Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Overview of Discrete-Time Systems

1.2 Digital Control Systems
1.3 The Control Problem
1.4 Example 1: Satellite Model
1.5 Example 2: Servomotors
1.6 Example 3: Temperature Control System
1.7 Example 4: Electric Power System

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1.1 Overview of Discrete-Time Systems

• Some preliminary definitions to start with:

a) Dynamic system – A system with memory, a system whose input-output

behavior can be modeled either by differential equations or difference equations

b) Linear dynamic system – A dynamic system whose input-output behavior follow

the principle of superposition.

Suppose that the input u1(t) of a system produces an output y1(t), and the input
u2(t) produces the output y2(t). Then, if the system is linear, the principle of
superposition applies and the input [al u1(t) + a2 u2(t)] will produce the output
[al y1(t) + a2 y2(t)].

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1.1 Overview of Discrete-Time Systems
• Some preliminary definitions to start with:

c) Linear time-invariant system – If the model parameters of a dynamic system are

independent of time. In the example above if al and a2 are constants.

d) Continuous-time system – Dynamic systems described by continuous-time

differential equations, all system variables are continuous functions of time

e) Discrete-time system – Dynamic systems described by discrete-time difference

equations, all system variables are discrete functions of time

Suppose that the input u1(k) of a discrete-time system produces an output y1(k),
and the input u2(k) produces the output y2(k). Then, if the system is linear, the input
[al u1(k) + a2 u2(k)] will produce the output [al y1(k) + a2 y2(k)], where k=0, 1, 2,…are
the instants of measurement

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1.1 Overview of Discrete-Time Systems

The focus of this book is to design control systems for linear time-invariant
discrete-time systems

• Some more definitions:

a) Plant – The physical system (process) to be controlled

b) Sensor – Devices that measure various signals in a plant at discrete points of time

c) Controller – An algorithm, embedded in a physical system, that controls the

behavior (output) of the plant by appropriately manipulating a set of its signals

d) Feedback signal – A signal from the plant entering the controller as an input
producing a desired transformed signal that can control the plant

e) Actuator – A physical device that actuates the controller to take action on the plant

f) Closed-loop system – The total combination of a plant, sensor, controller,

feedback signal, and actuator

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FIGURE 1-1 Closed-loop system.

Controllers are
also referred to
as Output
compensators
or filters

Feedback Signal

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1.2 Digital Control System

• Consider the example of an aircraft landing system, shown in Figure 1-2

(please refer to next slide)

• The controlling unit is a digital computer.

• The lateral control system controls the lateral position of the aircraft

• The vertical control system controls the altitude of the aircraft

• Assumption: The lateral and vertical controls are independent.

• Thus the bank command input affects only the lateral position of the aircraft, and
the pitch command input affects only the altitude of the aircraft.

• To simplify the treatment further, only the lateral control system will be discussed.

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FIGURE 1-2 Automatic aircraft landing system.

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1.2 Digital Control System
A block diagram of the lateral control system is given in Figure 1-3 (refer to next
slide).

The aircraft lateral position y(t) = the lateral distance of the aircraft from the
extended centerline of the runway.

Sensor: The radar unit measures y(t) every T=0.05 s. Thus y(kT) is the sampled
value of y(t), with T = 0.05 s and k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .

Controller: The control system attempts to force y(t) to zero.

The digital controller processes the sampled outputs and generates the discrete
bank commands φ(kT).

The data hold, which is on board the aircraft, clamps the bank command φ(t)
constant at the last value received until the next value is received.

The aircraft responds to the command, which changes the lateral position y(t).

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FIGURE 1-3 Aircraft lateral control system.

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1.2 Digital Control System
Two additional inputs are shown in Figure 1-3.

These are unwanted inputs called disturbances

1. The first, w(t), is the wind input, which affects the position of the aircraft.

2. The second disturbance input, labeled radar noise, is present as the radar
cannot measure the exact position of the aircraft.

The design problem for this system is to maintain y(t) at a small level despite
the presence of the wind and radar-noise disturbances.

• This task must be accomplished in the digital controller.

