EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

(CPE0051)
 Module 6
Blockchain Technology
1. Introduce the concept of blockchain technology.
2. Identify the different applications of blockchain technology.
3. Identify the three pillars of blockchain technology.
 The Three Pillars of
Blockchain Technology
The three main properties of Blockchain Technology which
have helped it gain widespread acclaim are as follows:

- Decentralization
- Transparency
- Immutability
Pillar #1: Decentralization

Before Bitcoin and BitTorrent came along, we were more

used to centralized services. The idea is very simple. You
have a centralized entity that stored all the data and you’d
have to interact solely with this entity to get whatever
information you required.
Another example of a centralized system is the banks. They
store all your money, and the only way that you can pay
someone is by going through the bank.

The traditional client-server model is a perfect example of

this:
When you google search for something, you send a query to
the server who then gets back at you with the relevant
information. That is a simple client-server.
Now, centralized systems have treated us well for many
years, however, they have several vulnerabilities.

- Firstly, because they are centralized, all the data is stored

in one spot. This makes them easy target spots for
potential hackers.
- If the centralized system were to go through a software
upgrade, it would halt the entire system.

- What if the centralized entity somehow shuts down for

whatever reason? That way nobody will be able to access
the information that it possesses
- Worst case scenario, what if this entity gets corrupted and
malicious? If that happens then all the data that is inside
the blockchain will be compromised.
So, what happens if we just take this centralized entity away?
In a decentralized system, the information is not stored by
one single entity. In fact, everyone in the network owns the
information.
In a decentralized network, if you wanted to interact with your
friend then you can do so directly without going through a
third party. That was the main ideology behind Bitcoins. You
and only you alone are in charge of your money. You can
send your money to anyone you want without having to go
through a bank.
Pillar #2: Transparency

One of the most interesting and misunderstood concepts in

blockchain is “transparency.” Some people say that
blockchain gives you privacy while some say that it is
transparent. Why do you think that happens?
Well… a person’s identity is hidden via complex cryptography
and represented only by their public address. So, if you were
to look up a person’s transaction history, you will not see
“Bob sent 1 BTC” instead you will see
“1MF1bhsFLkBzzz9vpFYEmvwT2TbyCt7NZJ sent 1 BTC”.
So, while the person’s real identity is secure, you will still see
all the transactions that were done by their public address.
This level of transparency has never existed before within a
financial system. It adds that extra, and much needed, level
of accountability which is required by some of these biggest
institutions.
Speaking purely from the point of view of cryptocurrency, if
you know the public address of one of these big companies,
you can simply pop it in an explorer and look at all the
transactions that they have engaged in. This forces them to
be honest, something that they have never had to deal with
before.
However, that’s not the best use-case. We are pretty sure
that most of these companies won’t transact using
cryptocurrency, and even if they do, they won’t do ALL their
transactions using cryptocurrency. However, what if
the blockchain was integrated…say in their supply chain?

You can see why something like this can be very helpful for
the finance industry right?
Pillar #3: Immutability
Immutability, in the context of the blockchain, means that
once something has been entered into the blockchain, it
cannot be tampered with.
Can you imagine how valuable this will be for financial
institutes?
Imagine how many embezzlement cases can be nipped in
the bud if people know that they can’t “work the books” and
fiddle around with company accounts.
The reason why the blockchain gets this property is that of
the cryptographic hash function.
In simple terms, hashing means taking an input string of any
length and giving out an output of a fixed length. In the
context of cryptocurrencies like bitcoin, the transactions are
taken as input and run through a hashing algorithm (Bitcoin
uses SHA-256) which gives an output of a fixed length.
Let’s see how the hashing process works. We are going to
put in certain inputs. For this exercise, we are going to use
the SHA-256 (Secure Hashing Algorithm 256).
As you can see, in the case of SHA-256, no matter how big
or small your input is, the output will always have a fixed 256-
bits length. This becomes critical when you are dealing with a
huge amount of data and transactions. So basically, instead
of remembering the input data which could be huge, you can
just remember the hash and keep track.
A cryptographic hash function is a special class of hash
functions that has various properties making it ideal for
cryptography. There are certain properties that a
cryptographic hash function needs to have in order to be
considered secure. You can read about those in detail in
our guide on hashing.
There is just one property that we want you to focus on today.
It is called the “Avalanche Effect.”
What does that mean?
Even if you make a small change in your input, the changes
that will be reflected in the hash will be huge. Let’s test it out
using SHA-256:
Do you see that? Even though you just changed the case of
the first alphabet of the input, look at how much that has
affected the output hash. Now, let’s go back to our previous
point when we were looking at blockchain architecture. What
we said was:
The blockchain is a linked list that contains data and a hash
pointer that points to its previous block, hence creating the
chain. What is a hash pointer? A hash pointer is similar to a
pointer, but instead of just containing the address of the
previous block it also contains the hash of the data inside the
previous block.
This one small tweak is what makes blockchains so
amazingly reliable and trailblazing.

Imagine this for a second, a hacker attacks block 3 and tries

to change the data. Because of the properties of hash
functions, a slight change in data will change the hash
drastically.
 This means that any slight changes made in block 3, will
change the hash which is stored in block 2, now that in turn
will change the data and the hash of block 2 which will result
in changes in block 1 and so on and so forth. This will
completely change the chain, which is impossible. This is
exactly how blockchains attain immutability.
 Applications for
Blockchain Technology
- Smart contracts
- Sharing economy
- Crowdfunding
- Governance
- Supply chain auditing
- File storage
- Prediction markets
- Protection of intellectual property
- Internet of Things (IoT)
- Neighbourhood Microgrids
- Identity management
- Anti-money laundering and know your customer
- Data management
- Land title registration
- Stock trading
https://blockgeeks.com/guides/what-is-blockchain-
technology/
https://builtin.com/blockchain
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 6
Blockchain Technology
1. Introduce the concept of blockchain technology.
2. Identify the different applications of blockchain technology.
3. Identify the three pillars of blockchain technology.
What is Blockchain Technology?

Blockchain, sometimes referred to as Distributed Ledger

Technology (DLT), makes the history of any digital asset
vunalterable and transparent through the use of
decentralization and cryptographic hashing.
A simple analogy for understanding blockchain technology is
a Google Doc. When we create a document and share it with
a group of people, the document is distributed instead of
copied or transferred. This creates a decentralized
distribution chain that gives everyone access to the
document at the same time.
No one is locked out awaiting changes from another party,
while all modifications to the doc are being recorded in real-
time, making changes completely transparent.

