CE226

STRUCTURAL THEORY

General Concept on Structures - Imposed on the structure throughout its

lifetime
Types of Structures - Example: Self-weight of structural members
1. Mass Structures 3. Live Load
- A structure that is made by piling up of - Load caused by objects or people that could be
materials. moved or is not placed permanently in one
- Examples: Pyramids, Igloos, and Beaver Dams location.
2. Frame structures 4. Wind Load
- Structures having the combination of beam, 5. Earthquake Load
column, and slab to resist the lateral and 6. Soil Lateral Load
gravity loads. 7. Rain Load
- These structures are usually used to overcome 8. Flood Load
the large moments developing due the applied 9. Other Minimum Load
loading
3. Trusses Transformation from Area Load to Line Load to Point
- Structure that consists of two-force members Load
only where the members are organized so that
the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single
object.
4. Shell Structures
- A thin, curved plate structure shaped to
transmit applied forces by compressive,
tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane
of the surface.
5. Suspension Structures
- Structures with horizontal planes, such as
floors, supported by cables or hangers hung Equilibrium
from the parabolic sag of large, high-strength Equilibrium means forces are balanced, but not
steel cables. necessarily equal.
6. Vaulted Structures
- Structures usually having arches Basic Conditions of Equilibrium:
7. Geodesic Structures
- Similar to shell structures wherein shells are Translational Equilibrium
formed by Polygons. - The object or body experiences no linear
acceleration.
Types of Load Rotational Equilibrium
1. Combination of Loads - The object or body experiences no rotational
2. Dead Load acceleration (a component of torque)
If an object is in equilibrium, then resultant force and Frictionless Pin
moment acting on the object is equal to zero. or Hinge

For 2-Dimensional Structures, applicable equations of

equilibrium are:
∑ 𝐹𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 0
2
∑ 𝐹ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0 Rough Surface

∑ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0

Types of Supports

Fixed Support
2D Supports
Support Reaction Number of
Unknowns 3
Rollers

Short Cable

Rocker 1
Short Link

1
Collar on
Frictionless
Rod
Frictionless
Surface

1
Frictionless Pin
in Slot
 3D Supports Universal Joint
Support Reaction Number of
Unknowns 4
Ball

Fixed Support

Frictionless 1 Hinge and

Surface Bearing
Supporting
Radial Load
Only

Cable

Pin and Bracket

Roller on
Rough Surface

Hinge and
2
Bearing
Wheel on Rail Supporting
Axial Thrust
and Radial 5
Load

Rough Surface

3
Ball and Socket
Free Body Diagram

A graphical illustration used to visualize the applied

forces, movements, and resulting reactions on a body
in a given condition

Sign Conventions Stability and Determinacy of Structures

- Shear Structure is in stable equilibrium when small loads do
o Coming from the left, upward forces not cause large movements.
are positive while downward forces If the number of static equations = the number of
are negative unknowns, then the structure is statically determinate
o Coming from the right, upward forces
are negative while downward forces
are positive

Stability

If Degree of Indeterminacy, ie, turns out to be zero, the

structure is said to be determinate.

- Bending
A stable structure will support any conceivable system
o Coming from the left hand, all
of load, resisting these loads elastically and
clockwise moments are positive
immediately upon application. The strength of the
o Coming from the right, all counter-
member and the capacity of the support being
clockwise moments are positive
considered infinite.

If a structure is stable for a particular load system but

not for any conceivable load, it is considered to be
unstable.
- Axial
o Tensile axial forces are positive
o Compressive axial forces are negative

Principle of Superposition

States that for linear systems, the net response caused

by two or more inputs, is the sum of the inputs each
would have caused on its own
Beams and Frames be 0 as internal hinges do not resist moment
- Beam or rotation.
o A structural element that primarily 7. The start and end point of the diagrams would
resists loads applied laterally to the be equal to 0 since they are treated to be in
beam’s axis. It’s mode of deflection is equilibrium.
primarily by bending.
- Frame For beams, when you cut at a point within its span, the
o Are two-dimensional structures internal shear and moment would be present given
constructed with straight elements that:
connected together by rigid and/or - The cutting point is not an internal hinge; and
hinged connections. - The beam does not experience horizontally
*We assume that all beams and frames are two-dimensional structures applied load. If it does, internal shear, moment,
supporting in-plane loads that produce shear, moment, and possibly axial
forces, but no torsion and axial force would be revealed.

Shear and Moment Diagram

Shear is the internal force in a structural member

parallel to a certain cross section caused by applied
loads.
For frames, when you cut and isolate at a point within
Moment is a vector quantity that describes the force the frame, the internal shear, axial force, ad moment
causing a certain rotation to a certain axis. This is the would be present given that:
product of the applied force, F, and its perpendicular - The cutting point is not an internal hinge. If so,
distance to the point or axis of interest, d. (Also called moment at that point is 0.
the Lever Arm or Moment Arm).

