M6 READING COMPREHENSION

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE

Companion Document
New Brunswick Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2021
“As teachers of literacy we must have as an instructional goal, regardless of age, grade, or
achievement level, the development of students as purposeful, engaged, and ultimately
independent comprehenders. No matter what grade level you teach, no matter what content you
teach, no matter what texts you teach with, your goal is to improve students’ comprehension and
understanding” (Rasinski, 2000, p. 1).

This companion document is one in a series of six companion documents complimenting the
Building Blocks of Reading Continuum. The companion documents provide an overview of
research pertaining to reading instruction and the building blocks of reading:

• Research and Reading Instruction

• Phonological Awareness

• Phonics

• Fluency

• Vocabulary

• Reading Comprehension

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 Reading Comprehension and
the Building Blocks of Reading

2
Reading is about understanding. Without understanding, reading is often a frustrating activity
of simply identifying words. Ultimately, “comprehension is the reason for reading. If learners can
decode words accurately but don’t understand what they’re reading, they’re not really reading.
Good readers are purposeful and active. They may read to learn more about their favourite
athlete, to complete a school assignment, or just to enjoy a good story” (Reading Rockets, 2021).
Duke and Pearson (2001) indicate that the goal of developing reading comprehension goes
hand-in-hand with the goal of developing solid sound-letter knowledge for all learners regardless
of age. This allows learners to understand, interpret, and critique what is read to them and what
they read. It also helps learners develop the skills needed to become competent and enthusiastic
readers.

To teach comprehension is to help develop

learners’ critical literacy skills. Critical literacy
involves the ability to question, challenge, and
evaluate the meaning and purposes of texts. It Critical literacy is the awareness of
also involves the ability to read deeper into the language as an integral part of so-
content and make connections with texts. It is cial relations. It is a way of thinking
more than being able to read a menu, fill in a that involves questioning assump-
simple form, or recall details of a text. Critically tions; investigating how forms of
literate learners become aware that all texts language construct and are con-
are created, “from a certain perspective or bias structed by particular social, his-
and examine each text to see how it positions torical, and economic contexts; and
them as they read, listen, or view” (Trehearne, examining power relations embed-
2006, p. 99–100). Teaching comprehension ded in language in communication.
encourages learners to think critically, problem (Atlantic Canada English Language
solve, collaborate, and communicate. Strong Arts Curriculum: Elementary K–3,
comprehension skills help fulfil the goals of 1998, p. 230)
the New Brunswick Global Competencies
and provide a foundation for learners to work
sustainably as global citizens into the future
(see Appendix A).

There are many factors that contribute to a student’s ability to develop solid comprehension skills
and knowledge. Research indicates that word recognition, background knowledge, vocabulary,
oral language, and a growing repertoire of strategies support comprehension.

Reading Comprehension

Word Background Vocabulary Oral Language Comprehension

Recognition Knowledge Strategies

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 Word Recognition
Word recognition is the ability of a reader to A sight word is any word a
recognize words correctly and effortlessly. It is a reader recognizes instantly and
critical aspect of learning to read. Recognizing words identifies without conscious
automatically helps learners to read fluently and effort regardless of their
supports comprehension because learners who can spelling pattern. Gentry and
“process words efficiently are better able to focus Ouellette (2019) refer to sight
on the meaning of a text” (Hayes & Flanigan, 2014, words as brain words.
p. 4). Automatic word recognition is built upon a
foundation of phonological awareness and phonics
skills. The more brain words (sight words) a learner
has, the fewer cognitive resources they must use on
word recognition, allowing them to focus on meaning making.

Background Knowledge
Background knowledge is an essential element of reading comprehension. The more that a
learner knows about a topic, the easier it is for them to read and understand the text. It is also
easier for them to retain information. Learners with good background knowledge are also able
to choose between multiple meanings of words and make inferences that rely on background
knowledge.

Teachers are encouraged to support learner comprehension of texts by activating background

knowledge and promoting text connections. Neuman, Kaefer, and Pinkham (2014) suggest
several ways to build learner background knowledge and state that it “is not just accumulating
facts; rather, children need to develop knowledge networks, comprised of clusters of concepts
that are coherent, generative, and supportive of future learning in a domain” (p. 147). Strategies
for activating background knowledge include the following:

• Teaching words in categories (e.g., “I am

going to say the following words: strawberries,
apples, oranges. They are all a type of ... fruit.”) Understanding figures of
speech and idioms is often
• Using contrast and comparison (e.g., “Is a reliant on background
potato a type of fruit? Why is it or is it not a knowledge. This is especially
type of fruit?”) important for English Language
Learners. Although strategy
• Using analogies (e.g., “A bird is to a feather as a
instruction is also important,
dog is to ... fur.”)
research indicates that
• Encouraging topic-focussed wide reading learners will continue “to spin
(e.g., learners identify an area of interest and their wheels when they don’t
read widely on that topic to develop a deeper have background knowledge
knowledge.) required to understand much
of what they’re reading” (Frey,
• Embracing multimedia as a way to introduce
2009, p. 9).
learners to important ideas and concepts in an
engaging manner
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Vocabulary
Vocabulary knowledge is among the preeminent
predictors of success in learning to read. The
breadth and depth of a learner’s vocabulary,
as well as their speed of accessing word
pronunciations and meanings from memory,
are strong predictors of word reading, reading
comprehension, and overall academic success.
Studies also indicate that a learner’s vocabulary
growth is directly linked to their overall school
achievement. The more words a learner knows,
the easier it is for them to learn new ones, to
recognize words in print, and to understand words,
sentences, and stories (Weitzman & Greenberg,
2002). Effective strategies for vocabulary teaching
and intervention include the following:

• Activating prior knowledge and providing

opportunities for learners to make
connections

• Building background knowledge

• Pre-teaching (front-loading)

• Building flexibility with and interest in

language

• Thinking aloud as you infer meaning from

pictures, key words, graphics, and texts

• Providing direct and explicit instruction

concerning root words, affixes, and
morphemes

• Holding discussions about vocabulary found Researchers have identified a

during read-alouds “knowledge threshold” when it
comes to reading comprehension.
If learners are unfamiliar with 59
percent of the terms in a topic,
their ability to understand the text
becomes compromised (O’Reilly
et al., 2019).

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 Oral Language
Oral language development is directly linked to
reading comprehension. In fact, oral language is
key when a beginning reader makes the transition
to written forms (McCardle & Chhabra, 2004).
Learners must understand language at the oral level
to understand language at the text level. Through
oral language, learners gain information about
word meanings and pronunciation. They also learn
the structure of language and that the purpose is
to communicate meaning. Research with learners
between the ages of 6 and 14 “shows that scaffolded
classroom-talk assists students to deepen their
understanding of texts” (Mills, 2009).

Comprehension Strategies
Effective comprehension instruction helps learners
become “independent, strategic, and metacognitive
readers who are able to develop, control, and use a
variety of comprehension strategies to ensure that
they understand what they read” (Texas Education
Agency, 2002). Good comprehension instruction
includes both explicit instruction in specific
comprehension strategies and time and opportunity
for actual reading, writing, and discussion of text
(Duke & Pearson, 2002, p. 207) (see Appendix B for
strategies that promote comprehension).

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 Metacognition—
Thinking about Thinking

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 Cognition refers to the mental process of thinking, processing, and understanding information,
whereas metacognition refers to an awareness of how an individual thinks about their own
thinking, processing, and understanding of information. Metacognition can be defined as
“thinking about thinking.” Readers who “think about their thinking” while reading monitor their
understanding of text, recognize when comprehension is interrupted, and apply appropriate
strategies to restore and/or enhance understanding. This metacognitive understanding is the
foundation upon which all comprehension strategies are based.

Learning how to read is a bit like learning how to drive. A new driver must follow the rules of the
road, keep the pedal at the right speed, make sure the lights are on, and be conscientious of what
lies ahead by reading the road signs. There are so many decisions to make: Is there enough gas?
Why is the oil light on? What does that sign mean?

A confident driver also needs to know when to slow down and stop if things aren’t going well;
what are the “fix-up” strategies if the gas or oil lights comes on?

A reader also has a lot to think about to navigate a text. They need tools like vocabulary,
background knowledge, a good phonics base to be able to decode words effortlessly, and an
understanding of text features, word structure, and context clues. Plus, they need fluency to read
effortlessly and with meaning. There are so many decisions to make: What does that word mean?
Why did the author put that exclamation point there? What do we know about the character?

A confident reader also needs to know when to slow down and stop if things aren’t understood,
and what “fix-up” strategy to use to help with understanding.