Of course, blockchain is more complicated than a Google

Doc, but the analogy is apt because it illustrates three critical
ideas of the technology:
Blockchain is an especially promising and revolutionary
technology because it helps reduce risk, stamps out fraud
and brings transparency in a scaleable way for myriad uses.
How Does Blockchain Work?

Blockchain consists of three important concepts:

blocks, nodes and miners.
Blocks

Every chain consists of multiple blocks and each block has

three basic elements:

The data in the block.

A 32-bit whole number called a nonce.

The nonce is randomly generated when a block is created,

which then generates a block header hash.

The hash is a 256-bit number wedded to the nonce. It must

start with a huge number of zeroes (i.e., be extremely small).
When the first block of a chain is created, a nonce generates
the cryptographic hash. The data in the block is considered
signed and forever tied to the nonce and hash unless it is
mined.
Miners

Miners create new blocks on the chain through a process

called mining.
In a blockchain every block has its own unique nonce and
hash, but also references the hash of the previous block in
the chain, so mining a block isn't easy, especially on large
chains.
Miners use special software to solve the incredibly complex
math problem of finding a nonce that generates an accepted
hash. Because the nonce is only 32 bits and the hash is 256,
there are roughly four billion possible nonce-hash
combinations that must be mined before the right one is
found. When that happens miners are said to have found the
"golden nonce" and their block is added to the chain.
Making a change to any block earlier in the chain requires re-
mining not just the block with the change, but all of the blocks
that come after. This is why it's extremely difficult to
manipulate blockchain technology. Think of it is as "safety in
math" since finding golden nonces requires an enormous
amount of time and computing power.
When a block is successfully mined, the change is accepted
by all of the nodes on the network and the miner is rewarded
financially.
Nodes

One of the most important concepts in blockchain technology

is decentralization. No one computer or organization can own
the chain. Instead, it is a distributed ledger via the nodes
connected to the chain. Nodes can be any kind of electronic
device that maintains copies of the blockchain and keeps the
network functioning.
Every node has its own copy of the blockchain and the
network must algorithmically approve any newly mined block
for the chain to be updated, trusted and verified. Since
blockchains are transparent, every action in the ledger can
be easily checked and viewed. Each participant is given
a unique alphanumeric identification number that shows their
transactions.
Combining public information with a system of checks-and-
balances helps the blockchain maintain integrity and creates
trust among users. Essentially, blockchains can be thought of
as the scaleability of trust via technology.
 Applications of
Blockchain Technology
Beyond Bitcoin: Ethereum Blockchain

Originally created as the ultra-transparent ledger system for

Bitcoin to operate on, blockchain has long been associated
with cryptocurrency, but the technology's transparency and
security has seen growing adoption in a number of areas,
much of which can be traced back to the development of the
Ethereum blockchain.
In late 2013, Russian-Canadian developer Vitalik Buterin
published a white paper that proposed a platform combining
traditional blockchain functionality with one key difference:
the execution of computer code. Thus, the Ethereum
Project was born.
Ethereum blockchain lets developers create sophisticated
programs that can communicate with one another on the
blockchain.
Tokens

Ethereum programmers can create tokens to represent any

kind of digital asset, track its ownership and execute its
functionality according to a set of programming instructions.
Tokens can be music files, contracts, concert tickets or even
a patient's medical records. This has broadened the potential
of blockchain to permeate other sectors like media,
government and identity security. Thousands of companies
are currently researching and developing products and
ecosystems that run entirely on the burgeoning technology.
Blockchain is challenging the current status quo of innovation
by letting companies experiment with groundbreaking
technology like peer-to-peer energy distribution or
decentralized forms for news media. Much like the definition
of blockchain, the uses for the ledger system will only evolve
as technology evolves.
 Applications
History of Blockchain
Although blockchain is a new technology, it already boasts
a rich and interesting history. The following is a brief timeline
of some of the most important and notable events in the
development of blockchain.
2008

Satoshi Nakamoto, a pseudonym for a person or group,

publishes “Bitcoin: A Peer to Peer Electronic Cash System."
2009

The first successful Bitcoin (BTC) transaction occurs between

computer scientist Hal Finney and the mysterious Satoshi
Nakamoto.
2010

Florida-based programmer Laszlo Hanycez completes the

first ever purchase using Bitcoin — two Papa John’s
pizzas. Hanycez transferred 10,000 BTC’s, worth about $60
at the time. Today it's worth $80 million.
The market cap of Bitcoin officially exceeds $1 million.
2011

1 BTC = $1USD, giving the cryptocurrency parity with the US

dollar.
Electronic Frontier Foundation, Wikileaks and other
organizations start accepting Bitcoin as donations.
2012

Blockchain and cryptocurrency are mentioned in popular

television shows like The Good Wife, injecting blockchain into
pop culture.
Bitcoin Magazine launched by early Bitcoin developer Vitalik
Buterin.
2013

BTC market cap surpassed $1 billion.

Bitcoin reached $100/BTC for first time.
Buterin publishes “Ethereum Project" paper suggesting that
blockchain has other possibilities besides Bitcoin (e.g., smart
contracts).
2014
Gaming company Zynga, The D Las Vegas Hotel and
Overstock.com all start accepting Bitcoin as payment.
Buterin’s Ethereum Project is crowdfunded via an Initial Coin
Offering (ICO) raising over $18 million in BTC and opening
up new avenues for blockchain.
R3, a group of over 200 blockchain firms, is formed to
discover new ways blockchain can be implemented in
technology. PayPal announces Bitcoin integration.
2015

Number of merchants accepting BTC exceeds 100,000.

NASDAQ and San-Francisco blockchain company Chain
team up to test the technology for trading shares in private
companies.
2016

Tech giant IBM announces a blockchain strategy for cloud-

based business solutions.
Government of Japan recognizes the legitimacy of blockchain
and cryptocurrencies.
2017
Bitcoin reaches $1,000/BTC for first time.
Cryptocurrency market cap reaches $150 billion.
JP Morgan CEO Jamie Dimon says he believes in blockchain
as a future technology, giving the ledger system a vote-of-
confidence from Wall Street.
Bitcoin reaches its all-time high at $19,783.21/BTC.
Dubai announces its government will be blockchain-powered
by 2020.
2018

Facebook commits to starting a blockchain group and also

hints at the possibility of creating its own cryptocurrency.
IBM develops a blockchain-based banking platform with large
banks like Citi and Barclays signing on.
 The Three Pillars of
Blockchain Technology
The three main properties of Blockchain Technology which
have helped it gain widespread acclaim are as follows:

- Decentralization
- Transparency
- Immutability
Pillar #1: Decentralization

Before Bitcoin and BitTorrent came along, we were more

used to centralized services. The idea is very simple. You
have a centralized entity that stored all the data and you’d
have to interact solely with this entity to get whatever
information you required.
Another example of a centralized system is the banks. They
store all your money, and the only way that you can pay
someone is by going through the bank.

