Mathematical analysis

Group members:

• Jan Unay
• Rhemarie Osal
• Frizzly Ereño
• Eules Chia
• Yanki Acedera
• Pauline Cabanganan

Greek mathematicians such as Eudoxus and Archimedes made informal use of the concepts of limits and
convergence when they used the method of exhaustion to compute the area and volume of regions and
solids.[17] In India, the 12th century mathematician Bhaskara II gave examples of the derivative and
differential coefficient, along with a statement of what is now known as Rolle's theorem.

Mathematical analysis has its roots in work done by Madhava of Sangamagrama in the 14th century, along
with later mathematician-astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, who
described special cases of Taylor series, including the Madhava-Gregory series of the arctangent, the
Madhava-Newton power series of sine and cosine, and the infinite series of π. [18] Yuktibhasa, which
some consider to be the first text on calculus, summarizes these results.[19][20][21]

It has recently been conjectured that the discoveries of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics
were transmitted to Europe, though this is disputed.[22] (See Possibility of transmission of Kerala School
results to Europe.) In the 15th century, a German cardinal named Nicholas of Cusa argued that rules made
for finite quantities lose their validity when applied to infinite ones, thus putting to rest Zeno's paradoxes.

Mathematical analysis

Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with limits and related theories, such
as differentiation, integration, measure, sequences, series, and analytic functions.

These theories are usually studied in the context of real and complex numbers and functions.
Analysis evolved from calculus, which involves the elementary concepts and techniques of
analysis. Analysis may be distinguished from geometry; however, it can be applied to
any space of mathematical objects that has a definition of nearness (a topological space) or
specific distances between objects (a metric space).

History

Ancient

Mathematical analysis formally developed in the 17th century during the Scientific
Revolution,[3] but many of its ideas can be traced back to earlier mathematicians. Early results in
analysis were implicitly present in the early days of ancient Greek mathematics. For instance,
an infinite geometric sum is implicit in Zeno's paradox of the dichotomy.[4] Later, Greek
mathematicians such as Eudoxus and Archimedes made more explicit, but informal, use of the
concepts of limits and convergence when they used the method of exhaustion to compute the
area and volume of regions and solids.[5] The explicit use of infinitesimals appears in
Archimedes' The Method of Mechanical Theorems, a work rediscovered in the 20th century.[6] In
Asia, the Chinese mathematician Liu Hui used the method of exhaustion in the 3rd century AD to
find the area of a circle.[7] From Jain literature, it appears that Hindus were in possession of the
formulae for the sum of the arithmetic and geometric series as early as the 4th century
B.C.[8] Ācārya Bhadrabāhu uses the sum of a geometric series in his Kalpasūtra in 433
B.C.[9] In Indian mathematics, particular instances of arithmetic series have been found to
implicitly occur in Vedic Literature as early as 2000 B.C.

Medieval[edit]

Zu Chongzhi established a method that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the
volume of a sphere in the 5th century.[10] In the 12th century, the Indian mathematician Bhāskara
II gave examples of derivatives and used what is now known as Rolle's theorem.[11]

In the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama developed infinite series expansions, now
called Taylor series, of functions such as sine, cosine, tangent and arctangent.[12] Alongside his
development of Taylor series of trigonometric functions, he also estimated the magnitude of the
error terms resulting of truncating these series, and gave a rational approximation of some
infinite series. His followers at the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics further
expanded his works, up to the 16th century.

Modern

Foundations

The modern foundations of mathematical analysis were established in 17th century

Europe.[3] This began when Fermat and Descartes developed analytic geometry, which is the
precursor to modern calculus. Fermat's method of adequality allowed him to determine the
maxima and minima of functions and the tangents of curves.[13] Descartes' publication of La
Géométrie in 1637, which introduced the Cartesian coordinate system, is considered to be the
establishment of mathematical analysis. It would be a few decades later
that Newton and Leibniz independently developed infinitesimal calculus, which grew, with the
stimulus of applied work that continued through the 18th century, into analysis topics such as
the calculus of variations, ordinary and partial differential equations, Fourier analysis,
and generating functions. During this period, calculus techniques were applied to
approximate discrete problems by continuous ones.