Metacognition is a process that spans three distinct stages. To be successful thinkers, learners
must:

• develop a plan before approaching the task, such as the choice of the book. Is it being read
for information or for the pleasure of a story?

• monitor their understanding and use “fix-up” strategies when the meaning of a text
becomes lost.

• evaluate their thinking after completing the task. Does that book provide the information
they were looking for? Did they like how the author chose to portray the character?

Metacognition can be enhanced through practicing the following strategies:

• Activating prior knowledge

• Making inferences

• Using knowledge of text structures

• Generating and answering questions

• Retelling and summarizing

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Supporting Reading
Comprehension Skill Development

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 One way to help learners develop their responsiveness to text is through reading aloud. Read-
alouds are an excellent way to share a variety of text forms, model reading comprehension
strategies, strengthen oral comprehension, and stimulate discussions. Educators can use
questions to guide or focus the discussion. As well, questions can be used to encourage learners
to reflect further and deepen their response.

Read-Alouds
Reading aloud to students is an essential component of any reading program. It is one of the
best ways to interest a learner in reading and to demonstrate that reading can be enjoyable
and worthwhile. Reading with children is more than reading to children. “Reading with children
involves an ongoing conversation with them. It means stopping, asking, listening, responding,
explaining and commenting” (Weitzman & Greenberg, 2010).

Questioning
Researcher John Hattie (2009) reports that educators ask about 300–400 questions a day, the
majority of which are low-level cognitive questions. In fact, 60% of questions asked are recall
questions (e.g., “What was the name of the child in the story?”), another 20% are procedural
questions (e.g.,“Where did the child go?”), and the remaining 20% require the learners to think
more deeply.

Educators can increase the number of higher-order questions asked during the instructional day
so that learners can express their ideas more thoroughly. Examples include the following:

• “What does this remind you of?”

• “Why do you think _______ ?”

• “Tell me about this part/picture. Now, tell me more.”

• “Have you ever _______ ? Explain?”

See Appendix C for questions that help learners identify the gist of the story, predict-verify-
decide, visualize-verify-decide, summarize, think aloud, and solve problems.

Wondering
Reading to learners helps them to understand the nature and purposes of reading. The Atlantic
Canada English Language Arts Curriculum Elementary: K–3 (1998) explains that it also helps
them become familiar with the patterns of written language. It can interest them in different
types of literature and different authors. Reading aloud can also be used to model effective
reading strategies and to help learners build awareness and understanding of such strategies
(e.g., predicting, making connections, creating visual images, and rereading when they don’t
understand). It has been shown to have positive effects on the following:

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 • Reading comprehension

• Listening comprehension

• Quality of oral and written language

• Reading interests

“Wondering” helps a reader predict and make

inferences about a text. Model “wondering” through
a read-aloud of a book or passage. As you read
through the text, use the following prompts:

• “I am wondering ...”

• “I think _______ will happen.”

• “I imagine that ...”

• “Maybe _______ will happen ...”

• “I predict ...”

See Appendix D to read more about how learners

can learn to “think like a reader” and “act like a
reader.” These are important skills that support
comprehension.

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 Reading Comprehension
Skills and Knowledge in
the Classroom

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Duke and Pearson (2002) state that “comprehension instruction should be balanced. By this
we mean that good comprehension instruction includes both explicit instruction in specific
comprehension strategies and a great deal of time and opportunity for actual reading, writing,
and discussion of text.”

In this sense, comprehension instruction is similar to that of phonics instructions. It needs to be

explicit and begins with direct, intentional teaching with a clear objective (Archer & Hughes,
2011). Instruction also needs to allow for ample time for learners to read, write, and talk.

Reading and Writing

To be a skilled reader and writer, learners
need “phonemic knowledge, orthographic
knowledge, semantic knowledge, and
syntactic knowledge—all elements that are As with the other Building Blocks of
prevalent in reading and writing” (Moran & Reading skill areas, the scope and
Billen, 2018, p. 191–192). Given this overlap, it sequence of reading comprehension
makes sense that research has shown that outcomes can be found on the
when learners receive writing instruction, Building Blocks of Reading Continuum,
their reading fluency and comprehension organized by developmental phase
improves. progression.

Allington & Cunningham (1994) state that

“children who write become better readers.
Research has shown a clear benefit from connecting reading and writing and has also shown
that a writing program which includes instruction in specific informational text structures
improves both writing and reading comprehension” (p. 94).

Phases of Word Learning

Linea Ehri, an educational researcher, proposed the phases of word learning in 1995. This widely
recognized theory helps us to understand the phases learners move through towards proficient
reading. Each phase is characterized by a learner’s understanding and use of the alphabetic
system in their word reading. Phases range from pre-alphabetic, to partial alphabetic, to full
alphabetic, to consolidated alphabetic, to skilled reader.

Next we will examine each of the developmental phases of word learning, phase outcomes, and
suggested learning activities.

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 Pre-alphabetic to Partial
Alphabetic Phase: Reading
Comprehension

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Teaching Goal:

Pre-alphabetic to Partial Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension

To develop comprehension skills and knowledge by responding to and retelling stories read
aloud to progress learners to the partial alphabetic phase

End Outcomes
When being read to:

• Responds to stories read aloud/viewed by connecting information and events to

personal experiences (text-to-self)

• Retells one or two events in familiar stories orally

• Predicts a plausible next event in a story

• Talks about information in non-fiction texts and elements of a story from pictures
or read-alouds

• Retells the main events of a story orally or through own drawings, puppet plays, or
provided images

Checklist of Teaching “Must Haves”

• Big books with simple storylines

• Fables, fairy tales, and true stories

• Question prompts for use after read-alouds (e.g., comprehension cubes, anchor charts,
language experience charts, cue cards)

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 Activities to Encourage End of Phase Outcomes
Suggested learning activities for the pre-alphabetic to partial alphabetic phase are described below.
Activities in the pre-alphabetic to partial alphabetic phase support comprehension as learners are
being read to, which is developmentally appropriate for this phase.

Outcome: Responds to stories read aloud/viewed

by connecting information and events to personal
experiences (text-to-self)

Making text connections supports learner development of comprehension skills and knowledge
through the developmental phases of word reading. They begin by making text-to-self
connections and will progress to making text-to-text and text-to-world connections.

Activity: This Reminds Me Of ...

1. Create a language experience
chart with learners. Language
experience charts can be created
after a shared experience (e.g., a The part when …
read-aloud, an outdoor walk, a
Something reminds me of …
special school event, etc.).
This helps me understand
2. After a shared experience, record
the story better …
what the learners say on chart
paper. Through discussion, learners
will be encouraged to articulate
text-to-self experiences.

Naming alphabet letters quickly and confidently is called automaticity. It is the

fast, effortless identification of alphabet letter names and it is the first step in
fluency and reading comprehension. Comprehension is reliant on confident
readers who are not “bogged down” by unknown letters or sounds.

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Activity: Wordless Picture Books

Pre-alphabetic to Partial Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension

Wordless picture books provide learners the opportunity to orally tell their own stories based on
the illustrations. The overall theme of the story will match the illustrations, but the details will be
influenced by their own personal experiences and the prior knowledge they bring to the text.

Some favourite wordless picture books include the following:

• The Snowman by Raymond Briggs

• A Boy, A Dog, A Friend by Mercer Mayer

• Changes, Changes by Pat Hutchins

• Pancakes for Breakfast by Pat Hutchins

• Journey by Aaron Becker

• Red Sled by Lita Judge

• Chalk by Bill Thomson

Activity: Response Sheet

Graphic organizers can support learners as they respond to texts that they have heard or read.
Learners can draw pictures and/or write their thoughts on the graphic organizer. During this
developmental phase, a child can draw pictures and talk about their drawing in reference to the
text. Eventually they may add random shapes or letters to symbolize words (see Appendix E).

Activity: Oral or Visual Products

Response to text can be supported in a variety of ways. As well as responding personally and
critically, learners benefit from opportunities to respond by creating their own oral or visual
products.

Creative responses can be encouraged in the following ways:

• Creating puppet plays

• Role-playing

• Painting

• Telling a story

• Drawing

• Creating with clay

(Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum Elementary: K–3, 1998, p. 181)

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 Outcome: Retells one or two events in familiar stories
orally

Activity: Retelling a Story

Learning to retell a story takes time and
requires practice. Learners can begin to According to the Atlantic Canada
retell one or two events orally, using familiar Language Arts Curriculum Elementary:
stories. As well, learners can retell the main K–3, the first read-aloud should focus on
events orally or through pictures, and they reading for meaning and enjoyment. On
may require prompts. As learners progress, successive readings, model retelling of
they can be expected to sequence events events and invite learners to participate.
and provide some general supportive details.
Before asking a learner to retell a story, read
the story several times and model how to
retell a story.

