Personality and Perception

Personality: The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak
through.” Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person's
unique identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public.

According to Gluck – “Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person

that influences his or her behaviour toward goal achievement. Each person has unique ways
of protecting these states.
Determinants of Personality:
Different theories propose different factors that determine an individual personality. The
most popular research work done by Freud deals with the identification of self-concept. Self-
concept include things (factor) got by nature like gene, i.e., heredity and the biological
formations and by nurture, i.e., through the social and environmental factors. The major
determinants of personality are heredity, environment and situation.
Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors, which predisposes to certain physical, mental and
emotional states. It sets the outer parameters of an individual. It also limits the range of
development of characters. The arrangement and structure of genes that are located in the
chromosomes is passed around 20% to 50% from one generation to another. The studies
reveal that twins though brought up in different places exhibit similar characters.
Thus, heredity is the transmission of qualities from ancestor to descendent through, a
mechanism lying primarily in the genes. There are very many achievers in their own field like
Sachin Tendulkar, U.R. Rao, N.R. Narayana Murthy, Former Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha
Rao, who gave a new turn to Indian economy and many such others, who are unique in their
own, way. These achievers’ performance is directed by hereditary factor to certain extent.

Environment: Environment refers to the surroundings in which the individuals are brought
up. The environmental factors relating to the formation of personality includes culture,
family, society upbringing and experiences. Experiences relate to the confrontation with that
of family members, relatives, and friends and to the social groups, which they belong. Culture
helps to find the similarity and difference in behaviour.
Family environment refers to the individual’s upbringing, the social and economic status the
family holds and the size of the family. The society makes an individual to play different
roles thus shaping his/her their personality. Environment tends to strengthen or weaken
hereditary traits. For example, when an individual interacts with the environment through
speech, his speech organs guarantee that he/she is learning to speak.

Situation: Situation has an effect both on environment and heredity. Situation demands
certain behaviour. Various psychologists have discovered what personality trait matters to an
individual in his or her career. Being successful or unsuccessful depends upon how the
individuals control their behaviour in various situations. For example, a candidate attending
an interview may exhibit limited traits. The other trait or behaviour is concealed or not
exhibited.
Personality Theories:
There are several personality theories but we will be focusing on few:

Type Theory: As the term itself indicates, type theories place personalities into clearly
identifiable types or categories. One way is that personalities can be classified on the basis of
body build. Kretschmer and Sheldon are to be given credit for this classification. According
to the type theories, relationship can be established between features of the face or body and
personality.
Another basis of type personality is psychological factors, Carl Jung had categorised
personalities into introverts and extroverts usually indicating a person’s sociability and
interpersonal orientation. Extroverts by nature are more oriented towards other people, events
and objects; whereas introverts have greater sensitivity and are more concerned about
feelings and are happier dealing with abstract things. Even though type theories involving
psychological factors provide a simple way of looking at personality, they have the following
limitations:
• Though categorising personalities as per psychological factors into introverts and extroverts
is simple, it does not help much because many people may fall between the two extremes.
• The introvert-extrovert typology is more in the nature of continuum rather than discreet
separate types.
• Though it provides a simple way to identify a personality, it does not touch upon the various
complexities of personality.

Trait Factor Theory: The trait theory is a quantitative approach to the study of personality.
According to this theory, an individual’s personality is composed of definite pre-dispositional
attributes called traits. It is presumed that a personality trait is an enduring attribute of a
person which remains consistent in a variety of situation.
This theory based on three assumptions:
a) Traits though common to many individuals, may vary in absolute terms between people.
b) Traits are usually and relatively stable, and have fairly universal effects on behaviour
irrespective of the environment or situation.
c) It is possible to infer about traits by measuring behavioural indicators.

There are 2 trait theories – one developed by Allport and another developed by Cattell.

Allport’s trait theory is based on the distinction between common traits and personal
dispositions. He has identified six categories of values: religious, social, economic, political,
aesthetic and theoretical as common traits which can be used to compare people. Allport has
also referred to certain personal dispositions which may be unique to the individual.

