3 BCE, the athletes tried to
increase their sports performance by taking mushrooms and opium. In 1 CE.
the Greek runners used to drink a herbal beverage to increase their strength
and become capable to run long distance races. Gladiators are also reported to
use various substances for enhancing strength. In the modern era, the use of
performance-enhancing substances and techniques by the top sportspersons
across the world has been a persistent issue in the world of sports for nearly
four decades. Since the beginning ofthe 21st century, many athletes have been
engaged in taking such substances. Some of them have been tested positive such
as Tim Montgomery, Marion Jones, swimmer Michael Phelps, etc.
EXTRA EDGE
A substance can be included on the "World Anti-Doping Code Prohibited List" if it meets two
of the three criteria: (1) it is performance enhancing (2) it violates the spirit the sports (3) it
is harmful to the athlete's health.

10.6 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION-XI

Concept of Doping

Doping
is the word used in the ficld of

sports,
to refer to the situation when
use prohibited substances
athletes
athl

or methods to unfairly
improve their
sporting performance. In general
1s the use of performance
terms, doping
enhancing substances or methods by
athletes to gain an advantage over
their competitors. In fact, some athletes
take illegal substances to enhance their
Substances that harm athletes-Doping
performance. This activity is known as
doping substance
Doping in sports is the deliberate or inadvertent use by an athlete of
a

or method banned by the International Olympic

Committee. In fact, the ban or
athletes from the unfair
prohibition on such substances is necessary to protect the
use prohibited substances
advantage which may be gained by those athletes who harmful side
or methods to enhance their performance and also from the possible
The following definitions
effects which these substances or methods can produce.
of doping may help in understanding its exact meaning
the use of
According to Olympic Committee, "Doping is
International

method or substance that might

harm the athlete, in a quest to gain a n
any
In fact, doping is the use
"

advantage, over his/her fellow competitors.

unfair
to enhance an athlete's physical
of prohibited substances or methods designed
or to mask the use of
such substances or methods during
or mental abilities
preparation for or participation in a sports competition.
as the
Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), "Doping defined
is
According to World
more of the anti-doping rule
violations set forth in Article 2.1
occurrence of one or
through Article 2.8 ofthe code."
of a prohibited (banned) substance, but
being the use
We often think of doping as
is also considered doping. In the code, doping is
breaking other anti-doping rules rules:
more of the following anti-doping
defined as the breaking of orne or
substance or method.
1. Presence of a prohibited
prohibited substance or method.
2. Use or attempt to use a

collection after being notified.

3. Refusing to submit sample
whereabouts after being notified.
4. Failure to file athlete's
control process.
5. Tampering with any part of the doping
substance or method.
5. Possession of a prohibited
method.
Trafficking a prohibited substance
or
7.
administer a prohibited substance or method
8. Administering or attempting to
to an athlete.

TRAINING AND DOPING IN SPORTs 10.7

n act, it 1s very clear that doping is not only using a prohibited substance
or
method to enhance the sports performance but breaking any one or more anti

doping rule/rules is also included under doping

Hence, it can be concluded that doping refers to the use of a performance
enhancing substance or method that is not approved by the law or violates the
World Anti-Doping Code.
EXTRA EDGE
Why do athletes use drugs?
There are various reasons why athletes use drugs in sport and sometimes there are multiple
reasons that contribute to an athlete's drug use in sports. These reasons are:
For performance enhancement
To self-treat untreated mental health issues
To deal with stress, such as pressure to perform
To overcome injuries
To overcome physical pain

Classification of Doping
Doping can be classified into the following two types.
A. Performance enhancing substances
B. Physical methods
Performance Enhancing Substances
1. Stimulants: Stimulants are related
to a group of drugs that enhance
alertness and physical activity
by
increasing heart and breathing rates
and the functions of the brain. Indeed
stimulants stimulate the body both
physically and mentally. They improve
the reaction time and reduce the
feeling of fatigue. They also increase
aggression. Amphetamines, cocaine,
ephedrine and adrafinil are commonly Performance enhancing dru8s
used stimulants by athletes. These are taken
orally, by nasal spray and by
injection.
2. Anabolic Steroids: Anabolic steroids stimulate the
help athletes to train harder and recover rapidly. By growth themuscles sze
of and
and strength, they enhance the performance in increasing muscle
sports. Drostanolone, metenolone
and oxandrolone are common anabolic steroids. These are taken orally or
by intramuscular injection.
3. Peptide Hormones: Peptide hormones are substances that are
hy produeced
glands in the body. These substances circulate in the blood. These
improve the growth of can
muscles, change the balance of other hormones and
inerease the production of red blood cells, which increases the ability o