Activity: Sketch to Stretch

Sketch to Stretch encourages learners to make meaning and draw what they see while listening.
Prior to asking learners to retell through drawing, model the steps below:

1. Read a story or poem to the children.

2. Ask the children to “make a picture” in their head about something they remember in the
story (e.g., event or character).

3. Tell them to draw what they see.

4. Remind them it is a simple sketch and doesn’t need a lot of details. Model this for the learners.

5. Set a brief time limit and ask the learners to draw.

6. When the time is complete, have the learners share their sketch with a partner. The goal is
not to have an exceptional drawing but to use a drawing to help with retelling one or two
events in a familiar story.
(Trehearne, 2004)

Outcome: Predicts a plausible next event in a story

Activity: Prediction Practice

Having prior knowledge is an important foundation for predicting. Background information
enables a learner to ask questions and relate their experiences to what they think might happen
next in a text.
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 Pre-alphabetic to Partial Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension
What’s the Difference Between Predicting and Inferencing?

Predicting

We use our schema (background knowledge) and clues in a book to guess what will
happen. A prediction is typically confirmed or denied by further reading.

Inferencing

Inferences are not always clearly confirmed or denied. We use our schema
(background knowledge) and clues in a book to infer a character’s feelings or actions.

Sometimes a learner enters school with little knowledge of print concepts and have fewer
personal experiences than their peers. Teachers can encourage prediction by modelling how to
ask questions as they read during a read-aloud (e.g., “I think ... is going to happen because ...”).

Using pictures can also help children to predict what will happen next. Before a read-aloud, take
a picture walk through the book and model to the learners how to ask questions (e.g., “I see the
boy went to the farm. I wonder if he’ll ... I think he’s going to ...”).

As well, oral comprehension is an important element of prediction. Learners need to be able to

listen to a story and make sense of what they hear to predict what will happen next.

Picture Books to Encourage Inferencing Picture Books to Encourage Predicting

Two Bad Ants by Chris Van Allsburg I Went Walking by Sue Williams

Fireflies by Julie Brinkloe What Do You Do with a Tail Like This? by

Steven Jenkins & Robin Page
Duck! Rabbit! by Amy Krouse Rosenthal
Elmer and Rose by David McKee
Shhh We Have a Plan by Chris Haughton
The Doorbell Rang by Pat Hutchkins
Grandfather Twilight by Barbara Berger
If You Give a Mouse a Cookie by Laura Joffe
Top and Bottom by Janet Stevens Numeoff

The Little Mouse, The Red Ripe Strawberry Doctor De Soto by William Steig
and The Big Hungry Bear by Don and
Audrey Wood Sylvester and the Magic Pebble by William
Steig

Enemy Pie by Derek Munson

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 Outcome: Talks about information in non-fiction texts
and elements of a story from pictures or read-alouds

Activity: Developing Oral Language and Comprehension During Read-

Alouds
Asking questions before, during, and after reading is a strategy that supports comprehension
in all content areas. In her book Multiple Paths to Literacy, Miriam Trehearne (2016) provides
questions to ask before, during, and after reading.

Before Reading During Reading After Reading

• Tell me about the cover • Consider not stopping • Play “I Remember”—

of the book. too frequently because children listen to
children may lose focus a read-aloud and
• Tell me what you on the story. It is more share something they
already know. effective to stop during remember.
• I think I will learn a re-reading of the text.
• Play “Say Something”—
______. an open-ended
• We have read another strategy to get
book like this. How the conversation
do you think the two going. Children say
books might be similar, something to a partner,
different? small, or whole group.

• Tell your partner • Play “On the Page-

what you predict will Off the Page”—an
happen in this book. activity that supports
Say, “I predict ______” listening and reading
or “I think I will learn comprehension.
______.” Teacher asks questions
and learners decide
• Do a picture walk of if it’s on the page or
the cover and few an inference (save
key pages to help the this activity for later
children predict what phases).
might happen next.

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 Pre-alphabetic to Partial Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension
Outcome: Retells the main events of a story orally or
through own drawings, puppet plays, or provided images

Activity: Teaching Learners to Retell

Step 1—Begin with a direct explanation:

• Explain to learners why they retell. Retellings help them to understand better what they hear
and what they read.

• Help learners understand that retelling happens every day (e.g., jokes, personal stories).
Tell learners a favourite personal story and encourage learners to retell their own personal
stories.

• Pick a favourite story. Read the story/nursery rhyme to the learners. A big book is best for a
shared reading.

• Finger plays or nursery rhymes are great stories for retelling. The children can do the
actions for the nursery rhyme which further helps with the retelling: “Jack be Nimble, Jack be
Quick, Jack JUMPED over the ... ”.

• Share key elements of narrative retelling. Write the components on chart paper and draw
pictures to go with each element. Start “small” at first and talk about the setting, characters,
and main idea. Add on as the learners become better at retelling.

Steps 2 & 3—Model retelling and collaborate:

• Read the story again and have the learners listen for key elements.

• Now retell the story to the learners and ask if your retelling was correct. Use picture
prompts with pictures of characters and key elements of the story. These can be simple
drawings on recipe cards and placed in a pocket chart as you tell the story.

• On another retelling, mix-up some of the elements. Ask the learners if the story works
“mixed up.” Why or why not?

Step 4—Guide practice:

• Have learners do buddy retelling by taking turns retelling the story with a pocket chart,
felt board, manipulatives (e.g., small animals, people, or props), or puppet centre. They can
check on each other’s retelling.

• Have small groups of learners each take a part of the story and retell it together. Use a
“talking stick.” Children sit in a circle and when the teller lays down the “talking stick” it
is time for the next person to tell their part. Model this first. Children can make their own
“talking sticks” out of paper towel holders at an Art Centre.

(Trehearne, 2004)

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 Partial Alphabetic to Full
Alphabetic Phase: Reading
Comprehension

22 22
Teaching Goal:

Partial Alphabetic to Full Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension

To develop comprehension skills and knowledge by making inferences, recognizing simple text
forms, and retelling stories read aloud to progress learners to the full alphabetic phase

End Outcomes
When being read to:

• Makes simple inferences about a main character in texts

• Uses basic text features to gain obvious information

• Retells the sequence of events from beginning, middle, and end

• Elaborates on a main topic using a retell or illustrations, providing a few simple

details

• Recognizes some simple text forms and basic characteristics

Checklist of Teaching “Must Haves”

• Big books with simple storylines

• A wide variety of text forms

• Fables, fairy tales, and true stories

• Question prompts for use after read-alouds (e.g., comprehension cubes, anchor charts, cue
cards, graphic organizers)

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 Activities to Encourage End of Phase Outcomes
Suggested learning activities for the partial alphabetic to full alphabetic phase are described
below. Activities in the partial alphabetic to full alphabetic phase support comprehension as
learners are being read to, which is developmentally appropriate for this phase.

Outcome: Makes simple inferences about a main

character in texts

Activity: All About Me Tubs—Practicing Inferencing

Create a Me Tub at the beginning of the year and put in items that show things you like to do
(e.g., ski boots, recipe book, dog leash, and running shoes). Pull the mystery items out of the Me
Tub one at a time and ask the children to infer what each item says about you.

Encourage the learners to create their own Me Tubs and present them to the class.

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 Partial Alphabetic to Full Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension
Outcome: Uses basic text features to gain obvious
information

Activity: Going on a Text Features Walk

Before reading a story or non-fiction text, tell the learners you are “going on a text features
walk.” Take a picture walk through the book and share how text features help us understand
(comprehend) a book. Explore the following elements:

Fiction Text Feature Purpose of Text Feature

Title Tells reader what the story is about

Table of Contents Shows different chapters in a longer book

Headings Tells the main idea of that section of the story

Pictures Shows important parts of the story

Non-Fiction Text Feature Purpose of Text Feature

Title Tells reader information about what the book is about

Table of Contents Shows different parts of the book

Glossary Tells important words

Headings Tells the main idea of that section of the book

Pictures Shows important parts of topics in the book

Diagrams Shows important topics in the the book through

drawings

Maps Shows places related to the main idea of the book

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 Outcome: Retells the sequence of events from beginning,
middle, and end

Activity: Beginning, Middle, End—Story Board

Using the Beginning, Middle, and End graphic organizer can support sequencing by helping
learners identify beginning, middle, and end details in fiction texts. This may include descriptions
of setting, characters, or plot. Use this on the board or on chart paper to guide learner responses
as a whole or small group (see Appendix F).