The traditional client-server model is a perfect example of

this:
When you google search for something, you send a query to
the server who then gets back at you with the relevant
information. That is a simple client-server.
Now, centralized systems have treated us well for many
years, however, they have several vulnerabilities.

- Firstly, because they are centralized, all the data is stored

in one spot. This makes them easy target spots for
potential hackers.
- If the centralized system were to go through a software
upgrade, it would halt the entire system.

- What if the centralized entity somehow shuts down for

whatever reason? That way nobody will be able to access
the information that it possesses
- Worst case scenario, what if this entity gets corrupted and
malicious? If that happens then all the data that is inside
the blockchain will be compromised.
So, what happens if we just take this centralized entity away?
In a decentralized system, the information is not stored by
one single entity. In fact, everyone in the network owns the
information.
In a decentralized network, if you wanted to interact with your
friend then you can do so directly without going through a
third party. That was the main ideology behind Bitcoins. You
and only you alone are in charge of your money. You can
send your money to anyone you want without having to go
through a bank.
Pillar #2: Transparency

One of the most interesting and misunderstood concepts in

blockchain is “transparency.” Some people say that
blockchain gives you privacy while some say that it is
transparent. Why do you think that happens?
Well… a person’s identity is hidden via complex cryptography
and represented only by their public address. So, if you were
to look up a person’s transaction history, you will not see
“Bob sent 1 BTC” instead you will see
“1MF1bhsFLkBzzz9vpFYEmvwT2TbyCt7NZJ sent 1 BTC”.
So, while the person’s real identity is secure, you will still see
all the transactions that were done by their public address.
This level of transparency has never existed before within a
financial system. It adds that extra, and much needed, level
of accountability which is required by some of these biggest
institutions.
Speaking purely from the point of view of cryptocurrency, if
you know the public address of one of these big companies,
you can simply pop it in an explorer and look at all the
transactions that they have engaged in. This forces them to
be honest, something that they have never had to deal with
before.
However, that’s not the best use-case. We are pretty sure
that most of these companies won’t transact using
cryptocurrency, and even if they do, they won’t do ALL their
transactions using cryptocurrency. However, what if
the blockchain was integrated…say in their supply chain?

You can see why something like this can be very helpful for
the finance industry right?
Pillar #3: Immutability
Immutability, in the context of the blockchain, means that
once something has been entered into the blockchain, it
cannot be tampered with.
Can you imagine how valuable this will be for financial
institutes?
Imagine how many embezzlement cases can be nipped in
the bud if people know that they can’t “work the books” and
fiddle around with company accounts.
The reason why the blockchain gets this property is that of
the cryptographic hash function.
In simple terms, hashing means taking an input string of any
length and giving out an output of a fixed length. In the
context of cryptocurrencies like bitcoin, the transactions are
taken as input and run through a hashing algorithm (Bitcoin
uses SHA-256) which gives an output of a fixed length.
Let’s see how the hashing process works. We are going to
put in certain inputs. For this exercise, we are going to use
the SHA-256 (Secure Hashing Algorithm 256).
As you can see, in the case of SHA-256, no matter how big
or small your input is, the output will always have a fixed 256-
bits length. This becomes critical when you are dealing with a
huge amount of data and transactions. So basically, instead
of remembering the input data which could be huge, you can
just remember the hash and keep track.
A cryptographic hash function is a special class of hash
functions that has various properties making it ideal for
cryptography. There are certain properties that a
cryptographic hash function needs to have in order to be
considered secure. You can read about those in detail in
our guide on hashing.
There is just one property that we want you to focus on today.
It is called the “Avalanche Effect.”
What does that mean?
Even if you make a small change in your input, the changes
that will be reflected in the hash will be huge. Let’s test it out
using SHA-256:
Do you see that? Even though you just changed the case of
the first alphabet of the input, look at how much that has
affected the output hash. Now, let’s go back to our previous
point when we were looking at blockchain architecture. What
we said was:
The blockchain is a linked list that contains data and a hash
pointer that points to its previous block, hence creating the
chain. What is a hash pointer? A hash pointer is similar to a
pointer, but instead of just containing the address of the
previous block it also contains the hash of the data inside the
previous block.
This one small tweak is what makes blockchains so
amazingly reliable and trailblazing.

Imagine this for a second, a hacker attacks block 3 and tries

to change the data. Because of the properties of hash
functions, a slight change in data will change the hash
drastically.
 This means that any slight changes made in block 3, will
change the hash which is stored in block 2, now that in turn
will change the data and the hash of block 2 which will result
in changes in block 1 and so on and so forth. This will
completely change the chain, which is impossible. This is
exactly how blockchains attain immutability.
 Applications for
Blockchain Technology
- Smart contracts
- Sharing economy
- Crowdfunding
- Governance
- Supply chain auditing
- File storage
- Prediction markets
- Protection of intellectual property
- Internet of Things (IoT)
- Neighbourhood Microgrids
- Identity management
- Anti-money laundering and know your customer
- Data management
- Land title registration
- Stock trading
https://blockgeeks.com/guides/what-is-blockchain-
technology/
https://builtin.com/blockchain
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 5
Graphene Technology
1. Introduce the technology and innovation of graphene
material.
2. Introduce the concept of super conductors.
Water filtration

Graphene’s tight atomic bonds make it impermeable for

nearly all gasses and liquids. Curiously, water molecules are
an exception. Because water can evaporate through
graphene while most other gasses and liquids cannot,
graphene could be an exceptional tool for filtration.
Researchers at the University of Manchester tested
graphene’s permeability with alcohol and were able to distill
very strong samples of spirits, as only the water in the
samples was able to pass through the graphene.
Of course, graphene’s use as a filter has potential
beyond distilling stronger spirits. Graphene could also be
immensely helpful in purifying water of toxins. In a study
published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, researchers
showed that oxidized graphene could even pull in radioactive
materials such as uranium and plutonium present in water,
leaving the liquid free of contaminants.
The implications of this study are massive. Some of the
biggest environmental hazards in history, including nuclear
waste and chemical runoff, could be cleansed from water
sources thanks to graphene.
Superconductivity