More on this
• This processing will be a function of the aircraft model, in Chapters 8,
the disturbances, sample period T, and the desired 9, and 10.
response characteristics.

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1.3 The Control Problem
We may state the control problem as follows:

A physical system or process is to be accurately controlled through closed-loop, or

feedback, operation. An output variable (signal), called the response, is adjusted as
required by an error signal. The error signal is a measure of the difference between
the system response, as determined by a sensor, and the desired response.

Some common control goals are: Refer to

Figure 1-1
• Disturbance rejection
• Steady-state errors
• Transient response
• Sensitivity to parameter changes in the plant

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1.3 The Control Problem

Solving the control problem involves the following six steps:

Step 1: Choose sensors to measure the required feedback signals

Step 2: Choose actuators to drive the plant

Step 3: Develop the plant, sensor, and actuator models (equations)

Step 4: Design the controller based on the developed models and the control
criteria

Step 5: Evaluate the design analytically, by simulation, and finally, by testing the
physical system

Step 6: Iterate this procedure until a satisfactory physical-system response results

Figure 1-4 shows the relationships between the physical plant model
and the controller iterations

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FIGURE 1-4 Mathematical solutions for physical systems.

In this book mathematical methods

will be developed for the analysis and
design of digital control systems.

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1.4 Example 1: Satellite Model

Assume that the satellite is spherical and has the thruster configuration shown in
Figure 1-5.

Suppose that θ(t) is the yaw angle of the satellite.

One may consider the problem of a complete three-axis control of the satellite. We
will consider only the yaw-axis control systems, whose purpose is to control the
angle θ(t).

The relationship between torque T(t) to angle θ(t) is given by Newton’s law of
motion, resulting in the transfer function

Θ( s ) 1
= G= (s)
T (s) p
Js 2

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FIGURE 1-5 Satellite.

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1.4 Example 1: Satellite Model
Next, let us convert the TF to an equivalent state-variable model.

Define two state variables (original model is 2nd order)

Captures the differential

equation model in sets
of first-order equations

This results in

Combining the two first-order state equations, we can write the model as:

Input

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 1.5 Example 2: Servomotors

A dc servomotor system is shown in Figure 1-6.

The motor is armature controlled with a constant field. The armature resistance
and inductance are Ra and La (neglected for simplicity), respectively.

The motor back emf em(t) is given by

List of variables:

θ(t) - shaft position

ω(t) - shaft angular velocity
Kb - motor-dependent constant.
J - total moment of inertia connected to the motor shaft is J, and
B - total viscous friction.
τ(t) - torque developed by the motor

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FIGURE 1-6 Servomotor system.

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1.5 Example 2: Servomotors

The following equations hold for the motor dynamics:

Electro-mechanical Newton’s law of motion Kirchoff’s voltage

energy conversion balance law

Combining these three equations, one can write

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1.5 Example 2: Servomotors

From the Laplace transform of the differential equation, the TF is

The state-variable model for the system can be written, as before, in the form:

Input

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FIGURE 1-7 Servo control system.

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1.5 Example 2: Servomotors
A line drawing of an industrial robot is shown in Figure 1-8 (next slide)

Each joint of the robot is a servomechanism

1. The actuator is assumed to be a

servomotor.

2. The arm is attached to the motor

through gears, with a gear ratio of n

The model of the robot arm joint is given in Figure 1-9

A second-order model of the servomotor is assumed.

If the armature inductance of the motor cannot be ignored, then the model is
third- order (extra differential equation from Faraday’s law)

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FIGURE 1-8 Schematic diagram of a robotic arm with three angles of
motion.

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 FIGURE 1-9 Model of robot arm joint.

Robot link
angle
From digital Armature voltage, Motor shaft
computer used to control the angle
position of the arm.

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1.6 Example 3: Temperature Control System
A temperature control system is shown in Figure 1-10

-Control the temperature of a liquid in a tank.