Outcome: Elaborates on a main topic using a retell or

illustrations, providing a few simple details

Activity: Scoops of Details

Using the Scoops of Details graphic organizer can support retelling by helping learners identify
additional details or illustrations to support the main topic in fiction texts. Use this on the board
or on chart paper to guide learner responses as a whole or small group (see Appendix G).

(Adapted from Graff-Silver, 2003)

Activity: Identifying Main Idea Graphic Organizers

Using the Main Idea graphic organizers can support learners as they attempt to identify
supporting details for important ideas. Use these on the board or on chart paper to guide learner
responses as a whole or small group (see Appendix H).

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 Partial Alphabetic to Full Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension
Outcome: Recognizes some simple text forms and basic
characteristics

Activity: Building a Classroom Library

The best way for learners to recognize simple text forms and basic characteristics of a book
is to be read to daily and to be exposed to a wide selection of books. Build your classroom
library to include many kinds of genres. Simple text forms might include poems, letters, stories,
informational texts, etc. Basic characteristics might include title, author, and illustrator.

Keep a chart of the books you read under simple headings. Have the children draw mini pictures
to go with each sample book.

Books We’ve Read

Text forms Names of Books

Fiction books—stories

Letters

Poems

Non-fiction text

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 Full Alphabetic to
Consolidated Alphabetic Phase:
Reading Comprehension

28
Teaching Goal:

Full Alphabetic to Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension

To develop comprehension skills and knowledge by making inferences, connections, and predictions;
asking questions of stories read aloud and independently; and self-monitoring understanding to
progress learners to the consolidated alphabetic phase

End Outcomes
When being read to:

• Makes simple comparisons (text-to-text) and conclusions

• Makes simple inferences about a main character’s actions/feelings, using

concrete examples from the text; may require prompting

• Makes personal connections and relates prior knowledge to text

• Recognizes that a character’s actions/motives may be related to the conflict

• Retells main idea of a story and the events and provides some general
details in a variety of texts

When being read to and reading independently:

• Asks questions to understand texts

• Uses text features to gain obvious information

• Identifies a few simple text forms and describes the general purpose of
the form

• Makes predictions to support comprehension

When reading independently:

• Self-monitors for comprehension by rereading, reading on, or slowing down

• Retells the main events of a story and main ideas from nonfiction texts, orally

Checklist of Teaching “Must Haves”

• A wide variety of text forms

• Fables, fairy tales, and true stories

• Question prompts for use after read-alouds (e.g., comprehension cubes, anchor charts, cue
cards, graphic organizers)

29
 Activities to Encourage End of Phase Outcomes
Suggested learning activities for the full alphabetic to consolidated phase are described below.
Activities in the full alphabetic to consolidated phase support comprehension as learners are
being read to and reading on their own, which is developmentally appropriate for this phase.

Outcome: Makes simple comparisons (text-to-text) and

conclusions

Activity: Text-to-Text with Different Authors

In the full-alphabetic to consolidated phase, learners begin to make simple comparisons between
books. These comparisons are called text-to-text connections.

An author study of a favourite author provides opportunities to look for comparisons. Draw a
table or a Venn diagram to organize the comparisons you discuss as a group.

A little boy becomes very nervous when his teacher

asks him to bring his very favourite book to school. He
works really hard to find a solution and his teacher and
classmates are so impressed.

When her school decides to perform Peter Pan, Grace wants

to play Peter, but her classmates don’t think she can. Grace’s
Ma and Nana tell her she can be anything she wants if she
puts her mind to it.

Activity: Same, but Different?

Reading different versions of the same fairy tale is a great way to encourage simple text-to-text
comparisons. Learners enjoy seeing the varying twists of a familiar tale and can have fun playing,
“I spy with my little eye, something that is same (or different)!” (see Appendix I for the Same, but
Different graphic organizer).

30
 Full Alphabetic to Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension
Outcome: Makes simple inferences about a main
character’s actions/feelings, using concrete examples
from the text; may require prompting

Activity: Become a Character

An effective way to retell a story is to take turns being the character. When learners pretend
to be a character, they can begin to imagine how the character feels and develop a greater
understanding of the character’s actions.

Young children do this naturally when they are provided opportunities to play and retell a story
with puppets and dramatic props. Guide their understanding by asking key questions:

• “How do you think ________ felt about that?”

• “How do you know?”

• “What did they do?”

Activity: Read Stories with Strong Character Illustrations

Using picture books with strong character illustrations can help a learner see what a character is
thinking or feeling and provide a perfect opportunity to explore a character’s feelings or actions.

See examples below:

Activity: My Character
Using the My Character graphic organizer can support understanding of character development
through questions about specific characters. As well, this graphic organizer supports inferential
thinking and encourages learners to look for textual evidence to support ideas (see Appendix J).

31
 Outcome: Makes personal connections and relates prior
knowledge to text

Background knowledge is an essential element of reading comprehension. The more that a

learner knows about a topic, the easier it is for them to read and understand the text. It is also
easier for them to retain information. Comprehension of text is aided by activating this prior
knowledge.

Activity: Using Our Schema—Let’s Describe a Cat

We all bring something different to a text, depending on our prior knowledge and experiences.

Have learners think of as many words as they can to describe a familiar animal (e.g., cat—fluffy,
fuzzy, furry, sleeps a lot, lazy, plays with yarn, likes to chase mice, etc.). This activity can be done
as a whole class activity or small guided reading group. Write the words on chart paper and talk
about their differences and similarities.

Emphasize to the children how we think of different things according to our experiences (prior
knowledge or schema). We use schema all the time when we are reading, without even thinking
about it.

Activity: Before and After

Using the Before and After graphic organizer can help learners articulate what they know
about a topic before they hear a text and what they know afterwards. This supports learner
understanding of the role prior knowledge plays in comprehension (see Appendix K).

Outcome: Recognizes that a character’s actions/motives

may be related to the conflict

Activity: Read All About It!

Reading books with social justice themes provides an opportunity to explore a character’s
actions, motives, and feelings.

Using open-ended questions encourages learners to articulate feelings and observations, and
also supports critical literacy. Open-ended questions might include the following:

• “What does this remind you of?”

• “What do you think?”

• “Have you ever … ?”

• “Tell me about the picture. Now tell me more … “

32
See examples of books with strong themes below:

Full Alphabetic to Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension

Outcome: Retells main idea of a story and the events and
provides some general details in a variety of texts

Activity: Five Finger Retell

Using the Five Ringer Retell graphic organizer can help learners extend their retell by prompting
setting, characters, problem, events, solution, and main idea details of a story (see Appendix L).

Outcome: Asks questions to understand texts

Activity: Modelling
Modelling the types of questions readers ask can be done during a read-aloud. While reading
aloud, show learners how to form questions that help with comprehension by thinking aloud.

For example, during the read-aloud, think out loud while you consider these questions:

• “I wonder what this means … ”

• “Do we think this might mean … ?”

• “Why might this character say this?”

• “How does this character feel?”

Planning read-alouds in advance helps to identify questions appropriate for before reading,
during reading, and after reading.

33
 Consider some of the following “questioning” examples below:

Questioning before reading and during a picture walk

• What do you think might happen in the story? (predicting)

• Who/what is the story about? (predicting)

Questioning during reading

• Do you remember the part when … ? Let’s read it again.

• What do you think will happened next? (predicting)

• Is there a problem and will it be solved? (predicting)

Questioning to understand
Should I …

• use my best guess?

• ignore and read on?

• reread or look back?

• reread out loud to myself? (whisper read)

• slow down?

• ask for help?

Questioning after reading

• What happened in that story? (retelling)

• What happened first, next, next, last? (retelling)

• Was there a problem in the story? How was it solved? (retelling)

• Did you like that story? Why? Why not? (responding)

• What was your favourite part? (responding)

• Does that story remind you of anything or another story? (responding)

Outcome: Uses text features to gain obvious information

Activity: How to Read Non-Fiction

Learners may indicate that a non-fiction text is “too hard” even though the text complexity may
be appropriate. This is especially true of non-fiction texts if a learner has limited experience with
this form. Reviewing how to read a non-fiction text is beneficial.

34
Share the following information about

Full Alphabetic to Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension

reading non-fiction with your learners:
Supportive Strategies for Read-
• Read non-fiction books differently ing Non-fiction Text
than fiction books

• Pick and choose what you want • Preview the text and visuals
to read—you don’t have to read • Always set a purpose for
beginning-to-end or top-to-bottom reading
like fiction stories
• Make predictions
• Look at the text features―pictures,
labels, and captions • Reflect on background
knowledge of the topic
• Read a few sentences, “here and
there”

Activity: What I Read/What I Think

Using the What I Read/What I Think graphic organizer encourages learners to read between
the lines and make inferences and conclusions using supportive evidence from the text (see
Appendix M).

