HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM

PART 1:
NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
• Receiving sensory input
• Integrating information
• Controlling muscles and glands
• Maintaining homeostasis
• Establishing and maintaining mental activity

MAIN DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord.
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all the nervous tissue outside the CNS.
3. Sensory Division – conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS.
4. Motor Division – conducts action potentials to effector organs, such as muscles and glands.
5. Somatic Nervous System – transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
6. Autonomic Nervous System – transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and glands.
7. Enteric Nervous System – a special nervous system found only in the digestive tract.

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• NEURONS – receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit signals to other neurons or
effector organs.
• GLIAL CELLS – supportive cells of the CNS and PNS, meaning these cells do not conduct action
potentials. Instead, glial cells carry out different functions that enhance neuron function and
maintain normal conditions within nervous tissue.

1. NEURON
A neuron (nerve cell) has a:
• Cell Body – which contains a single nucleus.
• Dendrite – which is a cytoplasmic extension from the cell body, that usually receives
information from other neurons and transmits the information to the cell body.
• Axon – which is a single long cell process that leaves the cell body at the axon hillock
and conducts sensory signals to the CNS and motor signals away from the CNS.

STRUCTURAL TYPE OF NEURON

▪ Multipolar Neurons have many dendrites and a single axon.
Most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all motor neurons are
multipolar.

▪ Bipolar Neurons have two processes: one dendrite and one

axon.
Bipolar neurons are located in some sensory organs, such as in the
retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM
GLIAL CELLS
- Are the supportive cells of the CNS and PNS.
- Astrocytes serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS. Astrocytes can stimulate or inhibit the signaling
activity of nearby neurons and form the blood-brain barrier.
- Ependymal Cells line the cavities in the brain that contains cerebrospinal fluid.
- Microglial Cells act in an immune function in the CNS by removing bacteria and cell debris.
- Oligodendrocytes provide myelin to neurons in the CNS.
- Schwann Cells provide myelin to neurons in the PNS.

MYELIN SHEATH
▪ Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some neurons, those neurons
are termed, myelinated. The sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann
cells in the PNS.
▪ Myelin is an excellent insulator that prevents almost all ion movement across the cell membrane.
▪ Gaps in the myelin sheath, called Nodes of Ranvier, occur about every millimeter.
▪ Ion movement can occur at the Nodes of Ranvier.
▪ Myelination of an axon increases the speed and efficiency of Action Potential generation along
the axon.
▪ Multiple Sclerosis is a disease of the myelin sheath that causes loss of muscle function.

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

▪ The nervous tissue varies in color due to the abundance or absence of myelinated axons.
▪ Nervous tissue exists as gray matter and white matter:
Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, where there is very little myelin.
Center of spinal cord. Looks like letter H or a butterfly.
White matter consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color.
Outside of spinal cord that contains myelinated fibers.

MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
- Resting membrane potentials and action potentials occur in neurons. These potentials are mainly due
to differences in concentrations of ions across the membrane, membrane channels, and the sodium-
potassium pump.
- Membrane Channels include:
1. Leak Channels – are always open are and ions can “leak” across the membrane down their
concentration gradient. Because there are 50 to 100 times more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak
channels, the resting membrane has much greater permeability to K+ than to Na+; therefore, the K+ leak
channels have the greatest contribution to the resting membrane potential.

2. Gated Channels – are generally closed, but can be opened due to voltage or chemicals. Chemically
gated channels are opened by neurotransmitters or other chemicals, whereas voltage-gated channels
are opened by a change in membrane potential. When opened, the gated channels can change the
membrane potential and are thus responsible for the action potential.

SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
▪ The sodium-potassium pump compensates for the constant leakage of ions through leak channels.
▪ The sodium-potassium pump is required to maintain the greater concentration of Na+ outside the cell
membrane and K+ inside.
▪ The pump actively transports K+ into the cell and Na+ out of the cell.
▪ It is estimated that the sodium-potassium pump consumes 25% of all the ATP in a typical cell and 70%
of the ATP in a neuron.
▪ The Sodium-Potassium Pump assists in restoring the Resting Membrane Potential.

ACTION POTENTIAL
• Action potentials allow conductivity along nerve or muscle membrane, similar to electricity going
along an electrical wire.
• The channels responsible for the action potential are voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels, which
are closed during rest (resting membrane potential).
• When a stimulus is applied to the nerve cell, following neurotransmitter activation of chemically
gated channels, Na+ channels open very briefly, and Na+ diffuses quickly into the cell.
• This movement of Na+, which is called a local current, causes the inside of the cell membrane to
become positive, a change called Depolarization.
• If depolarization is not strong enough, the Na+ channels close again, and the local potential
disappears without being conducted along the nerve cell membrane.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM
• If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters the cell so that the
local potential reaches a Threshold Value. This threshold
depolarization causes voltage-gated Na+ channels to open,
generally at the axon hillock.
• The opening of these channels causes a massive, 600-fold
increase in membrane permeability to Na+. Voltage-gated K+
channels also begin to open.
• As more Na+ enters the cell, Depolarization continues at a much
faster pace, causing a brief reversal of charge – the inside of the
cell membrane becomes positive relative to the outside of the
cell membrane.
• The charge reversal causes Na+ channels to close and Na+ then
stops entering the cell.
• During this time, more K+ channels are opening and K+ leaves the cell, resulting in Repolarization.
• At the end of Repolarization, the charge on the cell membrane briefly becomes more negative
than the resting membrane potential; this condition is called Hyperpolarization and occurs briefly.
• Action potentials occur in an All-Or-None Fashion
• All-or-none refers to the fact that if threshold is reached, an action potential occurs; if the threshold
is not reached, no action potential occurs.

RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

The resting membrane potential exists because of:
1. The concentration of K+ being higher on the inside of the cell membrane and the concentration of
Na+ being higher on the outside.
2. The presence of many negatively charged molecules, such as proteins, inside the cell that are too
large to exit the cell.
3. The presence of leak protein channels in the membrane that are more permeable to K+ than it is to
Na+.

SYNAPSE
• An action potential reaching the presynaptic terminal causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to
open, and Ca2+ moves into the cell. This influx of Ca2+ causes the release of neurotransmitters by
exocytosis from the presynaptic terminal. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and
bind to specific receptor molecules on the postsynaptic membrane.
• The binding of neurotransmitters to these membrane receptors causes chemically gated channels
for Na+, K+, or Cl− to open or close in the postsynaptic membrane. The specific channel type and
whether or not the channel opens or closes depend on the type of neurotransmitter in the presynaptic
terminal and the type of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. The response may be either
stimulation or inhibition of an action potential in the postsynaptic cell.
• If Na+ channels open, the postsynaptic cell becomes depolarized, and an action potential will
result if threshold is reached. If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of the postsynaptic cell tends to
become more negative, or hyperpolarized, and an action potential is inhibited from occurring. There
are many neurotransmitters, with the best-known being acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
• Neurotransmitters do not normally remain in the synaptic cleft indefinitely, thus their effects are
short duration. These substances become reduced in concentration when they are either rapidly
broken down by enzymes within the synaptic cleft or are transported back into the presynaptic terminal.
An enzyme called acetylcholinesterase breaks down the acetylcholine. Norepinephrine is either
actively transported back into the presynaptic terminal or broken down by enzymes.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM
PART 2:
SPINAL CORD
• Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar vertebra.
• Protected by vertebral column.
• Spinal nerves allow movement.
• If damaged paralysis can occur.

GRAY MATTER & WHITE MATTER

- Gray Matter consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, where there is very little myelin.
Center of spinal cord. Looks like letter H shape with horns.
Posterior Horns: contain axons which synapse with interneurons.
Anterior Horns: contain somatic neurons.
Lateral Horns: contain autonomic neurons.
Central Canal: fluid filled space in center of cord.

- White Matter consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color.
Outside of spinal cord that contains myelinated fibers.

REFLEXES
• A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted
to the CNS.
• Stretch Reflex - The simplest reflex. It occurs when muscles contract in response to a stretching
force applied to them. Ex. Knee-jerk Reflex, or Patellar Reflex.
• Withdrawal Reflex – also known as Flexor Reflex, is to remove a limb or another body part from a
painful stimulus.
• The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and stimulation of these receptors initiates the reflex.

SPINAL NERVES
▪ Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and ventral roots.
▪ Contain axons sensory and somatic neurons. Located between vertebra.
▪ Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it emerges (C for
cervical).
▪ 31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses.

BRAINSTEM:

COMPONENTS:
1. Medulla Oblongata
2. Pons
3. Midbrain

1. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
• Location: continuous with spinal cord.
• Function: regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing, sneezing, balance
• Other: pyramids – involved with conscious control of skeletal muscle.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM
2. PONS
• Location: above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum.
• Function: breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay station between
cerebrum and cerebellum.

3. MIDBRAIN
• Location: above pons.
• Function: coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter, turning head toward noise.
• Other: the dorsal part has four colliculi which are involved in visual and auditory
reflexes.

CEREBELLUM
• Location: attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar pedicles.
• Characteristics: this is the “little brain” and its’ cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, and gray matter.
• Functions: controls balance, muscle tone, and coordination of fine motor.

DIENCEPHALON:

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum.

COMPONENTS:
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

1. THALAMUS
• Characteristics: largest portion of diencephalon.
• Function: influences mood and detects pain.

2. HYPOTHALAMUS
• Location: below thalamus
• Characteristics: controls pituitary gland and its is connected to it by infundibulum.
• Function: controls homeostasis, body temperature, thirst, hunger, fear, range, and sexual
emotions.