Modernization

In the 18th century, Euler introduced the notion of mathematical function.[14] Real analysis began
to emerge as an independent subject when Bernard Bolzano introduced the modern definition
of continuity in 1816,[15] but Bolzano's work did not become widely known until the 1870s. In
1821, Cauchy began to put calculus on a firm logical foundation by rejecting the principle of
the generality of algebra widely used in earlier work, particularly by Euler. Instead, Cauchy
formulated calculus in terms of geometric ideas and infinitesimals. Thus, his definition of
continuity required an infinitesimal change in x to correspond to an infinitesimal change in y. He
also introduced the concept of the Cauchy sequence, and started the formal theory of complex
analysis. Poisson, Liouville, Fourier and others studied partial differential equations
and harmonic analysis. The contributions of these mathematicians and others, such
as Weierstrass, developed the (ε, δ)-definition of limit approach, thus founding the modern field
of mathematical analysis.

In the middle of the 19th century Riemann introduced his theory of integration. The last third of
the century saw the arithmetization of analysis by Weierstrass, who thought that geometric
reasoning was inherently misleading, and introduced the "epsilon-delta" definition of limit. Then,
mathematicians started worrying that they were assuming the existence of a continuum of real
numbers without proof. Dedekind then constructed the real numbers by Dedekind cuts, in which
irrational numbers are formally defined, which serve to fill the "gaps" between rational numbers,
thereby creating a complete set: the continuum of real numbers, which had already been
developed by Simon Stevin in terms of decimal expansions. Around that time, the attempts to
refine the theorems of Riemann integration led to the study of the "size" of the set
of discontinuities of real functions.

Also, "monsters" (nowhere continuous functions, continuous but nowhere differentiable

functions, space-filling curves) began to be investigated. In this context, Jordan developed his
theory of measure, Cantor developed what is now called naive set theory, and Baire proved
the Baire category theorem. In the early 20th century, calculus was formalized using an
axiomatic set theory. Lebesgue solved the problem of measure, and Hilbert introduced Hilbert
spaces to solve integral equations. The idea of normed vector space was in the air, and in the
1920s Banach created functional analysis.

Important concepts

Metric spaces

In mathematics, a metric space is a set where a notion of distance (called a metric) between
elements of the set is defined.

Much of analysis happens in some metric space; the most commonly used are the real line,
the complex plane, Euclidean space, other vector spaces, and the integers. Examples of analysis
without a metric include measure theory (which describes size rather than distance)
and functional analysis (which studies topological vector spaces that need not have any sense of
distance).

Sequences and limits

A sequence is an ordered list. Like a set, it contains members (also called elements, or terms).
Unlike a set, order matters, and exactly the same elements can appear multiple times at
different positions in the sequence. Most precisely, a sequence can be defined as
a function whose domain is a countable totally ordered set, such as the natural numbers.

One of the most important properties of a sequence is convergence. Informally, a sequence

converges if it has a limit. Continuing informally, a (singly-infinite) sequence has a limit if it
approaches some point x, called the limit, as n becomes very large. That is, for an abstract
sequence (an) (with n running from 1 to infinity understood) the distance
between an and x approaches 0 as n → ∞, denoted

Main branches

Real analysis

Real analysis (traditionally, the theory of functions of a real variable) is a branch of

mathematical analysis dealing with the real numbers and real-valued functions of a real
variable.[16][17] In particular, it deals with the analytic properties of
real functions and sequences, including convergence and limits of sequences of real
numbers, the calculus of the real numbers, and continuity, smoothness and related
properties of real-valued functions.

Complex analysis

Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable,

is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex
numbers.[18] It is useful in many branches of mathematics, including algebraic
geometry, number theory, applied mathematics; as well as in physics,
including hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, and particularly, quantum field theory.

Complex analysis is particularly concerned with the analytic functions of complex

variables (or, more generally, meromorphic functions). Because the
separate real and imaginary parts of any analytic function must satisfy Laplace's
equation, complex analysis is widely applicable to two-dimensional problems in physics.

Functional analysis

Functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by

the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (e.g. inner
product, norm, topology, etc.) and the linear operators acting upon these spaces and
respecting these structures in a suitable sense.[19][20] The historical roots of functional
analysis lie in the study of spaces of functions and the formulation of properties of
transformations of functions such as the Fourier transform as transformations
defining continuous, unitary etc. operators between function spaces. This point of view
turned out to be particularly useful for the study of differential and integral equations.

Harmonic analysis

A harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the representation

of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and
generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms (i.e. an extended
form of Fourier analysis). In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with
applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal
processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis, and neuroscience.