Not long after scientists at Cambridge demonstrated that

graphene can act as a superconductor (a material with no
electrical resistance) when paired with praseodymium cerium
copper oxide, researchers at MIT discovered another
astounding property: It can apparently function as a
superconductor alone, in the right configuration.
The researchers stacked two slices of graphene, but offset
them by an angle of 1.1 degrees. According to a report
published in Nature, “Physicist Pablo Jarillo-Herrero at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge
and his team weren’t looking for superconductivity when they
set up their experiment. Instead, they were exploring how the
orientation dubbed the magic angle might affect graphene.”
Mosquito defense

Few creatures are as loathsome as the mosquito, what with

their itchy bites and tendency to spread horrible diseases like
malaria. Thankfully, researchers at Brown University have
found a possible solution using graphene.
The research, published in 2019, demonstrates that a
graphene film on skin not only blocked mosquitoes from
biting but even deterred them from landing on skin in the first
place. One possible explanation is that the graphene
prevented the mosquitoes from smelling prey.
The future of graphene
research
Given graphene’s seemingly endless list of strengths, one
would expect to see it everywhere. Why, then, has graphene
not been widely adopted? As with most things, it comes down
to money. Graphene is still extremely expensive to produce in
large quantities, limiting its use in any product that would
demand mass production.
Moreover, when large sheets of graphene are produced,
there is an increased risk of tiny fissures and other flaws
appearing in the material. No matter how incredible a
scientific discovery may be, economics will always decide
success.
Production issues aside, graphene research is by no means
slowing down. Research laboratories the world over —
including the University of Manchester, where graphene was
first discovered — are continually filing patents for new
methods of creating and using graphene.
The European Union approved funding for a flagship program
in 2013, one that will fund graphene research for use in
electronics. Meanwhile, major tech companies in Asia are
conducting research on graphene, including Samsung.
Revolutions don’t happen overnight. Silicon was discovered
in the mid-19th century, but it took nearly a century before
silicon semiconductors paved the way for the rise of
computers. Might graphene, with its almost mythical qualities,
be the resource that drives the next era of human history?
Only time will tell.
Super Conductors
A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity or
transport electrons from one atom to another with no
resistance. This means no heat, sound or any other form of
energy would be released from the material when it has
reached "critical temperature" (Tc), or the temperature at
which the material becomes superconductive.
Unfortunately, most materials must be in an extremely low
energy state (very cold) in order to become superconductive.
Research is underway to develop compounds that become
superconductive at higher temperatures. Currently, an
excessive amount of energy must be used in the cooling
process making superconductors inefficient and
uneconomical.
Superconductors come in two different flavors: type I and
type II.

Type I Superconductors
A type I superconductor consists of basic conductive
elements that are used in everything from electrical wiring to
computer microchips.
Type II Superconductors
A type II superconductor is composed of metallic compounds
such as copper or lead. They reach a superconductive state
at much higher temperatures when compared to type I
superconductors. The cause of this dramatic increase in
temperature is not fully understood.
http://ffden-
2.phys.uaf.edu/113.web.stuff/travis/what_is.html
https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/what-is-
graphene/
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 5
Graphene Technology
1. Introduce the technology and innovation of graphene
material.
2. Introduce the concept of super conductors.
Technological advances drive the course of history. Bronze
and iron were so crucial to the spread of ancient societies
that they have entire epochs named after them. With the rise
of the American steel industry, railroad tracks spread from
Atlantic to Pacific, metal veins that carried the blood of a
nation.
Silicon semiconductors enabled the growth of computers and
the greatest surge in information technology since the
printing press. These materials shaped the development of
society and helped determine which countries dominated
geopolitics.
Today, a new material has the potential to alter the future.
Dubbed a “supermaterial,” graphene has researchers the
world over scrambling to better understand it. Graphene’s
long list of miraculous traits makes it seem almost magical,
but it could have very real and drastic implications for the
future of physics and engineering.
What exactly is graphene?
The simplest way to describe graphene is that it is a single,
thin layer of graphite — the soft, flaky material used in pencil
lead. Graphite is an allotrope of the element carbon, meaning
it possesses the same atoms but they’re arranged in a
different way, giving the material different properties.
For example, both diamond and graphite are forms of carbon,
yet they have wildly different natures. Diamonds are
incredibly strong, while graphite is brittle. Graphene’s atoms
are arranged in a hexagonal arrangement.
Interestingly, when graphene is isolated from graphite it takes
on some miraculous properties. It is a mere one-atom thick,
the first two-dimensional material ever discovered. Despite
this, graphene is also one of the strongest materials in the
known universe. With a tensile strength of 130 GPa
(gigapascals), it is more than 100 times stronger than steel.
Graphene’s incredible strength despite being so thin is
already enough to make it amazing, however, its unique
properties do not end there. It is also flexible, transparent,
highly conductive, and seemingly impermeable to most gases
and liquids. It almost seems as though there is no area in
which graphene does not excel.
The history of graphene: A roll of tape, and a dream
Graphite has been a known quantity for a long time (humans
have been using it since the Neolithic era). Its
atomic structure is well documented, and for a long time,
scientists pondered whether single layers of graphite could
be isolated.
Until recently, however, graphene was merely a theory, as
scientists were unsure if it would ever be possible to slice
graphite down to a single, atom-thin sheet. The first isolated
sample of graphene was discovered in 2004 by Andre Geim
and Konstantin Novoselov at the University of Manchester.
One might expect that they isolated the fabled substance
using some massive, expensive piece of machinery, but the
tool they used was amusingly simple: A roll of scotch tape.
When using tape to polish a large block of graphite, the
researchers noticed exceptionally thin flakes on the tape.
Continuing to peel layer and layer from the flakes of graphite,
they eventually produced a sample as thin as possible. They
had found graphene. The discovery was so bizarre, the
scientific world was skeptical at first. The popular
journal Nature even rejected their paper on the experiment
twice.
Eventually, their research was published, and in 2010 Geim
and Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for
their discovery.
Potential Applications
If graphene had merely one of its many superlative traits, it
would be the subject of intense research into potential uses.
Being so remarkable in so many ways, graphene has
inspired scientists to think of a wide range of uses for the
material, in fields as varied as consumer tech and
environmental science.
Flexible electronics

In addition to its powerful electrical properties, graphene is

also highly flexible and transparent. This makes it attractive
for use in portable electronics. Smartphones and tablets
could become much more durable using graphene, and
perhaps could even be folded up like paper.
Wearable electronic devices have been growing in popularity
recently. With graphene, these devices could be made even
more useful, designed to fit snugly around limbs and bending
to accommodate various forms of exercise.
Graphene’s flexibility and microscopic width provide
opportunities beyond mere consumer devices, however. It
could also be useful in biomedical research. Small machines
and sensors could be made with graphene, capable of
moving easily and harmlessly through the human body,
analyzing tissue or even delivering drugs to specific areas.
Carbon is already a crucial ingredient in the human body; a
little graphene added in might not hurt.
Solar cells/photovoltaics

Graphene is both highly conductive and transparent. As such,

it has great potential as a material in solar cells. Typically,
solar cells use silicon, which produces a charge when a
photon hits the materials, knocking loose a free electron.
Silicon only releases one electron per photon that hits it.
Research has indicated that graphene can release multiple
electrons for each photon that hits it.
As such, graphene could be far better at converting solar
energy. Before long, cheaper, more powerful graphene cells
could produce a massive surge in renewable energy.