Properties of a Shear and Moment Diagram

1. The change in shear between two points is
equal to the area in the load diagram between
two same points
2. The change in moment between two points is
equal to the area in the shear diagram between
two same points
3. The slope or ordinate of the curve of the shear
diagram is the load at that point
Typical Procedure
4. The slope or ordinate of the curve of the
1. Solve for reactions of the beam, or segment of
moment diagram is the shear at that point
the frame.
5. Generally, especially in simple span beams, the
2. Identify the degree of the loading.
maximum moment occurs at the point of zero
3. Draw the shear diagram based on the loading.
shear.
4. Draw the moment diagram based on the shear
6. At a point where an internal hinge could be
diagram.
located, the moment at that point is deemed to
Transformation of Loads in shear and moment o The members are connected together
diagram. by frictionless joints (or pins)
- It is known that the degree of the slope o External forces are subjected at the
increases as it goes from the load of the beam joints only
to the shear and moment diagram. o
- Degree Types of Truss
o dshear = dload + 1 - Simple
o dmoment = dshear + 1 OR dmoment = dload + 2 o Symmetrical and Determinate

Visual Representation of Degree Transformation of

Typical Loads

Load Shear Diagram Moment - Compound

Diagram o Combination of two (2) or more
Point Load Rectangular Triangular simply trusses by means of a link

Uniformly Triangular Parabolic, 2nd

Distributed degree
Load - Complex
o Neither simple nor compound

Triangular Parabolic, 2nd Parabolic, 3rd

Load degree degree

Trusses
Defined as a structure composed of rigid members
connected together in a way to enable it to resist
change in shape due to loads.

The main purpose of truss is to carry larger loads or

spans than any individual member (truss members)
can.

In order to determine the internal forces in each

member of the truss (individual members), the
following assumptions are made:
Zero Force Members Common Types of Roof Trusses

In a truss, they are members which do not have any

force in them.

Rules and Conditions:

o Case 1: At a Two Member Joint, If those
members are NOT parallel and there are no
other external loads (or reactions) at the joint,
then both of those members are zero force
members
▪ In the figure, Members AC and AB are
zero force members.
o Case 2: In a Three Member Joint, If two of those
members are parallel and there are no other
external loads (or reactions) at the joint, then
the member that is not parallel is a zero force
member.
▪ In the figure, Member BD is a zero
force member.

Common Type of Bridge Trusses

Influence Diagrams and Maxima / Minima 1.) The first method is done by assuming a unit
load (e.g. 1KN) at different positions or
Influence Diagrams on Beams intervals along the beam.
2.) The second method is carried out by applying
The positioning of the loads on a structure is essential
Müeller-Breslau Principle on the structure
in analyzing the critical shear, bending moment or
reaction. The Müeller-Breslau Principle states that the
influence function of a particular variable is
The response of a structure will expectedly vary proportional to the elastic curve function which can be
according to the point (or area) of application of the drawn by releasing the restraint on the particular
loads – in other words the load will be “moving” along variable and imposing a unit deformation in the
the structure. This response of the structure is limited direction of the variable provided no boundary
to an analysis of one section at a time. condition is violated.
The responses of the section as the load moves can be Radian - describes the plane angle subtended by a
graphically plotted along the structure. Such is called circular arc, as the length of the arc divided by the
the influence line/ diagram of that section. radius of the arc.
Influence diagrams are constructed to show the One radian - the angle subtended at the center of a
variation in the effect of a single moving unit load on circle by an arc that is equal in length to the radius of
some function at any section of a structure. the circle.
- may be regarded as deformation diagrams
when being drawn.

Once the influence line is constructed, we can use it to:

1. Determine where to place the live load on a
structure to maximize the force (shear, moment, etc.)
for which the influence line is drawn, and

2. Evaluate the magnitude of the force (represented by

the influence line) produced by the live load. Influence diagram of a simply supported beam

Influence diagrams can be used to determine the

varying effects of moving loads on the:

1. Reaction (at a support)

2. Shear (at a section) Influence Line for Ra:
3. Moment (at a section)
4. Member Forces/Stresses (on a truss)
*These particular influence diagrams are then termed functions.

Influence diagrams can be drawn using two ways. The

second one being a shortcut of the first:
Influence Line for Rb: Influence Line for Rb:

Influence Line for shear VC: Influence Line for shear VC:

Influence Line for MC:

Influence Line for MC:

Influence diagram of a beam with internal hinges

Influence diagram of a beam with overhangs

Influence Line for Ra:

Influence Line for reaction at F:
Influence Line for reaction at G: Since the truss members are affected only by the joint
loading, we can therefore obtain the ordinate values of
the influence line for a member by loading each joint
along the deck with a unit load.

Use of Influence Line and Maxima/Minima

Since the ordinate of an influence line represents the

Influence Line for shear VD: value of a certain function produced by a unit load, the
value produced by a concentrated load can be
established by multiplying the influence line ordinate
by the magnitude of the concentrated load.

Concentrated Load:
Influence Line for bending moment MD:
F = Load P * Ordinate of Diagram at that point

Uniform Load:

F = Load w * Area on influence line where w is loaded

Influence line for bending moment Mf:
This computation simply recognizes that the forces
created in an elastic structure are directly
proportional to the magnitude of the applied load.

If the influence line is positive in certain regions and

negative in others, the function represented by the
influence line reverses direction for certain positions
Influence Diagrams for Trusses
of the live load.

Cable and Arches

Cables and Arches Cables Subjected to Concentrated
Load

Cables are applied as structural elements in

suspension bridges, transmission lines, aerial
tramways, guy wires for high towers, etc.