Differential equations

A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or

several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of
various orders.[21][22][23] Differential equations play a prominent role
in engineering, physics, economics, biology, and other disciplines.

Differential equations arise in many areas of science and technology, specifically

whenever a deterministic relation involving some continuously varying quantities
(modeled by functions) and their rates of change in space or time (expressed as
derivatives) is known or postulated. This is illustrated in classical mechanics, where the
motion of a body is described by its position and velocity as the time value
varies. Newton's laws allow one (given the position, velocity, acceleration and various
forces acting on the body) to express these variables dynamically as a differential
equation for the unknown position of the body as a function of time. In some cases, this
differential equation (called an equation of motion) may be solved explicitly.

Measure theory

A measure on a set is a systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of that
set, intuitively interpreted as its size.[24] In this sense, a measure is a generalization of the
concepts of length, area, and volume. A particularly important example is the Lebesgue
measure on a Euclidean space, which assigns the conventional length, area,

and volume of Euclidean geometry to suitable subsets of the -dimensional

Euclidean space . For instance, the Lebesgue measure of the interval in

the real numbers is its length in the everyday sense of the word – specifically, 1.

Technically, a measure is a function that assigns a non-negative real number or +∞ to

(certain) subsets of a set . It must assign 0 to the empty set and be (countably)
additive: the measure of a 'large' subset that can be decomposed into a finite (or
countable) number of 'smaller' disjoint subsets, is the sum of the measures of the
"smaller" subsets. In general, if one wants to associate a consistent size to each subset of
a given set while satisfying the other axioms of a measure, one only finds trivial examples
like the counting measure. This problem was resolved by defining measure only on a sub-
collection of all subsets; the so-called measurable subsets, which are required to form
a -algebra. This means that countable unions,
countable intersections and complements of measurable subsets are measurable. Non-
measurable sets in a Euclidean space, on which the Lebesgue measure cannot be defined
consistently, are necessarily complicated in the sense of being badly mixed up with their
complement. Indeed, their existence is a non-trivial consequence of the axiom of choice.

Numerical analysis

Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as
opposed to general symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis
(as distinguished from discrete mathematics).[25]

Modern numerical analysis does not seek exact answers, because exact answers are
often impossible to obtain in practice. Instead, much of numerical analysis is concerned
with obtaining approximate solutions while maintaining reasonable bounds on errors.

Numerical analysis naturally finds applications in all fields of engineering and the physical
sciences, but in the 21st century, the life sciences and even the arts have adopted
elements of scientific computations. Ordinary differential equations appear in celestial
mechanics (planets, stars and galaxies); numerical linear algebra is important for data
analysis; stochastic differential equations and Markov chains are essential in simulating
living cells for medicine and biology.

Vector analysis

Tensor analysis

Other topics

• Calculus of variations deals with extremizing functionals, as opposed to

ordinary calculus which deals with functions.
• Harmonic analysis deals with the representation of functions or signals as
the superposition of basic waves.
• Geometric analysis involves the use of geometrical methods in the study
of partial differential equations and the application of the theory of partial
differential equations to geometry.
• Clifford analysis, the study of Clifford valued functions that are annihilated by
Dirac or Dirac-like operators, termed in general as monogenic or Clifford
analytic functions.
• p-adic analysis, the study of analysis within the context of p-adic numbers,
which differs in some interesting and surprising ways from its real and
complex counterparts.
• Non-standard analysis, which investigates the hyperreal numbers and their
functions and gives a rigorous treatment of infinitesimals and infinitely large
numbers.
• Computable analysis, the study of which parts of analysis can be carried out
in a computable manner.
• Stochastic calculus – analytical notions developed for stochastic processes.
• Set-valued analysis – applies ideas from analysis and topology to set-valued
functions.
• Convex analysis, the study of convex sets and functions.
• Idempotent analysis – analysis in the context of an idempotent semiring,
where the lack of an additive inverse is compensated somewhat by the
idempotent rule A + A = A.
o Tropical analysis – analysis of the idempotent semiring called
the tropical semiring (or max-plus algebra/min-plus algebra).
• Constructive analysis, which is built upon a foundation of constructive, rather
than classical, logic and set theory.
• Intuitionistic analysis, which is developed from constructive logic like
constructive analysis but also incorporates choice sequences.
• Paraconsistent analysis, which is built upon a foundation of paraconsistent,
rather than classical, logic and set theory.
• Smooth infinitesimal analysis, which is developed in a smooth topos.