-Liquid is flowing out at some rate, being replaced by liquid at temperature τi(t)
-A mixer agitates the liquid such that the liquid temperature can be assumed
uniform at a value τ(t) throughout the tank.
-The liquid is heated by an electric heater

List of variables:

qe (t) = heat flow supplied by the electric heater

qi (t) = heat flow via liquid entering the tank
ql (t) = heat flow into the liquid
qo (t) = heat flow via liquid leaving the tank
qs (t) = heat flow through the tank surface

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FIGURE 1-10 Thermal system.

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1.6 Example 3: Temperature Control System

From law of conversation of energy

From law of thermodynamics

Heat capacity

Letting v(t) equal the flow into and out of the tank (assumed equal) and H equal
the specific heat of the liquid

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 1.6 Example 3: Temperature Control System
Let τa be the ambient temperature outside the tank and R be the thermal
resistance to heat flow through the tank

Assume v(t)=V is a constant. Then,

First-order linear differential equation with constant coefficients: qe(t) is the control
input signal, τi(t) and τa(t) are disturbance input signals, and τ(t) is the output signal.

Laplace transform of the output torque is:

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FIGURE 1-11 Block diagram of a thermal system.

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1.7 Example 4: Electric Power System
1 synchronous
Consider the classical single-machine infinite bus power system generator
shown in Figure 1-12
1 load bus with
infinite inertia

List of Variables

δ(t) phase angle of the synchronous generator (radians) State variables

ω(t) angular speed (radian/sec)
ωs synchronous speed, equal to 120π rad/sec for a 60 Hz system
E internal constant voltage of the generator (per unit)
xd direct-axis salient reactance (per unit)
xT transformer reactance (per unit)
xl transmission line reactance (per unit)
d damping constant
M generator electro-mechanical inertia
Pm mechanical power input from turbine to generator (per unit)
Pe(t) electrical power output from generator to infinite bus (per unit)

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FIGURE 1-12 Single-machine infinite bus power system.

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1.7 Example 4: Electric Power System

Applying Newton’s second law of motion to the synchronous generator, we get

δ = ω − ω s
Nonlinear swing
Mω = Pm − Pe − dω equations

Similarly, from Kirchoff’s law we obtain the effective power transfer from the machine
to the infinite bus as
E
P= (sin δ + j ( E − cos δ ))
x

Recall: Pe is the real part of P

δ = ω − ω s
Nonlinear
E
Mω = Pm − sin δ − dω state-variable model
x

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1.7 Example 4: Electric Power System
Linearize the nonlinear state variable model at (δ0, 0) to obtain a small-signal state
variable model
 ∆δ   0 1   ∆δ   0 
  = − E cos δ 0 d  +  1  ∆P
−  ∆ω    m Input
∆ω   Mx M M 

Consider the output of the small-signal model as the change in electric power:

E cos δ 0
∆Pe = ∆δ = k∆δ
x

k
The transfer function is: G p (s) =
Ms 2 + ds + k See Fig 1-13

Control objective: Design an output-feedback controller C(s) to

control the transient response of the electrical power ΔPe(t)

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FIGURE 1-13 Block diagram of a closed-loop SMIB power system model.

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References
1. M. L. Dertouzos, M. Athans, R. N. Spann, and S. J. Mason, Systems, Networks, and
Computation: Basic Concepts. Huntington, NY: R.E. Krieger Publishing Co., Inc., 1979.

2. R. F. Wigginton, “Evaluation of OPS-II Operational Program for the Automatic Carrier

Landing System,” Naval Electronic Systems Test and Evaluation Facility, Saint Inigoes, MD,
1971.

3. C. L. Phillips, E. R. Graf, and H. T. Nagle, Jr., “MATCALS Error and Stability Analysis,”
Report AU-EE-75-2080-1, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 1975.

4. W. A. Gardner, Introduction to Random Processes with Applications to Signals and Systems,

2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990.

5. A. E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 2003.

6. C. L. Phillips and J. Parr, Feedback Control Systems, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 2011.

7. C. W. deSilva, Control Sensors and Actuators. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.

8. K. S. Fu, R. C. Gonzalez, and C. S. G. Lee, Robotics: Control, Sensing, Vision, and

Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1987.

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