For analysis, assume:

a) concentrated vertical loads on given vertical
lines, weight of cable is negligible,
Loading on the bridge deck is transmitted to stringers, b) cable is flexible, i.e., resistance to bending is
which in turn transmit the loading to floor beams and small,
then to the joints along the bottom chord of the truss.
 c) portions of cable between successive loads compressive forces will be resisted by the
may be treated as two force members arch.
Classical Methods
Cables Subjected to a Uniform Distributed Load - Could be used to solve for reaction forces of
indeterminate beams, frames, and trusses.
For Analysis, note that: - Could be used to solve for deflections, and
a) Weight of the cable is neglected. slopes depending on the method to be
b) Horizontal components of force at any point employed
along the cable remains constant. - In this course, 7 classical methods were
c) Maximum tension in the cable occurs when θ tackled
is maximum. o Double-Integration Method (DIM)
Catenary o Area-Moment Method (AMM)
• Any freely hanging cable or string assumes o Conjugate-Beam Method (CBM)
this shape, also called a chainette, if the body o Superposition Method (SPM)
is of uniform mass per unit of length and is o Slope-Deflection Method (SDM)
acted upon solely by gravity. o Three-Moment Equation (3ME)
• In physics and geometry, a catenary is the o Unit Load Method (ULM)
curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable Prismatic Beams
assumes under its own weight when - Consistent cross-section throughout the
supported only at its ends. structure
• The catenary curve has a U-like shape, Non-Prismatic Beams
superficially similar in appearance to a - Varying cross-section throughout the
parabolic arch, but it is not a parabola. structure
Arches
• A vertical curved structure that spans an
elevated space and may or may not support - 4 Cases
the weight above it, or in case of a horizontal o Abrupt change from span to span
arch like an arch dam, the hydrostatic
pressure against it.
• Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the
bending moments in long-span structures.
Essentially, an arch act as an inverted cable, so
it receives its load mainly in compression
although, because of its rigidity, it must also o Abrupt change within a span
resist some bending and shear depending
upon how it is loaded and shaped.
• In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape
and it is subjected to a uniform horizontally
distributed vertical load, then from the
analysis of cables it follows that only
 o Gradual Change - For non-prismatic sections, I will be a
denominator of the equations.
- Example: If segment has a section of 2EI, then
the denominator would be 2EI
- For homogenous sections, E can be taken as a
constant.
- Number of Segments would depend on
o EI
o Combination o Support
- Sign Conventions
o When moving from left to right,
clockwise actions create positive
moment. When moving from right to
left, counterclockwise actions create
positive moment

Double Integration Method (DIM)

- A procedure to establish the equations for

slope and deflection at points along the o Deflections are positive when upward
longitudinal axis (elastic curve) of a loaded o Sign of slopes is affected by where the
beam. origin is set
- The equations are derived by integrating the
differential equation of the elastic curve twice,
hence the name double integration
- Assumes that all deformations are produced
by moment Area-Moment Method (AMM)
- Shear deformations, which are typically less
than 1% of the flexural deformations in beams The AMM Method is dependent on the moment
of normal proportions, are not usually diagram.
included. For non-prismatic sections, modify first the moment
diagram before the application of the theorems.
EIy” = Moment Equation
EIy’ = Slope Equation 2 Theorems
EIy = Deflection Equation - Change in Slope
o The change in slope between two
Where E = Modulus of Elasticity points is equal to the area of the
I = 2nd moment of area or area moment diagram between two points
moment of inertia
 - Tangential Deviation
o The tangential deviation of a point on
the elastic curve from the tangent
drawn from any reference point is
equal to the moment of the area of the
moment diagram bounded by the two
points taken into consideration
The actual deflection and slope are the fictitious
moment and shear, respectively, with the moment
diagram as the new load.

*Where in tB/A, B is the point of interest while A is the starting point of the Transformation of Supports
tangent. Read as deviation of B with respect to A. o Simple Supports at ends*

- Sign Convention

o Restrained Beam

- For Gradual Beams,

o Use any mathematical method to
compute for the area of the modified
o Cantilever Beam
moment diagrams
o For this course (ONLY), each segment
Free end Free end
may be treated as trapezoidal for
expediency.

Conjugate Beam Method (CBM)

In this method, 2 beams are used: the Actual Beam,

o Continuous beam with internal hinge*
and the Conjugate Beam. The relationship between
the two are:
 • If the moment is on the right end of the
segment and it’s negative, it acts CW.

*Transformation of simple supports at ends of the beam is different from

transforming simple supports within the beam.

- Utilizes moment diagram of the actual beam to

simulate the loads of the conjugate beam

Super Position Method (SPM)

* 3ME transforms 3ME tr s fixed supports into an imaginary and considers
The total reaction/deflection/slope is the summation overlaps for multi-span beams.
of the reaction/deflection/slope due to a simplified
load assumed to be acting one at a time.

For non-prismatic sections, formulas and coefficients

of moment/shear/deflection should be available,
otherwise SPM cannot be used.

Use of FEM equations

Three Moment Equation (3ME)

The three-moment equation gives us the relation

between the moments between any three points in a
beam and their relative vertical distances or
deviations. This method is widely used in finding the
reactions in a continuous beam. For non-prismatic beams of:
1. gradual/varying sections, NOT APPLICABLE
3ME sign convention follows BENDING. 2. abrupt change on span-to-span basis,
• If the moment is on the left end of the segment APPLICABLE 3. abrupt change within a span,
and it’s positive, it acts CW. APPLICABLE provided that the conditions at
• If the moment is on the right end of the the middle part are known or given, i.e.,
segment and it’s positive, it acts CCW. deflection and moment.
• If the moment is on the left end of the segment
and it’s negative, it acts CCW
 Virtual Work Method (VWM)

Virtual work or Work-energy methods provide the

basis for several procedures used to calculate
displacements.