Outcome: Identifies a few simple text forms and

describes the general purpose of the form

Activity: How Are They Different?—Fiction and Non-fiction Text

Help learners understand the difference between the text forms, fiction and non-fiction. Sort
books into two piles—not real (i.e., fiction) and real (i.e., non-fiction). Encourage learners to
observe and list the features that are different, such as illustrations, covers, and titles.

To extend the activity, have learners identify ways in which books can be further sorted.

Fiction Non-fiction

Not real Real

Story talk Real talk

Read to enjoy Read to learn

Read in order—beginning/middle/end Read in any order

35
 Illustrations Photos/charts/graphs

Characters/settings Table of contents

Problem/solution Index, glossary, bold words, labels

True information/directions

Outcome: Makes predictions to support comprehension

Activity: Predicting or Inferencing?

Share the definition of predicting and inferencing with learners. What’s the difference between
predicting and inferencing? Inferences are not always clearly confirmed or denied. We use our
schema (background knowledge) and clues in a book to infer a character’s feelings or actions.
Predicting is different. We still use our schema (background knowledge) and clues in a book
to guess or predict what will happen. A prediction is typically confirmed or denied by further
reading.

Provide examples of predictions and inferences from a familiar text, and have learners do the
same (e.g., I predict the Lorax will continue to speak for the trees and I infer the Lorax was very
sad that the trees were chopped down but hopeful that the forest could be saved).

Outcome: Self-monitors for comprehension by rereading,

reading on, or slowing down

Reading aloud and modelling how to self-monitor supports the development of comprehension
strategies. Re-reading, reading on, and slowing down can be introduced in whole class groups
and practiced in a small guided reading group and during independent reading.

It is important to do the following first:

• Explain what the strategy is

• Model how to use it

• Describe when to use it

36
 Full Alphabetic to Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Reading Comprehension
You know you need a fix-up strategy
when:

• the pictures inside your mind stop

forming.

• you cannot answer your own

questions.

• your mind wanders from the text;

you read it, but are thinking about
something else.

• the page you are now reading has

nothing to do with what you thought
the text was about.

• you cannot explain what you have

just read.

• the characters appear and you

cannot remember who they are.

(Zwiers, 2004, p. 134)

Outcome: Retells the main events of a story and main

ideas from non-fiction texts, orally

Activity: Scoops of Details

Using the Scoops of Details graphic
organizer can support retelling by Reading Out Loud
helping learners organize and jot down
additional details to support the main Early readers will often sub-
events in fiction texts and main ideas vocalize as they read. This helps
in non-fiction texts. Learners can use with comprehension. Reading
their notes to support retelling main orally with a friend also helps
events and ideas orally (see Appendix G). with comprehension as learners
(Adapted from Graff-Silver, 2003) have the opportunity to talk about
what they are reading and receive
feedback from a peer, adult, or
reading buddy.

37
 Consolidated Alphabetic
to Skilled Reader Phase:
Reading Comprehension

38
Teaching Goal:

Consolidated Alphabetic to Skilled Reader Phase: Reading Comprehension

To develop more proficient comprehension skills and knowledge by making inferences,
connections, and predictions; asking questions of stories read aloud and independently; and
self-monitoring understanding to progress learners to the skilled reader phase

End Outcomes
When being read to and reading independently:

• Identifies specific facts found in one place in the text

• Uses text features to gain additional information from the text

• Makes obvious comparisons (text-to-text) and recognizes the direct

relationship among ideas to draw conclusions

• Identifies a few simple text forms; describes overall characteristics and

general purpose

• Makes predictions to support comprehension

• Uses context to support comprehension

• Makes simple inferences about a character’s actions/feelings and story

events, providing some general textual details

• Answers what if, how, and why questions

When reading independently:

• Self-monitors and uses self-correcting strategies to maintain meaning

Checklist of Teaching “Must Haves”

• A wide variety of text forms

• Question prompts for use after read-alouds (e.g., comprehension cubes, anchor charts, cue
cards, graphic organizers)

• Comprehension self-assessments

39
 Activities to Encourage End of Phase Outcomes
Suggested learning activities for the consolidated alphabetic to skilled reader phase are
described below. Activities in the consolidated alphabetic to skilled reader phase support
comprehension as learners are being read to and reading on their own, which is developmentally
appropriate for this phase.

Outcome: Identifies specific facts found in one place

in the text

Activity: Sticky Note Facts

Select a familiar non-fiction text. Go through the text together and pick out key words and
important facts. Record this information on sticky notes and ask learners to help organize the
sticky notes on chart paper.

Select a different text and have learners use sticky notes to record key words in a text and the
most important information. Ask learners to explain why they felt certain words and facts were
more important than others.

Non-fiction Text Features

• Table of contents

• Heading

• Sub-heading

• Index

• Photograph

• Caption

• Graph

• Contents

• Type of print (e.g., bold, italic, and

highlighted)

• Map

• Diagram

40
 Consolidated Alphabetic to Skilled Reader Phase: Reading Comprehension
Outcome: Uses text features to gain additional
information from the text

Activity: CATS Pre-reading Strategy

Identify and define various text features with learners. Have learners use the CATS pre-reading
strategy to assess text features to determine what they know about a book before reading it.

C What do the front and back COVERS tell us about the books?

A What do you know about the AUTHOR and other books [they] may have written?

T What does the TITLE suggest the book is about?

SKIM the text. Do you notice any pictures, charts, drawings, diagrams, and maps?
S
Now make your prediction of what the text is about and decide if you want to read it.

(Trehearne, 2006, p. 181)

41
 Outcome: Makes obvious comparisons (text-to-text)
and recognizes the direct relationship among ideas
to draw conclusions

Activity: Same but Different

Using the Same but Different graphic organizer can encourage learners to make text-to-text
comparisons and draw conclusions (e.g., Something happened to this character, so I can assume
it might happen to another character in the same setting) (see Appendix I).

Outcome: Identifies a few simple text forms;

describes overall characteristics and general
purpose

Activity: Texts, Texts, Texts!

A learner’s ability to identify text forms develops from being exposed to a wide variety of books
through read-alouds, guided reading sessions, and their own personal browsing and reading of
text.

Keep a chart of the books read throughout the year and list them under the various text forms.

Text Forms

Narrative Instructions/Procedures Persuasive

• Poetry • Recipes • Letters

• Novels • Rule books • Articles
• Short stories • Directions and maps • Explanatory report
• Picture books • Instruction manuals • Descriptive report
• Comics • “How to” books and
• Wordless books posters

• Recount • Experiments

• Diary
• Journals
• Memoirs

42
 Consolidated Alphabetic to Skilled Reader Phase: Reading Comprehension
Adventure Autobiography Biography Classics

Comics Fables Fairy tales Fantasy

Historical Humour Informational Legends and

Fiction books folktales

Manuals (e.g., Memoir Mystery Newspapers

vehicles,
appliances, and
electronics)

Picture Books Poetry Realistic fiction Science fiction

Sports

Activity: CATS Pre-reading Strategy

Identify and define various text features with learners. Have learners use the CATS pre-reading
strategy to assess text features to determine what they know about a book before reading it.

Outcome: Makes predictions to support

comprehension

Activity: Predicting for Meaning

Have learners select texts and practice predicting “what will happen next” in small groups. Once
learners have made predictions, they can read ahead as a group or individually to confirm their
prediction is correct. Discuss with learners why their predictions are correct or incorrect and
what makes a good prediction.

See prompt question examples below:

Questioning before reading and during a picture walk

• What do you think might happen in the story? (predicting)

• Who/what is the story about? (predicting)

Questioning during reading

• What do you think will happened next? (predicting)

• Is there a problem and will it be solved? (predicting)

43
 Outcome: Uses context to support comprehension
Outcome: Makes simple inferences about a
character’s actions/feelings and story events,
providing some general textual details

Activity: Context and Comprehension

Select an unfamiliar text. Go through the text together and pick out main ideas or important facts.
Record this information and ask learners to help identify context that supports comprehension of
main ideas and important facts (e.g., “I think Grandma will be upset because she told Youssef not
to leave the house three times” or “I think this larvae will turn into a moth because this book is
about the beautiful patterns in nature”).

Activity: Drama to Enhance Comprehension

Drama is an excellent way to enhance comprehension. See examples below:

Tableau: A tableau is like frozen tag. A learner or a group of learners pose like frozen statues
to represent a scene. Learners are encouraged to think of a character’s facial expressions and
movements and can use costumes, props, or a painted backdrop to help with the scene.