Graphene’s photovoltaic properties also mean that it could be

used to develop better image sensors for devices such as
cameras.
Semiconductors

Due to its high conductivity, graphene could be used in

semiconductors to greatly increase the speed at which
information travels. Recently the Department of Energy
conducted tests that demonstrated that semi-conductive
polymers conduct electricity much faster when placed atop a
layer of graphene than a layer of silicon. This holds true even
if the polymer is thicker.
A polymer 50-nanometers thick, when placed on top of a
graphene layer, conducted a charge better than a 10-
nanometer layer of the polymer. This flew in the face of
previous wisdom which held that the thinner a polymer is, the
better it can conduct charge.
The biggest obstacle to graphene’s use in electronics is its
lack of a band gap, the gap between valence and conduction
bands in a material that, when crossed, allows for a flow of
electrical current. The band gap is what allows semi-
conductive materials such as silicon to function as
transistors; they can switch between insulating or conducting
an electric current, depending on whether their electrons are
pushed across the band gap or not.
Researchers have been testing a variety of methods to give
graphene a band gap; if successful, that could lead to much
faster electronics built with graphene.
Water filtration

Graphene’s tight atomic bonds make it impermeable for

nearly all gasses and liquids. Curiously, water molecules are
an exception. Because water can evaporate through
graphene while most other gasses and liquids cannot,
graphene could be an exceptional tool for filtration.
Researchers at the University of Manchester tested
graphene’s permeability with alcohol and were able to distill
very strong samples of spirits, as only the water in the
samples was able to pass through the graphene.
Of course, graphene’s use as a filter has potential
beyond distilling stronger spirits. Graphene could also be
immensely helpful in purifying water of toxins. In a study
published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, researchers
showed that oxidized graphene could even pull in radioactive
materials such as uranium and plutonium present in water,
leaving the liquid free of contaminants.
The implications of this study are massive. Some of the
biggest environmental hazards in history, including nuclear
waste and chemical runoff, could be cleansed from water
sources thanks to graphene.
Superconductivity

Not long after scientists at Cambridge demonstrated that

graphene can act as a superconductor (a material with no
electrical resistance) when paired with praseodymium cerium
copper oxide, researchers at MIT discovered another
astounding property: It can apparently function as a
superconductor alone, in the right configuration.
The researchers stacked two slices of graphene, but offset
them by an angle of 1.1 degrees. According to a report
published in Nature, “Physicist Pablo Jarillo-Herrero at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge
and his team weren’t looking for superconductivity when they
set up their experiment. Instead, they were exploring how the
orientation dubbed the magic angle might affect graphene.”
Mosquito defense

Few creatures are as loathsome as the mosquito, what with

their itchy bites and tendency to spread horrible diseases like
malaria. Thankfully, researchers at Brown University have
found a possible solution using graphene.
The research, published in 2019, demonstrates that a
graphene film on skin not only blocked mosquitoes from
biting but even deterred them from landing on skin in the first
place. One possible explanation is that the graphene
prevented the mosquitoes from smelling prey.
The future of graphene
research
Given graphene’s seemingly endless list of strengths, one
would expect to see it everywhere. Why, then, has graphene
not been widely adopted? As with most things, it comes down
to money. Graphene is still extremely expensive to produce in
large quantities, limiting its use in any product that would
demand mass production.
Moreover, when large sheets of graphene are produced,
there is an increased risk of tiny fissures and other flaws
appearing in the material. No matter how incredible a
scientific discovery may be, economics will always decide
success.
Production issues aside, graphene research is by no means
slowing down. Research laboratories the world over —
including the University of Manchester, where graphene was
first discovered — are continually filing patents for new
methods of creating and using graphene.
The European Union approved funding for a flagship program
in 2013, one that will fund graphene research for use in
electronics. Meanwhile, major tech companies in Asia are
conducting research on graphene, including Samsung.
Revolutions don’t happen overnight. Silicon was discovered
in the mid-19th century, but it took nearly a century before
silicon semiconductors paved the way for the rise of
computers. Might graphene, with its almost mythical qualities,
be the resource that drives the next era of human history?
Only time will tell.
Super Conductors
A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity or
transport electrons from one atom to another with no
resistance. This means no heat, sound or any other form of
energy would be released from the material when it has
reached "critical temperature" (Tc), or the temperature at
which the material becomes superconductive.
Unfortunately, most materials must be in an extremely low
energy state (very cold) in order to become superconductive.
Research is underway to develop compounds that become
superconductive at higher temperatures. Currently, an
excessive amount of energy must be used in the cooling
process making superconductors inefficient and
uneconomical.
Superconductors come in two different flavors: type I and
type II.

Type I Superconductors
A type I superconductor consists of basic conductive
elements that are used in everything from electrical wiring to
computer microchips.
Type II Superconductors
A type II superconductor is composed of metallic compounds
such as copper or lead. They reach a superconductive state
at much higher temperatures when compared to type I
superconductors. The cause of this dramatic increase in
temperature is not fully understood.
http://ffden-
2.phys.uaf.edu/113.web.stuff/travis/what_is.html
https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/what-is-
graphene/
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 1
Embedded Systems
1. Orient the students on the concept of embedded system.
2. Identify characteristics of an embedded system.
3. Identify the basic structure of an embedded system.
The System

A system is an arrangement in which all its unit assemble

work together according to a set of rules.

It can also be defined as a way of working, organizing or

doing one or many tasks according to a fixed plan.
For example, a watch is a time displaying system. Its
components follow a set of rules to show time. If one of its
parts fails, the watch will stop working. So we can say, in a
system, all its subcomponents depend on each other.
Embedded System

As its name suggests, Embedded means something that is

attached to another thing. An embedded system can be
thought of as a computer hardware system having software
embedded in it.
An embedded system can be an independent system or it
can be a part of a large system. An embedded system is a
microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is
designed to perform a specific task.