Raymond Cattell also developed a similar set of traits by using psychological test measures.
Though he used a different approach compared to Allport, he clearly identifies two categories
of traits – surface traits and source traits. He determined thirty-five surface traits by
identifying a cluster of traits that are correlated; for instance, wise-foolish, affectionate-cold
etc.
Limitation:
1. This theory is more descriptive than being analytical. Thus, it cannot be said to be a
comprehensive theory of personality.
2. Some of the terms are difficult to define and there is no scientific reliability about the
results.
Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic theory works on the basis that human beings are
motivated more by unseen forces than their conscious and rational thoughts. Although
Sigmund Freud is the man most closely associated with the psychoanalytic Personality
theory, others such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler have also made additional contributions.

Some highlights of Psychoanalytic Theory are:

1. Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious aspect which causes people to behave in different
ways has been partially supported by some of the current research findings of cognitive
psychologists.
2. Also Freud’s concern for the role played by sexual factors has increased the awareness of
its effect on adjustment problems making way for future probing required in this area.
3. Specifically related to organisational behaviour is Freud’s contribution towards
understanding of creative behaviour, dissatisfaction, group development, leadership and its
influence.
Limitations:
1.The theory is based on an approach which contains elements (psychoanalytic) which are
largely hypothetical constructs and cannot be measured or verified.
2. Some critics have pointed out that Freud’s personality theory has been developed on the
basis of his observations of emotionally disturbed people and may not be a representation of
normal healthy personality

Socio – Psychological Theory: The socio-psychological theory talks of the interdependence

of the individual and society. On the one hand the individual strives to meet the needs of the
society, and on the other hand the society helps the individual to attain his goal. And the
personality of the individual is determined from this interaction. Thus, this theory is a
combination of sociological and psychological aspects. Those associated with this theory are
Karen Horney, Adler, Fromm and Sullivan.
This theory differs from psychoanalytic theory on two counts:
• Here it is the social variables and not biological instincts which are referred to as the
important determinants in shaping an individual’s personality.
• The behavioural motivation is a conscious effort. After knowing one’s wants and needs,
man’s behaviour will be directed to meet those needs.,
The criticism against this theory is that although the socio-psychological theory can help to
answer questions related to the influence of social factors in shaping personality, it cannot
give a total picture of human behaviour.

Self -Theory: The psychoanalytic, socio-psychological, and trait theories are more or less
traditional approaches to explaining the complex human personality. The self-theory
emphasises on the totality and inter-relatedness of all behaviour. This theory considers the
organisation as a whole to a greater extent than any of the other theories. Many of the
noteworthy names associated with this approach include Maslow, Herzberg, Lewin, and
Rogers. A very important contribution is from Carl Rogers – The Self Theory. Rogers defines
the self-concept as an organised, consistent and conceptual gestalt comprising of perceptions
in the form of ‘I’ or ‘Me’ and the perception of the relationship between ‘I’ or ‘Me’ with
others to the various aspects of life along with the values attached to these perceptions.

Personality Types:

 Extraversion (E): describing someone who is sociable, outgoing, Gregarious and

assertive
 Agreeableness (A): describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting
 Emotion Stability/ Neuroticism (N): characterizes someone as calm, self-confident,
secure (positive) Vs. Nervous, depressed, and insecure(negative)
 Openness to Experience (O): characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitive
and curiosity
 Conscientiousness (C): describes someone as responsible dependable, persistent, and
organized

Influence of Personality in Organizational Behaviour:

The specific personality traits which are particularly important for understanding the various
aspects of organizational behaviour are given bellow:

1. Risk Taking: People differ in their willingness to take chances. Their propensity to
assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers
to decide and how much information they require before making their choice. For
instance, a high risk-taking propensity may lead to more effective performance for a
stock trader in a brokerage firm. This type of risk demands rapid decision-making.
2. Self-Monitoring: Another personality trait that has received increased attention is self-
monitoring. It refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external
factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring can show considerable adaptability in
adjusting their behaviour to external factors.
3. Type A and Type B Personality: One dimension of personality that is getting attention
both from organisational as well as medical researchers is the Type A and Type B
behaviour profiles. A person exhibiting Type A behaviour is generally restless,
impatient with a desire for quick achievement and perfectionism. Type B is much
easier going, relaxed about time pressure, less competitive and more philosophical in
nature.
4. Self-Esteem: Self-esteem is the outcome of an individual’s continuous evaluation of
himself or herself which will be assessments reflecting his/her response to others’
opinions, situational requirement, and successes and failures. Such assessments are
usually stable and accurate enough to be considered as a personality trait.
5. Locus of Control: Locus of control indicates the belief of the individual on the extent
to which he or she can control events affecting them.
Individuals with High internal locus of control believe that it is their own behaviour
and actions (though may not be) which determine many of the events in their life.
Individuals with High external locus of control believe that it is (by) chance or fate or
other individuals who determine what happens to them.
6. Machiavellianism: This term is derived from Niccolo Machiavelli’s writings, who
wrote on how to gain and use power i.e., on an individual’s ability to manipulate
people. Thus, such Machs can easily be game for participating in organisational
politics. Those who are high Machs, believe ‘ends justify means’. They try
manipulating more, winning more, persuade others more and are themselves less
persuaded.