Mime: Mime is acting without words. Learners can use hand and body movements and facial
expressions to express an idea or a character’s feelings. Practice miming actions by having
learners pretend to do the following:

• Ride a roller coaster

• Catch a fish

• Ice skate

• Mow the lawn

• Walk on a balance beam

• Play a team sport (e.g., hockey, basketball)

• Drive a bus

Role-play: Learners can take on the role of a character and are encouraged to retell a part of a
story from the character’s perspective.

Activity: Practice Inferencing with “Whose Shoes Are These?”

1. Show several different kinds of shoes to learners (e.g., running shoes, dress shoes, sandals,
work boots, rain boots, golf shoes, and soccer cleats).

44
2. Pick one pair of shoes and ask the learners: “Who do you think wears this pair of shoes?”

Consolidated Alphabetic to Skilled Reader Phase: Reading Comprehension

3. Then ask: “What makes you say that?”

4. Encourage learners to point out specific details on the shoes to support their ideas.

5. As an extension of this activity, you can write the word “inferencing” at the top of a piece
of chart paper and then, “Schema + Evidence = Inference.” Explain that schema is the prior
knowledge and the evidence is what we observe about the shoes.

The word homonym can refer to three distinct classes of words:

• Words with identical pronunciations but different spellings and

meanings (e.g., to, too, and two)

• Words with both identical pronunciations and identical spellings but

different meanings (e.g., quail the bird and quail to cringe)

• Words spelled alike but are different in pronunciation and meaning

(e.g., the bow of a ship and a bow that shoots arrows)

The first and second types are sometimes called homophones. The second
and third types are sometimes called homographs—which makes naming the
second type a bit confusing. Some language scholars prefer to limit homonyms
to the third type (see Appendix N for more information on homonyms).

Outcome: Answers what if, how, and why questions

Activity: Trivia Game Show!

1. Create simple trivia questions using “what if,” “how,” and “why” questions.

2. Have learners work in teams to find the answers to the questions (e.g., How are chocolate
bars made?; Why does a kangaroo live in its mom’s pouch?; What if school closes early
today?).

3. Provide learners with time to answer questions and share with their peers.

4. After they have shared, have learners create their own “what if,” “how,” and “why” questions
and pass them to another group to answer.

45
 Self-monitors and uses self-correcting strategies to
maintain meaning

Activity: Click and Clunk—Self-Monitoring and Self-Correcting

Miriam Trehearne (2006) refers to a click as a part of the text that is understood and a clunk as
part of the text that is not understood, causing the reader to stop. Model clicking and clunking
through a “think aloud.” Explain, when learners read and everything makes sense they are
“clicking” along, but as soon as things don’t make sense, there is a “clunk,” and they need to stop.

Have learners use sticky notes with questions marks. When learners come to a “clunk” they can
place a sticky note with a question mark on the tricky part and choose a “fix-up strategy” to help
to make meaning of the text (see Appendix O for an independent reading self-assessment).

Choosing a “Good Fit” Book

“I suggest students use the “five-finger test” to help them choose books at an appropriate
reading level. I show them how to use their fingers to keep track of each word they have
difficulty with. If there are five or more such words on the first page, I suggest they
return the book and try another”.

(Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum Elementary, 1998)

46
Assessment of Reading
Comprehension Skills
and Knowledge

47
 Running Records
The Guidelines for Running/Reading Record Assessment for Kindergarten to Grade 6 states that
running records provide “a reliable assessment of oral reading of a continuous text by capturing
what a student knows and understands about the reading process” (p. 4). By observing learners
during a running record, educators can assess a learner’s understanding as they process a text.
Listening to a learner read can tell us a lot about how a learner tackles a text and the types of
reading comprehension strategies they use.

When used to assess a learner’s reading comprehension, running records are useful in several
ways. Engaging and Exploring Running Records (2012) suggest that they are helpful in:

• determining what learners are doing as they are reading.

• observing the strategies learners use while they are problem solving.

• informing and planning instruction for whole group, small group, and individual learners.

• assessing text difficulty in matching texts to readers.

• monitoring children’s progress over time.

• closely observing learners who have particular difficulty in the area of reading
comprehension.

Guided Reading
A guided reading is an effective way to formatively assess and to teach reading comprehension
strategies. In a guided reading group, educators work with a small number of learners who are
grouped according to their needs. During guided reading, educators can help learners develop
comprehension strategies by focussing on reading behaviours before, during, and after reading
and develop reading strategies (e.g., predicting, checking, and self-correcting).

See Appendix P for more information on comprehension strategies and instructional practice.

48
49
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Starr, J. (2020). Teaching with Jillian Starr. https://jillianstarrteaching.com/classroom-library-

organization/

Stead, T. (2006). Reality checks: Teaching comprehension with nonfiction. Pembroke Publishers.

Taberski, Sharon. (2011). Comprehension from the ground up. Heinemann.

Texas Education Agency. (2002). Comprehension instruction. https://tea.texas.gov/sites/default/

files/redbk2.pdf

Trehearne, M. P. (2000). Kindergarten teacher’s resource book. Nelson Thomson Learning.

Trehearne, M. P. (2004). Language arts grades 1–2 teacher’s resource book. Nelson Education.

Trehearne, M. P. et al., (2006). Comprehensive literacy resource for grades 3-6 teacher’s resource
book. Nelson Education.

Trehearne, M. P. (2016). Multiple paths to literacy. Nelson Education.

Weitzman, E. & Greenberg, J. (2002). Learning language and loving it guidebook. Dart Products.

Weitzman, E. & Greenberg, J. (2010). ABC and Beyond: Building Emergent Literacy Strategies in
Early Childhood Settings. The Hanen Centre.

Zull, J. (2011). From brain to mind: Using neuroscience to guide change in education. Stylus
Publishing.

Zwiers, J. (2004). Building reading comprehension habits in grades 6–12: A toolkit of classroom
activities. International Reading Association.

53
 Appendix A:
New Brunswick Global Competencies
Critical Thinking and Innovation, Creativity, Self-Awareness and
Problem-Solving and Entrepreneurship Self-Management

• Engages in an inquiry process • Displays curiosity, identifies • Has self-efficacy, sees

to solve problems opportunities for improvement themselves as learners, and
and learning, and believes in believes that they can make
• Acquires, processes, interprets, their ability to improve life better for themselves and
synthesizes, and critically others
analyzes information to make • Views errors as part of the
informed decisions (i.e., critical improvement process • Develops a positive identity,
and digital literacy) sense of self, and purpose from
• Formulates and expresses their personal and cultural
• Selects strategies, resources, insightful questions and qualities
and tools to support their opinions to generate novel
learning, thinking, and ideas • Develops and identifies
problem-solving personal, educational, and
• Turns ideas into value for career goals, opportunities, and
• Evaluates the effectiveness of others by enhancing ideas pathways
their choices or products to provide new-
to-the-world or improved • Monitors their progress
• Sees patterns, makes solutions to complex social,
connections, and transfers their ecological, and economic • Perseveres to overcome
learning from one situation to problems or to meet a need in challenges
another, including real-world a community
applications • Adapts to change and is
• Takes risks in their thinking and resilient in adverse situations
• Analyzes the functions and creating
interconnections of social, • Aware of, manages, and
ecological, and economic • Discovers through inquiry expresses their emotions,
systems research, hypothesizing, thoughts, and actions in order
and experimenting with new to understand themselves and
• Constructs, relates, and applies strategies or techniques others
knowledge to all domains of
life, such as school, home, • Seeks and makes use • Manages their holistic well-
work, friends, and community of feedback to clarify being (e.g., mental, physical,
understanding, ideas, and and spiritual)
• Solves meaningful, real-life, products
and complex problems by • Accurately self-assesses their
taking concrete steps to • Enhances concepts, ideas, or current level of understanding
address issues and design and products through a creative or proficiency
manage projects process • Advocates for support based
• Formulates and expresses on their strengths, needs, and
questions to further their how they learn best
understanding, thinking, and • Manages their time,
problem-solving environment, and
attention, including their
focus, concentration, and
engagement

54 Appendix A: New Brunswick Global Competencies

 Sustainability and
Collaboration Communication
Global Citizenship

• Participates in teams by • Expresses themselves using • Understands the

establishing positive and the appropriate communication interconnectedness of social,
respectful relationships, tools for the intended audience ecological, and economic
developing trust, and acting forces, and how they affect
interdependently and with • Creates a positive digital individuals, societies, and
integrity identity countries