For example, a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will

sense only smoke.
An embedded system has three components −

- It has hardware.
- It has application software.
- It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS)
Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the
application software and provide mechanism to let the
processor run a process as per scheduling by following a
plan to control the latencies. RTOS defines the way the
system works. It sets the rules during the execution of
application program. A small scale embedded system may
not have RTOS.
So we can define an embedded system as a Microcontroller
based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system.
Characteristics of an
Embedded System
Single-functioned − An embedded system usually performs
a specialized operation and does the same repeatedly. For
example: A pager always functions as a pager.
Tightly constrained − All computing systems have
constraints on design metrics, but those on an embedded
system can be especially tight. Design metrics is a measure
of an implementation's features such as its cost, size, power,
and performance. It must be of a size to fit on a single chip,
must perform fast enough to process data in real time and
consume minimum power to extend battery life.
Reactive and Real time − Many embedded systems must
continually react to changes in the system's environment and
must compute certain results in real time without any delay.
Consider an example of a car cruise controller; it continually
monitors and reacts to speed and brake sensors. It must
compute acceleration or de-accelerations repeatedly within a
limited time; a delayed computation can result in failure to
control of the car.
Microprocessors based − It must be microprocessor or
microcontroller based.

Memory − It must have a memory, as its software usually

embeds in ROM. It does not need any secondary memories
in the computer.
Connected − It must have connected peripherals to connect
input and output devices.

HW-SW systems − Software is used for more features and

flexibility. Hardware is used for performance and security.
Advantages Disadvantages

- Easily Customizable - High development effort

- Low power consumption - Larger time to market
- Low cost
- Enhanced performance
Basic Structure of an
Embedded System
The following illustration shows the basic structure of an
embedded system −
Sensor − It measures the physical quantity and converts it to
an electrical signal which can be read by an observer or by
any electronic instrument like an A2D converter. A sensor
stores the measured quantity to the memory.
A-D Converter − An analog-to-digital converter converts the
analog signal sent by the sensor into a digital signal.
Processor & ASICs − Processors process the data to
measure the output and store it to the memory.
D-A Converter − A digital-to-analog converter converts the
digital data fed by the processor to analog data
Actuator − An actuator compares the output given by the D-
A Converter to the actual (expected) output stored in it and
stores the approved output.
History of Embedded
System
- In 1960, embdded system was first used for developing
Apollo Guidance System by Charles Stark Draper at MIT.

- In 1965, Autonetics, developed the D-17B, the computer

used in the Minuteman missile guidance system.

- In 1968, the first embedded system for a vehicle was

released.
- Texas Instruments developed the first microcontroller in
1971.

- In 1987, the first embedded OS, VxWorks, was released

by Wind River.

- Microsoft's Windows embedded CE in 1996.

- By the late 1990s, the first embedded Linux system
appeared.

- The embedded market reach $140 billion in 2013.

- Analysts are projecting an Embedded market larger than

$40 billion by 2030.
Types of Embedded
Systems
Small Scale Embedded Systems:
This embedded system can be designed with a single 8 or
16-bit microcontroller. It can be operated with the help of a
battery. For developing small scale embedded system, an
editor, assembler, (IDE), and cross assembler are the most
vital programming tools.
Medium Scale Embedded Systems:
These types of embedded systems are designed using 16 or
32-bit microcontrollers. These systems offer both hardware
and software complexities. C, C++, Java, and source code
engineering tool, etc. are used to develop this kind of
embedded system.
Sophisticated Embedded Systems
This type of embedded systems have lots of hardware and
software complexities. You may require IPS, ASIPS, PLAs,
configuration processor, or scalable processors. For the
development of this system, you need hardware and software
co-design & components which needs to combine in the final
system.
 Application of
Embedded Systems
Robotic science: Medical
Ground Vehicles Dialysis Machine
Drones Infusion Pumps
Underwater Vehicles Cardiac Monitor
Industrial Robots Prosthetic Device
Industrial Control Networking
Robotics Router
Control System Hubs
Missiles Gateways
Nuclear Reactors Electronics Instruments
Space Stations
Shuttles
Automobiles
Fuel Injection Engine Control
Lighting System Ignition System
Door Locks Brake System
Air Bags Parking Assistant System
Windows Anti-stealing Alarms
Home Devices:
TVs
Digital Alarm
Air Conditioner
DVD Video Player
Cameras
https://www.guru99.com/embedded-systems-
tutorial.html
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/embedded_systems/es_o
verview.htm
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 2
Robotics
1. Orient the students on the concept of robotics.
2. Identify the different types of robots.
Some historians believe the origins of robotics can be
traced back to the ancient Greeks. It was around 270 BC
when Ctesibus (a Greek engineer) made organs and
water clock with movable figures.
Other historians believe robotics began with mechanical
dolls. In the 1770s, Pierre Jacquet-Droz, a Swiss clock
maker and inventor of the wristwatch, created three
ingenious mechanical dolls. These dolls were made to
amuse royalty, performed all their respective feats using
gears, cogs, pegs, and springs.
More recently, in 1898, Nikola Tesla
built a radio-controlled
submersible boat. This was no
small feat in 1898. Nikola Tesla also
had plans to make the boat
autonomous, lack of funding
prevented further research.
The word “robot” was first used
in a 1921 play titled R.U.R.:
Rossum’s Universal Robots, by
Czechoslovakian writer Karel
Capek.
Robota is a Czech word meaning
“worker” or “laborer.” The play
described mechanical servants, the
“robots.” When the robots were
endowed with emotion, they turned on
their masters and destroyed them.
What is a robot
actually?
1. Orient the students on the concept of robotics.
2. Identify the different types of robots.
Robot – a machine that looks and acts
like a human being.

Robotics – technology dealing with

the design, construction, and
operation of robots in automation.
Today’s definition of a robot

Robot – 1) A reprogrammable, multifunctional

manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through various programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks
Today’s definition of a robot

2) A special brew of motors,

solenoids, wires, and assorted
electronics odds and ends, a
marriage of mechanical and
electronic gizmos.
Cybernetics – the science of communication and control
theory that is concerned especially with the comparative
study of automatic control systems (as the nervous
system and brain mechanical-electrical communication
systems).
Androids – a mobile robot usually with a human form.