Slope Deflection Method (SDM) Work-energy lends itself to the computation of

deflections because the unknown displacements can
Relies on the use of the slope-deflection equation, be incorporated directly into the expression for work
which relates the rotation of an element to the total – the product of a force and a displacement.
moments at either end.
Winternal = Wexternal
Both rotation of the nodes at the ends of the element
and rigid body rotation of the entire element Virtual Internal Force * Real Internal Displacement =
Virtual External Force * Real External Displacement
Ultimate goal is to calculate the end moments for each
member. Internal Work that we consider are:
- Flexural Deformation
• Analysis: Based on joint rotation and condition 𝐿
and statics 𝑀𝑑𝑥
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∑ ∫
• Assumption: Members are rigid after 0 𝐸𝐼

deformation i.e. they are straight or 90 - Shear Deformation

𝐿 𝑉𝑣 𝑑𝑥
degrees 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∑ ∫
𝑄

• Convention: Counterclockwise end moments 0 𝐴′𝐺

are positive Clockwise rotation are positive - Torsional Deformation
𝐿 𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑥
𝑄
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∑ ∫
Moment Distribution Method (MDM) 0 𝐽𝐺

Modern techniques of designing continuous - Axial Deformation

𝐿 𝐹 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
structures are based on a method on successive 𝑃 𝑄
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∑ ∫
approximations popularized by Hardy Cross in 1932 0 𝐴𝐸

In this method, the results may be obtained to any - Deformation due to change in Temperature
desired degree or accuracy 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∑ 𝐹𝑄 ∝ ∆ 𝑇 𝐿

It is very simple and is being used even today for

preliminary analysis of small structures For Trusses, we consider:
- Axial Deformation
It is the analysis of continuous beams by distributing - Deformation due to change in Temperature
fixed end moments.
For Beams and Frames, we consider Flexural
Deformation
 Plastic Analysis
Sign Convention
- We follow the sign convention on bending Defined as the analysis in which the criterion for the
similarly to MDM. design of structures is the ultimate load. We can define
it as the analysis of inelastic material is studied
beyond the elastic limit (which can be observed in the
stress-strain diagram)

Number of Segments depend in:

- EI
- Loads
- Points of Interest

Plastic Analysis

Concepts in Designing Structures

𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 > 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

A method of analysis wherein loading is meant to

Allowable capacity should be greater than actual cause actual collapse to impend – resulting in extreme
stresses that the member experiences. deformations

Certain points (plastic hinges) in a structure reach

σallowable will depend on the cross-section and other yield point and consequently “redistribute” the
characteristics of the structural member. stresses to other parts of the structure that are yet to
experience yield point
𝑀𝑃
𝐹𝑦 =
𝑍 - Yield Point/Stress is also called
MP = Fy * Z elastic/proportionality limit beyond which
relatively permanent deformation occurs
MP = Allowable Moment
Only applicable to materials with appreciable
σactual will depend on the loads that would be placed on ductility.
the structure. Three methods could be used to solve
for the actual stresses: For plastic analysis, we use the Elastic-Perfectly
Plastic Condition or the idealized stress-strain
- Virtual Work Method, VWM diagram
- Equilibrium Method, EM
- Yield Line Method, YLM
 Plastic Hinge

- Hinge that would develop at any section at

which bending moment reaches the plastic
moment, MP, while the remainder of the beam
behaves elastically
- Plastic Moment, MP
o Internal moment that occurs beyond
yield moment producing full plasticity
in a member cross-section
- Yield Moment, My
o Internal moment that produces yield
stress in the outermost fibers of the
section

o in this diagram, it is seen that

deformation still occurs but does not
give additional strength/stress
capacity
- Assumptions - In this progressive stress diagram, as the
o Stress increases with strain until yield applied moment increases from its elastic
point and remains constant while section at yield point, the additional stress is
strain continues to increase (elastic- passed towards the other layers of the section
perfectly plastic condition) as the top-most and bottom-most fibers are
o Yield strength in tension is equal to already at their maximum level.
yield strength in compression - Plastic hinges do not permit a free rotation of
o Plastic section before remains plane the parts they join, unlike internal hinges, but
after bending resists this rotation with a constant moment of
o The structural member is homogenous magnitude MP
(or at least analyzed homogenously) - Can no longer resist additional moment at this
section.
- Three important concepts must be fully
Plastic Shape Factor
understood for plastic analysis: plastic hinges,
plastic shape factor, and collapse mechanisms - It is the ratio between Plastic Moment, MP, and
Yield Moment, MY.