3. EPITHALAMUS
• Location: above thalamus
• Function: emotional and visceral response to odors.

CEREBRUM:
Largest portion of the brain.
DIVISIONS:
1. Right Hemisphere
2. Left Hemisphere
Which are separated by Longitudinal Fissure.

LOBES:
1. Frontal Lobe
2. Parietal Lobe
3. Occipital Lobe
4. Temporal Lobe
5. Insula

CEREBRUM COMPONENTS:
1. CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Location: surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter.
• Function: controls thinking, communication, remembering, understanding, and initiates voluntary
movements.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM

2. GYRI
• Folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area.

3. SULCI
• Shallow indentations.

4. FISSURE
• Deep indentations.

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
• LEFT HEMISPHERE – controls right side of the body and it is responsible for math, analytic, and
speech.

• RIGHT HEMISPHERE – controls the left side of the body and it is responsible for music, art, and
abstract ideas.

• CORPUS CALLOSUM – connection between the two hemispheres.

LOBES OF THE BRAIN

1. FRONTAL LOBE
• Location: front
• Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression, moods, and smell.

2. PARIETAL LOBE
• Location: top
• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain, pressure, temperature, taste.

3. OCCIPITAL LOBE
• Location: back
• Function: vision

4. TEMPORAL LOBE
• Location: sides
• Function: hearing, smell, memory

SENSORY FUNCTIONS
- CNS constantly receives sensory input.
- We are unaware of most sensory input.
- Sensory input is vital for our survival and normal functions.

SOMATIC MOTOR FUNCTIONS

- Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscles.
- The somatic motor system is responsible for:
1. Maintaining the body’s posture and balance.
2. Moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes.
3. Communicating through facial expressions and speech.

MOTOR AREAS OF CERBRAL CORTEX

- Primary Motor Cortex: frontal lobe, controls voluntary motor movement.
- Premotor Area: frontal lobe where motor functions are organized before initiation.
- Prefrontal Area: motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movement.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM

PART 3:
BASAL NUCLEI
- Group of functionally related nuclei. Its’ functions are to plan,
organize, coordinate motor movements and posture
- Corpus striatum: deep in cerebrum.
- Substantia nigra: in midbrain.

SPEECH
- Mainly in left hemisphere
• Sensory speech (Wernicke’s Area): located at the Parietal Lobe where words are heard and
comprehended.
• Motor speech (Broca’s Area): located at the Frontal Lobe where words are formulated.

BRAIN WAVES & CONSCIOUSNESS

- Used to diagnose and determine treatment for brain disorders.

Electroencephalogram (EEG): electrodes plated on scalp to record brain’s electrical activity.

EEG:

• Alpha Waves: person is awake in quiet state.

• Beta Waves: intense mental activity.
• Delta Waves: deep sleep.
• Theta Waves: in children.

MEMORY

1. Encoding – brief retention of sensory input received by brain while something is scanned,
evaluated, and acted up. It is also called Sensory Memory in temporal lobe that lasts less than a second.

2. Consolidated – data that has been encoded in the temporal lobe. Also called Short Term
Memory.

3. Storage – also called Long Term Memory that lasts for a few minutes or permanently as
depending on retrieval (how often information is used).

TYPES OF MEMORY

1. Short-term memory: information is retained for a few seconds or min. composed of bits of information.
(usually 7).

2. Long-term memory: can last for a few minutes or permanently.

3. Episodic memory: places or events.

4. Learning: utilizing past memories.

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: Organic loss of neurons. Spots-plaque of proteins that kills the neurons

LIMBIC SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS

• The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions and nuclei of the cerebrum and the
diencephalon are grouped together under the title limbic system.
• The limbic system influences long-term declarative memory, emotions, visceral responses to
emotions, motivation, and mood.
• A major source of sensory input to the limbic system are the olfactory nerves.
• The limbic system is connected to, and functionally associated with, the hypothalamus.
• Lesions in the limbic system can result in voracious appetite, increased (often perverse) sexual
activity, and docility (including loss of normal fear and anger responses).
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LEC – NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Klüver–Bucy – hypersexuality and hyperorality.
• Circadian rhythms– pineal gland.

CRANIAL NERVE (12)

Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure

sensory nerve for smell.

Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure

sensory nerve for vision.

Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a

pure motor nerve for eye movement.

Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure

motor nerve for eye movement.

Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a

motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory
for pain, touch, and temperature for
the eye and lower and upper jaws. It is
motor for muscles of chewing.

Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve for eye movement

Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and motor nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for facial
expression.

Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure sensory nerve for hearing and equilibrium

Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor
for swallowing.

Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory and motor for organs in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve for the trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles
of the larynx.

Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor nerve for the tongue.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSEM

• The autonomic neurons innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
• Autonomic functions are largely controlled unconsciously.
• The autonomic nervous system is composed of the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic
division.
• Increased activity in sympathetic neurons generally prepares the individual for physical activity,
whereas parasympathetic stimulation generally activates involuntary functions, such as digestion,
that are normally associated with the body at rest.