• Learns from and contributes • Communicates effectively in • Recognizes discrimination and

to the learning of others by French and/or English and/ promotes principles of equity,
co-constructing knowledge, or Mi’kmaq or Wolastoqey human rights, and democratic
meaning, and content through a variety of media and participation
in a variety of contexts
• Assumes various roles on the • Understands Indigenous
team and respects a diversity • Gains knowledge about a worldviews, traditions, values,
of perspectives variety of languages beyond customs, and knowledge
their first and additional
• Addresses disagreements and languages • Learns from and with diverse
manages conflict in a sensitive people, develops cross-cultural
and constructive manner • Recognizes the strong understanding
connection between language
• Networks with a variety of and ways of knowing the world • Understands the forces that
communities/groups affect individuals and societies
• Asks effective questions to
• Appropriately uses an array of create a shared communication • Takes action and makes
technology to work with others culture, attends to understand responsible decisions that
all points of view, expresses support social settings, natural
• Fosters social well-being, their own opinions, and environments, and quality of
inclusivity, and belonging advocates for ideas life for all, now and in the future
for themselves and others
by creating and maintaining • Contributes to society and to
positive relationships with the culture of local, national,
diverse groups of people global, and virtual communities
in a responsible, inclusive,
• Demonstrates empathy for accountable, sustainable, and
others in a variety of contexts ethical manner

• Participates in networks in a
safe and socially responsible
manner

Appendix A: New Brunswick Global Competencies 55

 Appendix B:
Reading Comprehension Strategies
Proficient readers use a variety of strategies to construct meaning from texts. Most importantly,
they “think about their thinking” while reading; they monitor their understanding of text,
recognize when comprehension breaks down, and apply appropriate strategies to restore and/
or enhance understanding. This metacognitive understanding is the foundation upon which all
comprehension strategies are based. Reading comprehension strategies are the underlying
thinking strategies readers employ to sustain and enhance understanding of text. They may
be applied before, during, and/or after reading and rarely occur in isolation. Although these
comprehension strategies are listed and categorized separately below, they are most often used
simultaneously and interactively.

Effective comprehension strategy instruction includes an explicit description of the strategy and
an explanation of how, when, and why it should be used. The strategy should be first modelled by
the teacher, then followed by guided practice with the learners, and finally applied independently
by the learners (e.g., gradual release of responsibility). It is important to teach a strategy in the
context of reading, not as an isolated practice. Strategies are not an end in themselves, but rather
a means to an end, that of creating meaning from text.

Key to improvement in reading comprehension is learners’ understanding and application of

reading comprehension strategies. Although researchers and authors may vary in the number
of comprehension strategies they identify and in the labels they apply, there is agreement on a
number of key ideas.

Review eight different reading comprehension strategies below.

Self-Monitoring of Comprehension and Employing “Fix-up” Strategies

Proficient readers are constantly aware of their comprehension and recognize when and why
problems occur. They keep their purpose in mind and can apply appropriate “fix-up” strategies to
achieve their goal for reading.

Comprehension problems can occur for a variety of reasons and so learners might determine
that a word needs to be corrected, a sentence needs to be reread, or a large passage of text
needs to be summarized to restore comprehension.

Readers:

• are aware of purpose for reading.

• are aware of adequacy of understanding.

• know where a comprehension problem occurs (e.g., at word level/sentence level/text level).

56 Appendix B: Reading Comprehension Strategies

 • know which strategy/strategies to use to solve comprehension problems or enhance
understanding.

Making Connections
Proficient readers activate background knowledge to connect new information in texts with
prior experiences and understanding. They know what they “expect to find” in texts based on
knowledge of the topic and text form. As they are reading, they constantly weigh new information
with their previous knowledge. Based on these connections, they make predictions about “what
is coming next” and generate questions for which they seek answers.

Readers:

• use prior knowledge to make connections with information in the text.

• seek connections based on personal experience (text-self), encounters with other texts
(text-text), and general knowledge (text-world).

• use connections to assimilate new information, to make predictions, and to generate

questions.

Creating Sensory Images/Visualizing

Effective readers, while reading texts, invoke sensory and emotional experiences to create images
that help them better understand the text. Creating images helps readers fill in the gap between
what is stated and what is implied. Visualizing helps readers better understand ideas such as
comparisons (e.g., A blue whale is as long as two classrooms) and sequencing (e.g., First he went
to the corner store and then he went to the bus stop). Sensory images personalize reading and
keep readers engaged. Visualizing may be thought of as a form of inferring with images, instead
of words.

Readers:

• use prior knowledge and information in the text to create images arising from sensory and
emotional experiences.

• use images to better understand information in text.

Inferring
Proficient readers use information from the text and their own prior knowledge and experiences
to create meaning not explicitly stated in the text. Inferences are often required for making
predictions, drawing conclusions, and interpreting a character’s actions.

Readers:

• use prior knowledge and information from the text to go beyond literal understanding.

• use inferences to interpret text (e.g., make predictions, draw conclusions, make judgments).

Appendix B: Reading Comprehension Strategies 57

 Determining Importance of Ideas
Readers are faced with a large amount of visual and semantic information in texts and must
decide where and when to focus attention. Their decisions are closely related to forms of text and
their purposes for reading (e.g., “Am I skimming for information? Am I reading for pleasure?”). As
readers encounter information, they must determine important words, key sentences, and overall
main ideas and sift out nonessential information. A reader’s ability to make these decisions relies
on knowledge of text structure and text features. For example, readers do not have to pay close
attention to all details in a narrative but might be required to locate specific details in nonfiction
text.

Readers:

• are aware of the purpose for reading.

• are aware of significant information at word/sentence/text level.

• distinguish important information from unimportant information.

• use text structure and text features to locate information and determine importance.

• recognize main ideas and necessary supporting details.

Asking Questions and Seeking Answers

Proficient readers ask questions of themselves, authors, and texts. Questions help engage the
reader with texts as they seek information, confirm speculations, and clarify understanding.
Readers must recognize that some questions require locating specific details while others
requires understanding implied information; still other questions may not be answered in the text.

Readers:

• ask questions before, during, and after reading.

• form questions based on purpose for reading.

• form questions based on connections made with information in text.

• recognize that answers to questions may or may not be in the text.

Retelling, Summarizing, Synthesizing

In order to retell, summarize, or synthesize, readers must condense a large amount of information
into a meaningful unit. Retells and summaries require sifting important ideas from text, inferring
relationships between ideas, and relating a brief account. Synthesis, however, requires
analyzing these important ideas (parts) and reforming them into a cohesive whole, often with
new understandings for the reader. Synthesis is required when a reader asks―What does this
information mean to me?

58 Appendix B: Reading Comprehension Strategies

Readers:

• retell key components.

• identify main idea(s).

• relate “gist” of text, rather than full account of events/ideas.

• analyze the components of a text to make decisions about overall themes/ideas.

• integrate key information/ideas in a text with prior knowledge to form new understanding,
opinions, and/or perspectives.

Critiquing/Evaluating
Effective readers take an evaluative stance toward texts and make decisions regarding usefulness,
effectiveness, and truthfulness of texts. They form personal preferences and opinions and confirm
or alter beliefs based on their reading.

Readers:

• critique appropriateness of text for reader’s purpose and interest.

• identify author’s perspective and intent.

• evaluate author’s craft and effectiveness.

• identify stereotypes and bias.

• form personal opinions about ideas in text.

Note: Many of the strategies listed above require learners to be aware of their purposes for
reading and to make decisions based on their knowledge of text forms, structures, and features.
Although the study of text types is not described as a separate strategy, it is a valid teaching
point and provides learners with background knowledge they can use to deepen understanding.
The same rationale applies to learning how to use graphic organizers to manage information
from narrative and nonfiction texts. Although this technique is not listed as a separate strategy,
learners benefit from having a variety of ways to represent textual information to better record and
understand their thinking.

(Fountas & Pinnell, 2001; Harvy & Goudvis, 2000; Keene & Zimmerman, 1997; Miller, 2002; Serafini, 2004; Stead, 2006;
Trehearne, 2006)

Appendix B: Reading Comprehension Strategies 59

 Appendix C:
Sample Questions
• What is the story about?

• What is the problem?

To get the gist:
• What is the solution?

• What makes me think so?

• What’s going to happen next?

• Is my prediction still true?

To predict-verify-decide:
• Do I need to change my prediction?

• What makes me think so?

• What does this (person, place, thing) look

like?
To visualise-verify-decide:
• Is the picture in my mind still good?

• Do I need to change my prediction

• What’s happened so far?

To summarize:
• What makes me think so?

• What am I thinking?
To think aloud:
• Why?

Should I:

• use my best guess?

• ignore and read on?

To solve problems or help when I
don’t understand: • reread or look back?