𝑀𝑃 𝑍
𝑃𝑆𝐹 = =
𝑀𝑌 𝑆
 Recall: Beam Collapse Mechanisms (Uniformly Distributed
Loads)
𝑀𝑦 = 𝐹𝑌 ∗ 𝑆

𝑀𝑃 = 𝐹𝑌 ∗ 𝑍

Where:
𝐼
S = elastic section modulus =
𝑐

Z = plastic section modulus = ∑(𝐴 ∗ 𝑦)

Plastic Section Modulus is taken from the plastic section *Propped end is the end where the simple support is located.
after locating the Plastic Neutral Axis that divides the cross
section equally into two. Continuous beams are analyzed similarly to one-span
mechanisms. Each span is made to yield one at a time
Collapse Mechanism because the collapse of one span of the continuous
beam constitutes already non-serviceability of the
- Occurs in different modes as a result of whole beam.
unique combinations of possible plastic
hinges and real hinges When analyzing each span, continuous ends are
- Possible locations of plastic hinges considered as fixed ends and propped or roller-
o Under concentrated loads supported ends as real hinges
o At supports Three Methods
o Anywhere within a uniform load
- Generally, the plastic hinges form at points 1. Virtual Work Method
of maximum moment during elastic The external work done by deflecting structures is
deformation equal to the internal work absorbed by the plastic
hinge.
Beam Collapse Mechanisms (Point Loads)
External Work = Internal Work

P(Δ) = Moment(rotation)

2. Equilibrium Method

The use of equilibrium equations in solving for the

plastic moment.

3. Yield Line Method

The use of shear and moment diagram in solving for

the plastic moment.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

CABLE: FH = AX = CX = 154.50 kN

Solve for Vertical Forces

ΣMC = 0

Ay(30) – 154.5(6) -12(30)(15) = 0

The cable shown supports a girder which weighs Ay = 210.9 kN
12kN/m. Determine the tension in the cable at points A
and B. ΣFY = 0

Solution: 210.9 + Cy – 30(12) = 0

ΣMA = 0 Cy = 149.1 kN

𝑋−30 Forces:
-FH (12) + 12(x-30)( ) = 0 eq.1
2
AX = CX = 154.50 kN
ΣMC = 0 Ay = 210.9 kN
𝑋2 Cy = 149.1 kN
FH(6) – 12( ) = 0 eq.2
2
*Simplify
FH = 𝑥 2 Solve for the tension at A and C.

Substitute FH = 𝒙𝟐 to the first equation. TA = √Ax 2 + Ay 2

𝑋−30
−𝑥 2 (12) + 12(x-30)( ) TA = √154.52 + 210.92
2
*Simplify TA = 216.437 kN
-12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 2 − 360𝑥 + 5400 = 0
-6𝑥 2 − 360𝑥 + 5400 = 0 TC = √Cx 2 + Cy 2

Solve for x: TC = √154.52 + 149.12

x = 12.43 TC = 214.712 kN
Substitute x = 12.43 to the second equation. Summary of Answers:
(12.43)2
FH(6) – 12( )=0 TA = 216.437 kN
2
FH = 154.50 kN
TC = 214.712 kN
*Note that the horizontal forces in the cable are equal in magnitude.
 THREE MOMENT EQUATIONS:

SPAN 1:

1 1 1 1
A2ā2 = (20)(6) ( ) (6) − (20)(2) ( ) (2)
2 3 3 4
340
Get the SBM and Partial Moment Diagram A2ā2 = 3
340
6 6 6( )
MB (2) + 2MC(2) +MC + 6(2)
3
=0
*Simplify the equation
−170
3MB + 6MC = eq 2
3

Solving Simultaneously
−622
14MB +3MC = 3
eq 1
−170
3MB + 6MC = eq 2
3

MB = -14.32
MC = -2.2844

1 1 1 1 2 AB BA BC CB
A1ā1 = (68)(4)( 3)(4)- 3 (56)(4) (4) (4) − 12(2)(2)
2 SBR 11 17 16.667 3.333
248
A1ā1 = CR −14.32 14.32 (14.32 − 2.284) (14.32 − 2.284)
3
1 2 1 3 4 4 6 6
A1b̅ 1 = 2
(20)(6)( 3)(6)- 3 (20)(2)[((4) (2)) + 4]
500
ER 7.42 20.58 18.673 1.327
A1b̅ 1 = 3 VR 7.42 39.253 1.327
MA= 0 Summary of Answers:
248 500
4 4 6 1 6( ) 6( )
MA (1) + 2MB(1 + 2) +MC ( 2)+ 3
+ 3
=0 RA 7.42 kN
4(1) 6(2)
RB 39.253 kN
*Simplify the equation RC 1.327 kN
−622
14MB +3MC = eq 1 MC 2.284 kn-m (CW)
3
SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD Boundary Conditions:
MAB = 0
MBA + MBC = 0
θC = 0
MAB = 0
6.333 - 6θA- 3θB = 0 eq 1
MBA + MBC = 0
[-12.333 - 6θB- 3θA] + [12.222 - 8θB - 4θC]=

Compute for the FEM of each segment: *Simplify (Note that θC = 0)