Perception

Definition: Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of
the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize
this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.

External factors affecting Perceptual Selection:

Size: The larger the size, the more likely it is to be perceived. The tallest person in the
office will invariably be noticed.

Intensity: The more intense an external factor (bright light, loud noise, high pitch sound
etc.) the more likely it is to be perceived. One may notice that the TV commercials
always have high pitch as compared to normal telecast.

Contrast: External factors that stand out against the background or things that are not
which people expect are more likely to be perceived.

Motion: A moving factor is more likely to be perceived than stationary factor. Films
(motion pictures) attract people more than a static picture.

Repetition: A repeated factor is more likely to be noticed. Marketing managers use this
principle in trying to get attention of the prospective customers.

Novelty and familiarity: Either novelty or familiarity will can attract attention. People
 would quickly notice a person riding an elephant on a busy street in Delhi. On the other
hand, one is likely to spot a familiar face in a crowd or a familiar voice even if there is a
lot of noise and confusion.

Internal factors affecting Perceptual Selection

• Personality: Personality has an interesting influence on what and how people

perceive. For example, conscientious people tend to pay more attention to external
environmental cues than does a less conscientious person. Less conscientious persons
are impulsive, careless, and irresponsible. They see their environment as hectic and
unstable which affects the way they make perceptual selections. On the other hand,
more conscientious people organize their perceptions into neat categories, allowing
themselves to retrieve data quickly and in an organized manner. In other words, they
are careful, methodical, and disciplined in making perceptual selections.

Learning: Learning determines the development of perceptual sets. A perceptual set is

an expectation of a particular interpretation based on past experiences with the same
or an identical object. In organizational settings, past experiences of the managers and
employees influence their perceptions to a great extent.

Motivation: A person’s most urgent needs and desires at any particular time can
influence perception. People perceive things that promise to help satisfy their needs
and that they have found rewarding in the past. Also, according to Pollyanna
principle, people process pleasant event more efficiently and accurately than they do
unpleasant events. For example, an employee who receives both positive and negative
feedback during the appraisal meeting may more easily and clearly remember the
positive statements than the negative ones.

Factors affect in Interpretation:

• Primacy/ Recency Effect: The first impression is given the most important
which is known as the primacy effect. Recency effect, on the other hand, is that
human beings remember latest events more than the less recent ones.
• Stereotyping: It is the effect caused by forming a certain belief about a category
of stimuli and generalizing that notion to encounters with each member of that
category. In reality, there is a difference between the perceived notion of each
category and the actual traits of the members. It may affect the interview process
in an organization.
• Halo effect: It is the process of generalizing from a comprehensive analysis to a
single attribute or trait. A negative halo effect is known as the reverse halo effect.
It affects the performance appraisal of employees in a company.
• Projection: It is a psychological defence mechanism which makes a person
compare his negative traits with other people and conclude that they are better
off than others. Perceptual checking minimizes the negative effects of projection.
• Selective Perception: This means a person sees, feels or hears what he wants to
and skips other information which are inconsistent to his view.
• Expectancy effect: It is the tendency of an individual to interpret any person or
object based on how he expects the person or object to be in the first place. It is
also called as Pygmalion effect.

Attribution Theory of Perception:

Attribution refers to the tendency one develops to explain the ways in which a person
judges another person’s behaviour. Very often we make attempts to understand the more
lasting causes behind others’ actions by interpreting their traits, motives and intentions
through the attribution process. Simply stated, an attribution is the complex process in
which we observe others’ behaviour and try to infer causes behind it from various areas.
With reference to social perception there are types of attributions which people generally
tend to make. These are:

a) Dispositional attributions (such as personality traits, motivation or ability) or internal

factors.

b) Situational attribution (social influence of others, equipments, and so on) or external

factors.