Mechatronics – the synergistic combination of

mechanical engineering, electronics engineering, and
software engineering. Usually found in the automation of
manufacturing industry.
Today’s Robotics
As technology progresses, so too does the scope of what is
considered robotics.

In 2005, 90% of all robots could be found assembling cars in

automotive factories. These robots consist mainly of
mechanical arms tasked with welding or screwing on certain
parts of a car.
Today, we’re seeing an evolved and expanded definition of
robotics that includes the development, creation and use
of bots that explore Earth’s harshest conditions, robots that
assist law-enforcement and even robots that assist in almost
every facet of healthcare.
While the overall world of robotics is expanding, a robot has
some consistent characteristics:
1. Robots all consist of some sort of mechanical construction.
The mechanical aspect of a robot helps it complete tasks in
the environment for which it’s designed. For example,
the Mars 2020 Rover’s wheels are individually motorized and
made of titanium tubing that help it firmly grip the harsh
terrain of the red planet.
2. Robots need electrical components that control and power
the machinery. Essentially, an electric current (a battery, for
example) is needed to power a large majority of robots.
3. Robots contain at least some level of computer
programming. Without a set of code telling it what to do, a
robot would just be another piece of simple machinery.
Inserting a program into a robot gives it the ability to know
when and how to carry out a task.
The robotics industry is still relatively young, but has already
made amazing strides. From the deepest depths of our
oceans to the highest heights of outer space, robots can be
found performing tasks that humans couldn’t dream of
achieving.
Types of Robots
Mechanical bots come in all shapes and sizes to efficiently
carry out the task for which they are designed. From the 0.2
millimeter-long “RoboBee” to the 200 meter-long robotic
shipping vessel “Vindskip,” robots are emerging to carry out
tasks that humans simply can’t. Generally, there are five
types of robots:
Pre-Programmed Robots
Pre-programmed robots operate in a controlled environment
where they do simple, monotonous tasks. An example of a
pre-programmed robot would be a mechanical arm on an
automotive assembly line. The arm serves one function — to
weld a door on, to insert a certain part into the engine, etc. —
and it's job is to perform that task longer, faster and more
efficiently than a human.
Humanoid Robots
Humanoid robots are robots that look like and/or mimic
human behavior. These robots usually perform human-like
activities (like running, jumping and carrying objects), and are
sometimes designed to look like us, even having human
faces and expressions. Two of the most prominent examples
of humanoid robots are Hanson Robotics’ Sophia (in the
video above) and Boston Dynamics’ Atlas.
Autonomous Robots
Autonomous robots operate independently of human
operators. These robots are usually designed to carry out
tasks in open environments that do not require human
supervision. An example of an autonomous robot would be
the Roomba vacuum cleaner, which uses sensors to roam
throughout a home freely.
Teleoperated Robots
Teleoperated robots are mechanical bots controlled by
humans. These robots usually work in extreme geographical
conditions, weather, circumstances, etc. Examples of
teleoperated robots are the human-controlled submarines
used to fix underwater pipe leaks during the BP oil spill
or drones used to detect landmines on a battlefield.
Augmenting Robots
Augmenting robots either enhance current human capabilities
or replace the capabilities a human may have lost. Some
examples of augmenting robots are robotic prosthetic limbs
or exoskeletons used to lift hefty weights.
https://builtin.com/robotics
McComb, Gordon (2000). The Robot Builder’s Bonanza,
McGraw Hill, Second Edition
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 3
Self-driving Car
Technology
1. Introduce the concept of a self-driving car to the students.
2. Identify the levels of autonomy of self-driving cars.
3. Identify the innovations introduced by self-driving cars.
Self-driving cars have become a popular subject of
discussion these days, and for good reason: driverless cars
might just bring about the biggest societal revolution since,
well, the industrial revolution, and it appears that everyone’s
getting in on it.
From rumors of the Apple self-driving car to real-world,
driverless car applications from companies like Lyft and Uber,
autonomous vehicles are poised to become a staple in our
automotive industry in just a few short years.

What’s driving this interest in self-driving vehicles?

Driverless cars stand to solve all sorts of problems, like traffic
delays and traffic collisions caused by driver error, but it
doesn’t stop there: autonomous vehicles will bring to market
all sorts of new and exciting applications for a variety of
industries, like shipping, transportation, and emergency
transportation.
There’s a lot to learn about driverless cars and how they will
change the automotive landscape in the future, which is why
we’ve put together this article that covers everything you
need to know about how self-driving cars work and what
benefits they could provide to us.
Levels of autonomy
Although current Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems
(ADAS) provide important safety functions such as pre-
collision warnings, steering assistance, and automatic
braking, self-driving vehicles take these technologies to the
next level by completely removing the need for a driver.

As a matter of fact, there are “levels” to autonomy, which

breaks down as follows:
Level 0: The automated system has no control over the
vehicle, but may prompt the driver of hazards

Level 1: The driver and the automated system share control

of the vehicle. Examples of this can be found in most cars
equipped with ADAS
Level 2: The automated system is capable of taking full
control of the vehicle; however, the driver must be ready to
intervene if the system fails to recognize a potential hazard

Level 3: The Automated system takes full control of the

vehicle and the passenger can safely take their attention
away from driving tasks; however, they must still be able to
intervene
Level 4: Driver can safely divert all attention away from
driving tasks and let the automated system take full control.
This functionality is currently limited to specific “geofenced”
areas and other relatively controlled environments

Level 5: No human intervention is required

Accepting Autonomy
While the prospect of a car driving itself around town might
seem downright terrifying, we have to keep in mind that our
world is already filled with numerous automated systems that
make our lives easier, safer, and more enjoyable.
For example, Amazon, the largest and one of the most
beloved online retailers in the U.S, currently utilizes more
than 100,000 robotic systems in their shipping operations,
many of which are completely autonomous.
Also, we have to remember, that, whenever we get on an
airplane, the majority of the flight is in the hands of the
plane’s autopilot system so that the pilots can focus on other
important activities such as navigation, system monitoring,
and communication.
Therefore, we have to look at self-driving cars as just another
automated system that, over time, will provide us with all
sorts of benefits, many of which are still to be discovered.
Self-driving vehicles employ a wide range of technologies like
radar, cameras, ultrasound, and radio antennas to navigate
safely on our roads.

In modern autonomous vehicles, these technologies are used

in conjunction with one another, as each one provides a layer
of autonomy that helps make the entire system more reliable
and robust.
For example, Tesla’s driverless car technology, known as
“Autopilot”, uses eight cameras to provide 360-degree
visibility, while twelve ultrasonic sensors and a front-facing
radar work to analyze the vehicle’s surroundings for potential
hazards.
However, one key component still in development that will
ultimately make autonomous cars more reliable is the
implementation of 5G cellular networks.