FEMAB 7(4)2 12(2)(2(2) − 2) 6.333 kN-m -14θB - 3θA - 0.111 = 0 eq 2

−
12 (4)2

7(4)2 12(2)(2(2) − 2)
Solve simultaneously
FEMBA − −
-12.333 kN-m
12 (4)2
10(2)2(3(2)2 − 8(2)(6) + 6(6)2)
[- 6θA- 3θB = -6.333] eq 1
FEMBC 12.222 kN-m
12(6)2 [-14θB - 3θA = 0.111] eq 2
10(2)3(4(6) − 3(2) -3.333 kN-m
FEMCB
12(6)2 θA = 1.187
θB = -2.622
Formulate the SDM equations:
Substitute θA & θB to the moment equations:
2𝐸𝐼
MAB 6.333+( )(-2θA- θB)
4 MAB = 6.333 +3(-2(1.1866)-(-0.2622))
2𝐸𝐼 MBA = -12.333+3(-2(-0.2622)-(1.1866))
MBA -12.333+( )(-2θB- θA)
4
MBC = 12.222 + 4(-2(-0.2622)-0)
(2)2𝐸𝐼
MBC 12.222+( )(-2θB- θC) MCB = -3.333 + 4(-2(0)-(-0.2622))
6
(2)2𝐸𝐼
MCB -3.333+( )(-2θC- θB)
6
MAB = 0 kn-m
2𝐸𝐼 4𝐸𝐼 2𝐼 MBA = 14.3196 kn-m
*LCM of 4
& 6
= 6 (multiply it to the 𝐿
for easier computation)
MBC = 14.3196 kn-m
2𝐸𝐼 MCB = -2.2842 kn-m
(6) = 3
4

4𝐸𝐼
(6) = 4
6
Simplified SDM equations:

MAB 6.333 - 6θA- 3θB

MBA -12.333 - 6θB- 3θA

MBC 12.222 - 8θB - 4θC

MCB -3.333 - 8θC- 4θB
Get the SBM of the segments:

RA = 16.667 kN
RA = 11.000 kN RB = 3.333 kN
RB = 17.000 kN
Solve for the Reactions

AB BA BC CB
SBR 11 17 16.667 3.333
CR −14.3196 14.3196 (14.3196 − 2.2842) (14.3196 − 2.2842)
−
4 4 4 6
ER 7.4201 20.5799 18.6729 1.3270
VR 7.4201 39.2528 1.3270

Summary of Answers:

RA 7.4201 kN
RB 39.2528 kN
RC 1.3270 kN
MC 2.2842 kN-m (CW)
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD Perform the MDM operation:

Joint A B C
Member AB BA BC CB
k 0.250 0.250 0.333 0.333
DF 1.000 0.429 0.571 0.000
FEM 6.333 -12.333 12.222 -3.333
DM1 -6.333 0.047 0.063 0.000
CO 0.024 -3.167 0.000 0.032
DM2 -0.024 1.357 1.810 0.000
CO 0.679 -0.012 0.000 0.905
DM3 -0.679 0.005 0.007 0.000
CO 0.003 -0.339 0.000 0.003
Determine the Stiffness (K) of the segments: DM4 -0.003 0.145 0.194 0.000
CO 0.073 -0.001 0.000 0.097
*Member AB =BA
DM5 -0.073 0.001 0.001 0.000
𝐼 1
k= = 𝑜𝑟 0.25 CO 0.000 -0.036 0.000 0.000
4 4
DM6 0.000 0.016 0.021 0.000
*Member BC = CB
CO 0.008 0.000 0.000 0.010
2𝐼 2
k= = 6 or 0.333 DM7 -0.008 0.000 0.000 0.000
6
FM 0.000 -14.317 14.317 -2.286
Determine the DF at joints: Compute for the SBM of each segment
*DF = 1 for simple support at ends
*DF = 0 for fixed end support

Member AB = 1
0.25
Member BA = 0.25+0.333 = 0.4288
0.333
Member BC = 0.25+0.333 = 0.5711
Member CB = 0
RA = 11.000 kN
Compute for the FEM of each segment: RB = 17.000 kN

FEMAB 7(4)2 12(2)(2(2) − 2) 6.333 kN-m

−
12 (4)2

7(4)2 12(2)(2(2) − 2) -12.333 kN-m

FEMBA − −
12 (4)2
10(2)2(3(2)2 − 8(2)(6) + 6(6)2) 12.222 kN-m
FEMBC
12(6)2
10(2)3(4(6) − 3(2) -3.333 kN-m
FEMCB
12(6)2
RA = 16.667 kN
RB = 3.333 Kn
Solve for the Reactions

AB BA BC CB
SB 11 17 16.667 3.333
R
CR −14.317 14.317 (14.317 − 2.286) (14.317 − 2.286)
−
4 4 4 6
ER 7.421 20.5 18.672 1.328
79
VR 7.421 39.251 1.328

Summary of Answers:

RA 7.421 kN
RB 39.251 kN
RC 1.328 kN
MC 2.286 kN-m (CW)
SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD(SDM) FOR FRAME: Equations using the BCs:

MCD =0
200
+ 3(−2𝜃 − 𝜃𝐷)
3

200
6𝜃𝐶 + 3𝜃𝐷 = 3
(eq.1)

MD = -25
−200 50
3
+ 3(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐶) + 3
+ 2(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐴)

−3𝜃𝐶 − 10𝜃𝐷 − 2𝜃𝐴 = 25 (Eq.2)

FEM for each Segments:
MAD = 0
(50)(4)2 200
FEMCD = =
12 3 100
−2𝜃𝐷 − 4𝜃𝐴 = 3
(eq.3)
−(50)(4)2 −200
FEMCD = 12
= 3 Theta(𝜽) :
(75)(1)(2) 50
FEMDA = 32
= 3 −50
𝜃𝐴 =
9
(75)(1)(4) 100
FEMAD = 32
= 3
125
𝜃𝐶 =
9
SDM Equations:
−50
MCD =
200
+ 3(−2𝜃𝐶 − 𝜃𝐷) 𝜃𝐷 =
3 9
Substitute the 𝜽 to the equations:
−200
MDC = 3
+ 3(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐶)
−50 200
𝜃𝐴 = MCD = + 3(−2𝜃𝐶 − 𝜃𝐷)
3
50 9 −200
MDA = 3
+ 2(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐴) 125 MDC = 3 + 3(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐶)
𝜃𝐶 = 50
9 MDA = 3 + 2(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐴)
−100 −50
MDA = + 2(−2𝜃𝐴 − 𝜃𝐷) 𝜃𝐷 = −100
3
9 MDA = 3 + 2(−2𝜃𝐴 − 𝜃𝐷)
Boundary Conditions (BC):
MCD =0