10.8 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL

EDUCATION=A
 the blood to carry oxygen. These
hormones
competitions. Examples of such hormones are
are prohibited in and out of

hormones, insulin, etc. erthropoietin, human growth

4. Beta-2-Agonists: These drugs are generally used to treat asthma. So,
drug is found in asthma inhalers. These drugs relax the muscles that
surround the airway and opening of the air passages. Indeed, these drugs
allow more oxygen to reach the blood. Owing to the endurance that this
drug provides, athletes usually take such drugs to enhance the respiratory
function, increase their capacity for strenuous efforts and resistance and
shorten recovery time. These drugs also stimulate the will to win in sport
competition.
5. Narcotics: Narcotics are used to reduce or eliminate pain from injuries
or allow athletes to make persistent efforts for a longer time. If narcotics,
such as morphine, heroin, pethidine, etc., are used in order to ignore injury.
athletes obviously risk enduring further damage. These are also taken to
reduce anxiety, which may help in enhancing sports performance. These
drugs are usually taken during competition.
6. Diuretics: Though diuretics are not performance enhancing drugs, these
are used in sports to remove fluids from the body, particularly water
These are also taken to reduce weight rapidly as in weight lifting, boxing
wrestling, ete. These drugs are also taken to evade anti-doping tests
as these remove the traces of other doping substances from the body.
Examples of diuretics are dextran, diuretics, etc. These are taken by
athletes in and out of competitions.
These
7. Glucocorticosteroids: These drugs relieve fatigue and pain.
enhance tolerance for pain and prepare the athletes to continue the efforts.
chemicals that cause a
8. Cannabinoids: Cannabinoids are psychoactive
of relaxation. Examples of cannabinoids are hashish and marijuana.
feeling
Their use in competition is banned.
Physical Methods
Physical methods include blood doping, chemical and gene doping.
1. Blood Doping: Blood doping
is defined by World Anti-
Doping Agency (WADA) as
WORLD
the misuse of techniques or

substances to increase one's

red blood cell count. Usually
ANTI-DOPING
two units of athlete's blood
AGENCY
is taken some weeks prior to

competition. Then the blood is

when it is injected into
frozen until one or two days before the competition
blood
the athlete. This is known as autologous blood doping. Homologous
taken from a second person, straight
doping is the injection of fresh blood,

TRAINING AND DOPING IN SPORTS 10.9

 blood cells, the oxu
1nto the athlete. the number of red
By incrensing muscle enduranco
inereased, so the
carrying capacity to the muscles is
pertormanee,
Icreased which ultimately enhanees the sports

Use of artificial oxygen carriers is lso

asecond method of blood doping which
involves the use of artificial oxygen
carriers. Haemoglobin oxygen carriers
are chenicals or purified proteins which
have the ability to carry oxygen. These are
helpful in enhancing aerobic capacity.
2. Gene Doping: Gene doping is the
manipulation of cells or genes to
enhance the body's sports performance.
Modifying genes enables faster reaction Creating a drug-free environment
and increases physical strength. Gene
doping is based on the principles of gene therapy. The process of
gene doping is likely to be used by athletes in future in an attempt to
enhance the function of normal healthy cells. Gene therapy may play a
vital role in future in the growth and development of musculo-skeletal
structures. It will speed up the repair of the injuries of muscles, tendons
ligaments, etc.
Disadvantages of Doping
There are varied
disadvantages of different doping substances, but the general
disadvantages of various doping substances are given below:
1. Performance enhancing
drugs have a negative effect on health.
Doping substances create a potential, long term, negative effects on
health. Some of the substances can stunt child's
a as well as adolescent's
growth. Active use of doping creates a higher risk of liver or heart damage
and blood clotting. There may be
impotency
and difficultly in controlling emotions.
in men, issues with balding
2. Sportsmanship is reduced in the
presence of doping in sports. lf
doping is used in the field of sports, it will be a damage
Sports competition should be fun, build character and sportsmanship.
to
of honesty. People excel offer foundation
through fair play, ethics and team work. Doping
takes this away because there is no
3.
long termself-respect involved.
Doping can create an unfair playing field for the
set the stage for unfair
play putting athletes who are sport. Doping can
hormones at a disadvantage. not taking drugs
4. Medical supervision. It creates
situation where
a
usually operating outside medical sportspersons are
5. supervision.
Young athletes may be habitual of taking
may take drugs to enhance sports drugs. Young athletes
performance because professional
sportspersons who take drugs act as a role model for new athletes.
10.10 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION-XI
 A

10.11
TRAINING AND DOPING IN SPORTS