• reread out loud to myself? (whisper read)

• slow down?

• ask for help?

Sourced from Comprehensive Literacy Resource for Grades 3-6 Teacher’s Resource book, Miriam P. Trehearne

60 Appendix C: Sample Questions

Appendix D:
Think Like a Reader/Act Like a Reader
Thinking Like a Reader
1. Thinking about how we read is the first step in learning reading comprehension skills. A
lesson on reading behaviour and “what readers do” could begin this way:

“Children, I think you know a lot about reading. Hazar knows some alphabet letters, Jack
likes to look at the pictures in books and Samantha has a favourite story she likes to share
with the class. I think that even though you are in kindergarten, you know a lot about read-
ing. Can you think of someone you know who loves to read? Make a picture in your head of
that person reading. What do they do when they are reading? Let’s make a list.”

Children’s possible responses:

• They read before bed.

• They go to the library to get books.

• Sometimes they go to the bookstore and buy books.

• They have book clubs.

• They read me stories.

2. Make a list on chart paper or sentence strips. Refer to this list as an anchor for what children
know.

3. Tell readers that you have a job for them: “Let’s be detectives and watch carefully for what
readers do this week. At the end of the week, we’ll add to our list.”

Children’s possible responses about readers:

• Use bookmarks

• Sound out words

• Use the dictionary

• Tell others about their favourite books

• Look at the pictures and tell stories

• Read the signs in the grocery store

Appendix D: Think Like a Reader/Act Like a Reader 61

 4. Add Step 3 comments to your list. Now ask them, “Where do readers read?” and make a list.

Children’s possible responses:

• In a chair

• In bed

• At the grocery store on the cereal box

• In school

• At the park on the bench, when I’m on the swings

5. Refer to the children’s ideas and comments as you speak to them about reading and model
how to think like a reader.

Acting Like a Reader—Questioning to Comprehend

Questioning is an important part of reading comprehension. As teachers read aloud to learners,
they must model for them some of the questions they might ask to understand a text. As learners
develop this skill, it would be useful to ask them first and to make a list of their ideas for ques-
tions.

Before reading— do a picture walk together:

• What do you think might happen in the story? (predicting)

• Who/what is the story about? (predicting)

During reading:

• Do you remember the part when … ? Let’s read it again.

• What do you think will happened next? (predicting)

After reading:

• What happened in that story? (retelling)

• What happened first, next, next, last? (retelling)

• Was there a problem in the story? How was it solved? (retelling)

• Did you like that story? Why? Why not? (responding)

• What was your favourite part? (responding)

• Does that story remind you of anything or another story? (responding)

(Fountas & Pinnell, 2001; Harvy & Goudvis, 2000; Keene & Zimmerman, 1997; Miller, 2002; Serafini,
2004; Stead, 2006; Trehearne, 2006)

62 Appendix D: Think Like a Reader/Act Like a Reader

Appendix E:
Response Sheet
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Response Sheet

Modified from Comprehension from the Ground Up (2011), Sharon Taberski

Appendix E: Response Sheet 63

 Appendix F:
Beginning, Middle, and End
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Beginning, Middle, and End

Draw and write what happened at the beginning, middle, and end.

Beginning

Middle

End

Modified from Comprehension from the Ground Up (2011), Sharon Taberski

64 Appendix F: Beginning, Middle, and End

Appendix G:
Scoops of Details
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________





The main idea is ...



(Adapted from Graff-Silver, 2003)

Appendix G: Scoops of Details 65

 Appendix H:
Main Idea
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Author: ______________________________________________________________________________

Main Idea

Main Idea

Detail 1 Detail 2 Detail 3

Modified from Grades 1-2 Teacher’s Resource Book, Miriam P. Trehearne

66 Appendix H: Main Idea

Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Author: ______________________________________________________________________________

Detail 1 Detail 2

Main Idea

Detail 3 Detail 4

Modified from Grades 1-2 Teacher’s Resource Book, Miriam P. Trehearne

Appendix H: Main Idea 67

 Appendix I:
Same, but Different
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Same, but Different

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Author: ______________________________________________________________________________

Author: ______________________________________________________________________________

Modified from First Graphic Organizers: Reading, Rhonda Graff Silver

68 Appendix I: Same, but Different

Appendix J:
My Character
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Author: _____________________________________________________________________________

Here is a drawing of my character in action:

My character is thinking:

My character’s name is __________________________

My character is feeling ________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

I know this because ___________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Modified from Grades 1 & 2 Teacher’s Resource Book, Miriam P. Trehearne

Appendix J: My Character 69
 Appendix K:
Before and After
Name ____________________________________________________ Date _____________________

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________

Before and After

(Draw a picture or write.)

BEFORE I read the book, I knew:

AFTER I read the book, I knew:

Modified from Comprehension from the Ground Up (2011), Sharon Taberski

70 Appendix K: Before and After

Appendix L:
Five Finger Retell

Five Finger Retell

When you retell you need ...

*B-M-E stands for beginning, middle, end.

Appendix L: Five Finger Retell 71

 Appendix M:
What I Read/What I Think
What I Read What I Think

72 Appendix M: What I Read/What I Think

Appendix N:
Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs
Homonym List—
Same Word Different Meaning 1 Meaning 2
Meanings

There is a band of plastic

I like to play the trumpet in the
band around the newspapers to
school band.
hold them together.

The bark on that tree is grey in

bark My dog likes to bark.
colour.

We need a new bat for the

bat Bats like to fly at night.
baseball game.

There so many toys in that I have been coughing so

chest
treasure chest. much that my chest hurts.

blue Blue is my favourite colour. I am feeling blue today.

There is a ferris wheel at the I don’t think it’s fair that I can’t
fair
fair. play too.

I need a match to light the

match Do your socks match?
candle.

The school bell will ring at 8:30 My grandmother gave me a

ring
a.m. new gold ring.

I have a red rose bush in my

rose He rose from his seat.
garden.

We have cold, clean water in

well I’m glad you are feeling well.
our well.

Appendix N: Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs 73

 Homonyms—Same Sound, Different Spelling, Different Meaning

Example #1 Example #2

You are not allowed in the library at this

Do not talk aloud during the assembly.
time.

I ate an apple for snack. There are eight people in my family.

Here is my pencil. I can hear the beautiful music.

I used one cup of flour to make muffins. I gave my teacher a beautiful red flower.

I feel a pain in my stomach. The basketball hit the windowpane.

She walked through the archway of the

He threw the ball to me.
castle.

The weight of the bananas could not be

I’ll wait for you at the bus stop.
determined.

74 Appendix N: Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs

Appendix O:
Self-Assessment of Independent Reading
Name _______________________________________________________________________________

Please circle the picture that describe what you can do when you read independently.

I can choose books that are “just right” for me.

I can retell what I have read.

I can make connections between the text and my own life.

I know when my reading doesn’t make sense.

I can read the titles, headings, and bold words.

I can learn more about the topic from the pictures, charts, maps, or graphs.

Appendix O: Self-Assessment of Independent Reading 75

 I can infer what is happening, or “read between the lines.”

I can use a “fix-up” strategy to get back on track when I am stuck.

I can make predictions about a text (before reading and during reading).

I can make connections between the text and other texts I’ve read.

I can ask questions or wonder about things I have read.

I can pick out important details.

76 Appendix O: Self-Assessment of Independent Reading

Appendix P:
Assessing Comprehension Instruction
in the Classroom
Adapted from Duke and Pearson’s What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction.

3 identify their purpose for reading?

3 preview texts before reading?
3 make predictions before and during reading?
3 activate relevant background knowledge?
3 think aloud while reading?
3 use text structure to support comprehension?
Are learners being 3 create visual representation to aid comprehension and recall?
taught to:
3 determine the important ideas?
3 summarize what they read?
3 generate questions for text?
3 handle unfamiliar words?
3 mentor their comprehension?
3 use appropriate fix-up strategies?

3 explicit description of the strategy and when it should be introduced?

3 modelling of the strategy in action?

Does instruction about 3 collaborative use of the strategy in action?

strategies include: 3 guided practice using the strategy, with gradual release of
responsibility to the student?

3 independent practice using the strategy?

3 Are learners being helped to orchestrate multiple strategies, rather

than to use only one strategy at a time?
3 Are texts used for instruction being carefully chosen to match both the
Questions teachers strategy and the learners being taught?
might also ask
3 Is there an active concern with students’ motivation to engage in
themselves:
literacy activities and apply new learned strategies?
3 Are the comprehension skills of learners being assessed on an
ongoing basis?

Appendix P: Assessing Comprehension Instruction in the Classroom 77

New Brunswick Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2021