MD = -25

MAD = 0
 200 Reactions:
MCD = 3
+ 3(−2𝜃𝐶 − 𝜃𝐷) Segment CD:
200 125 −50
MCD MCD = 3
+ 3[−2 ( 9 ) − ( 9 )]
C D
SBR 100 100
MCD = 0
CR −𝟕𝟓 −𝟕𝟓
−200 𝟓 𝟓
MDC = 3
+ 3(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐶) ER 81.25 81.25
MDC −200 −50 125 VR 81.25 kN -
MDC = 3
+ 3 [−2 ( 9 ) − ( 9 )]
MDC = -75 kn-m
RVC = 81.25 Kn
MDA =
50
+ 2(−2𝜃𝐷 − 𝜃𝐴) Segment AB:
3
50 −50 −50
MDA = + 2[−2 ( )−( )] B A
MDA 3 9 9
SBR 25 50
MDA = 50 kn-m CR 𝟓𝟎 −𝟓𝟎
𝟑 𝟑
MAD =
−100
+ 2(−2𝜃𝐴 − 𝜃𝐷) ER 41.667 33.333
3 VR - 33.333 kN
−100 −50 −50
MAD = 3
+ 2[−2 ( 9 ) − 𝜃 ( 9 )]
MAD
RHA = 33.333 Kn
MAD = 0
Solve for the other reactions using equilibrium equations:
Computation for the Reactions:
RHA 33.333 kN (rightwards)
*Solve for the SBR of each Segment in order to get the reactions: RVC 81.250 kN (upwards)

Segment CD: Σ Fx = 0
RHC+ RHA – 75 =0
RHC+ 33.333 – 75 =0

RCH = 41.667 kN

Σ Fy= 0
RVA- RVC - 50(5) = 0
Segment BA:
RVA - 81.25 - 50(5) = 0

RVA = 168.75 Kn

Summary of Answer:

RHA 33.333 kN (rightwards)

RVC 81.250 kN (upwards)
RCH 41.667 kN (rightwards)
RVA 168.75 kN (upwards)
MOMENT DISCTRIBUTION METHOD(MDM) FOR FRAME: DF = 1 for hinged or roller
DF = 0 for fixed end
*Σk jt = sum of stiffness of all members connected at the joint
3 3
DFCD = 3+2 = 5
2 2
DFDA = 3+2 = 5

Joint C = 1
Joint A = 1
*Since there is an overhang in the frame, transform it accordingly
Compute for the FEM:
(50)(4)2 200
FEMCD = 12
= 3

−(50)(4)2 −200
FEMCD = =
12 3

(75)(1)(2) 50
FEMDA = 32
= 3
(75)(1)(4) 100
FEMAD = 32
= 3

Perform the MDM operation:

Joint A B C
Compute for the stiffness of the members: Member AB BA BC CB
4𝐸𝐼 k 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
Absolute stiffness k = 𝐿 DF 1.00 0.60 0.40 1.00
𝐼
Relative stiffness k =𝐿 (constant E) FEM 66.67 -66.67 16.67 -33.33
DM1 -66.67 15.00 10.00 33.33
Member CD/DC :
CO 7.50 -33.33 16.67 5.00
𝐼 2𝐼 𝐼
k =𝐿 → k = 4 = DM2 -7.50 10.00 6.67 -5.00
2
CO 5.00 -3.75 -2.50 3.33
Member BA : DM3 -5.00 3.75 2.50 -3.33
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 CO 1.88 -2.50 -1.67 1.25
k =𝐿 → k =3 = 3
DM4 -1.88 2.50 1.67 -1.25
*Simplify the k CO 1.25 -0.94 -0.63 0.83
𝐼 6
KCD = 2 x 𝐼 = 3 DM5 -1.25 0.94 0.63 -0.83
CO 0.47 -0.63 -0.42 0.31
𝐼 6
KDA = x𝐼 =2 DM6 -0.47 0.63 0.42 -0.31
3
CO 0.31 -0.23 -0.16 0.21
Compute for the DF of the members: DM7 -0.31 0.23 0.16 -0.21
DF =
𝒌 FM 0.00 -75.00 50.00 0.00
𝜮𝒌 𝒋𝒕
Computation for the Reactions: Solve for the other reactions using equilibrium equations:
*Solve for the SBR of each Segment in order to get the
reactions:
Segment CD:

Segment BA:

RHA 33.333 kN (rightwards)

RVC 81.250 kN (upwards)
Reactions:
Segment CD: Σ Fx = 0
RHC+ RHA – 75 =0
RHC+ 33.333 – 75 =0
RCH = 41.667 kN
Σ Fy= 0
C D
SBR 100 100 RVA- RVC - 50(5) = 0
CR −𝟕𝟓 −𝟕𝟓 RVA - 81.25 - 50(5) = 0
𝟓 𝟓 RVA = 168.75 kN
ER 81.25 81.25
VR 81.25 kN -

RVC = 81.25 Kn Summary of Answer:

RHA 33.333 kN (rightwards)

RVC 81.250 kN (upwards)
RCH 41.667 kN (rightwards)
RVA 168.75 kN (upwards)

Segment AB:

B A
SBR 25 50
CR 𝟓𝟎 −𝟓𝟎
𝟑 𝟑
ER 41.667 33.333
VR - 33.333 kN

RHA = 33.333 Kn
 PLASTIC SHAPE FACTOR OF CIRCULAR SECTION
*You can also use the simplified formula
Determine the (a) elastic modulus section (b) plastic 4(𝑅)3
Z= (but this is less accurate.)
modulus section and (c) the plastic shape factor of the 3

given cross section, the yield strength is 250 MPa: 4(𝑅)3

Z= = 12348 mm3
3

Solve for the MP = (FY)(Z)

MP =(240 )(12348.444)
(a) MP =3087111 N-mm or 3.087 kN-m
*Using the simplified formula for Z

Solution: MP =(240 )(12348)

Recall that MP = (FY)(Z) (a) MP =3087000 N-mm or 3.087 kN-m

FY = 250 MPa Z= ? MY = (FY)(S)

Solve for the Z: 𝜋 (𝑟)4

I=
4
Z = ACYC + ATYT
I =152745.0202 mm2
YC =YT = center of gravity of the semicircle
152745.0202
S= 21

S = 7273.57 mm3
MY = (FY)(S)
MY = (240)( 7273.571)
(b) MY = 1745657.04 N-mm or 1.746 kN-m
4 (𝑟)
YC =YT = Mp
3(𝜋) PSF =
My
4 (21)
YC =YT = 3.087
3(𝜋) PSF = 1.746
YC =YT = 8.913 mm
(c) PSF = 1.768
Area:
AC =AT = Area of the semicircle
𝜋 (𝑅)2
AC =AT =
2
AC =AT = 692.721 mm2
Z = (692.721)( 8.913) + (692.721)( 8.913)
Z = 12348.444 mm3
PLASTIC SHAPE FACTOR OF HOLLOW RECTANGULAR Z2= 2[(120)(40)(180)] = 1.728x106 mm3
SECTION
Z3= 2[(200)(40)(100)] = 1.6x106 mm3
Determine the (a) elastic modulus section (b) plastic
modulus section and (c) the plastic shape factor of the
given cross section of a beam: [use 350 MPa as yield
strength and use kN-m as units for the (a) and (b)]

ΣZ = Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3
Z = 1.6x106 +1.728x106 + 1.6x106

Solution: Z = 4.928x106 mm3

1
My = (FY)(S) MP = (350)( 4.928x106 mm3)( 1x106 )
𝐼
S= (b) MP =1723.750 kN-m
𝐶
Mp
𝑏(ℎ)3 𝑏(ℎ)3 PSF =
I= - My
12 12
1723.750
200(400)3 120(320)3 PSF = 1293.180
I= –
12 12
(c) PSF = 1.333
I = 73896666.7 or 738.967x106
C = 200
738.967x106
S= 200

S = 3.6948 x106 mm3

1
My = (350)( 3.6948 x106)( 1x106 )

(a) My = 1293.180 kN-m

MP = (FY)(Z)
Z = Σ(A)(y)
Z1 = 2[(200)(40)(100)] =1.6x106 mm3
 PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE BEAM WITH POINT A=0
LOAD
3P 9P
B= (3) =
Using the cross-section previously, determine the P in 2 2
the given simply supported beam. 9P 1P
C= + (3) = 6P
2 2
1P 9P
D = 6P – (3) =
2 2
9P 3P
E= – (3) = 0
2 2

ΣMa = 0 (Cw+)
Rb(12) + P(3) + P(6) + P(9) Mp is attained at the highest point at C so we can assume
that Mc = Mp = C
18P 3P
Rb = = C = 6P
12 2
Mp = 1723.750 kN-m
*Since the beam is symmetrical Rb = Ra Mp = C
3P 1723.750 = 6P
Rb = Ra =
2
P = 287.292 Kn
 PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF HOLLOW RECTANGULAR
SECTION
Determine the Plastic Moment of the given beam with
this cross section, the yield strength is 250 MPa
(answer in N-mm)

Z1 = (A1)(y1)
36
Z1 = (36 x 50)( )
2
Z1 = 32400 mm3
Solution: Z2 = (A1)(y1)
14
Solve for the total area of the cross section: Z2 = (14 x 50)( )
2
Z2 = 4900 mm3
A = [(50)(90)] – [(30)(30)]
Z3 = (A3)(y3)
A = 3600 mm2 30
Z3 = (30 x 10 x 2)( 14 + 2 ) )
𝐴
= 1800 mm2 Z3 = 17400 mm3
2

Let the plastic neutral axis at a distance x from the top. Z4 = (A4)(y4)
10
Z4 = (10 x 50)( 44 + 2
))
50x = 1800 mm3
Z4 = 24500 mm3
x = 36 mm from the top
ΣZ = Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z4
Z = 32400 + 4900 + 17400 + 24500
Z = 79200 mm3
MP = (FY)(Z)
MP = (250)(79200)
MP =19800000 N-mm