Like the 4G LTE connections we’re accustomed to on our

smartphones, 5G is a type of mobile broadband that allows
for the wireless transfer of data from one device to another,
only at a much, much faster rate.
At peak throughput, 5G promises to be close to 1,000%
faster than 4G LTE, which will make connection woes such
as high latency and long response times a thing of the past.

Equipped on autonomous cars, 5G networks will allow for

seamless communication from one car to another, but it
doesn’t stop there.
We are fast approaching a world dominated by IoT devices,
where everything, be it a motorized vehicle or a traffic light,
will be connected to a high-speed network of some sort,
enabling all sorts of new and exciting functionality.
Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V)
As mentioned, one of the key benefits of a fast, latency-free
high-speed network is the ability for autonomous cars to
communicate with one another.

This type of seamless communication will allow autonomous

cars to exchange information about their current position,
route, and hazards on the road.
For example, if two cars are traveling on a single lane
highway and the car in front, through its onboard sensors,
detects a hazardous road condition, that information can be
relayed to the car behind so that it can begin braking and
adjusting its route.
Additionally, with a whole network of interconnected vehicles,
traffic congestion could be alleviated since vehicles will be
able to make intelligent decisions about their current route to
maintain a steady rate of vehicle flow.
 Vehicle to
Infrastructure (V2I)
Besides communicating with other vehicles, self-driving cars
connected to a 5G network will also be able to communicate
with different infrastructure elements that make up our roads
and other transportation systems.

As a simple example, considering parking: while an autopilot

car may be able to get you from point A to point B, how will
the vehicle know where to park?
With cars constantly coming and going, it’s imperative that
self-driving vehicles are able to plan their route in advance to
maintain absolute efficiency; therefore, information about
available parking spaces can be transmitted over the air to a
self-driving vehicle through sensors that monitor whether a
parking spot is occupied.
Once this information is received by the vehicle, that space
can then be reserved for that specific car, and this
reservation can be broadcasted over the cloud so that
multiple driverless cars aren’t fighting for the same parking
space.
Vehicle to Pedestrian
(V2P)
While communication between vehicles and infrastructure is
important, it’s even more important that the vehicles are
acutely aware of pedestrians and their exact location.

In the U.S, motorized vehicles are responsible for the deaths

of roughly 15 Americans each and every day, which is 15 too
many.
Autonomous cars may not be able to eliminate all of these
incidents; however, it is quite likely that self-driving cars will
be able to significantly reduce this number of deaths at some
point in the future.

How does it work?

Most of us don’t leave home without our smartphones or
some sort of internet ready device (e.g., smartwatch, tablet,
e-reader, etc.), which means that in one form or another we
are almost always connected to the internet.
Interestingly, many of these devices, like smartphones, have
the ability to use GPS to determine the exact location of the
person using the device.

With a 5G network, this information can be instantly relayed

to an autonomous vehicle traveling nearby, making it aware
of the pedestrian’s whereabouts at all times.
With this level of connectivity, driverless vehicles will be able
to react dynamically to the position of a pedestrian with
collision prevention measures like braking and automatic
steering, which in turn should make our streets much safer to
travel by foot.
Benefits of Self-Driving
Cars
As discussed, there are some obvious benefits to self-driving
cars, such as a reduction in traffic fatalities, traffic collisions,
and traffic congestion; however, there are some other less
obvious benefits that come with automation, some of which
are listed below:
Reduction in Infrastructure Spending
In some parts of the United States, like Los Angeles, owning
a car is practically a necessity. However, as the number of
cars on the road increases due to population growth, the
need for infrastructure upgrades grows with it.
Travel the freeways of SoCal, and you’re likely to see efforts
to expand freeways at some point during your commute. This
type of infrastructure spend aims to increase the capacity of
our freeways, highways and streets so that they can
accommodate more cars at one time; however, this process
is circular, meaning that in just a few short years, as the
population has grown again, additional upgrades will likely
need to occur.
However, with self-driving cars and reduced traffic
congestion, there will be less of a need for spending money
on infrastructure upgrades, as the “traffic” will be able to
manage itself.
Energy Conservation
Fuel consumption is a concern for many Americans,
especially since the price of gas can vary greatly from year to
year.
Additionally, the manner in which commuters drive can have
a dramatic impact on their car’s MPG. For example, if you
were to give 100 different commuters the same car rated at,
say, 34 MPG on the highway, you’re likely to get a pretty
mixed variety of average MPGs at the end of the test.
This variability can cause costly fluctuations in fuel spend for
both businesses and private citizens; however, with driverless
cars, the rate at which fuel is consumed can be more easily
tracked, measured, and controlled, which should save
system operators money over the long-term.
It must also be noted that many of the driverless cars coming
to market are hybrid or completely electric, which will also
add to the savings on fuel purchases.
Increase in Productivity
With traffic congestion a thing of the past and commuters
needing to spend less time actively engaged behind the
wheel, we’ll have more time to accomplish both personal and
career goals.
For those of us who will still need to commute to work, our
self-driving vehicle will allow us to read, sleep, and even
workout while we are traveling.8

Additionally, less traffic congestion means that commuters

won’t have to arrive at their jobs exhausted from long travel
times, which should allow them to get more done at work.
Applications of self-
driving cars
Self-Driving Car Applications
Driverless cars are poised to shake up multiple industries
around the world, including industries like shipping, public
transportation, and emergency transportation.
Shipping & Deliveries
The shipping industry stands to gain a lot from driverless
vehicles, especially since the vast majority of companies still
rely on human labor to move product from one location to
another.
Take for instance your standard shipping trailer that travels
from state to state in the U.S: with driverless vehicles, these
trailers won’t have to stop due to driver fatigue, hunger, the
call of nature, or other human-centric concerns, which should
reduce shipping times by a considerable amount.
Public Transportation
Driverless vehicles offer the promise of increased options for
public transportation, as nearly everyone’s autonomous car
could be used for shuttling commuters from one location to
the next.
For example, say you take your self-driving car to work, and
instead of your vehicle simply sitting in a garage, it goes and
starts shuttling other commuters within a predefined area for
a fee.

With this level of driverless car integration in our

transportation system, commuters have access to a near
limitless number of commuting options at their disposal, and
vehicle owners have access to a new stream of revenue.
Emergency Transportation
Finally, the implementation of driverless vehicles will allow
Americans to receive emergency medical care faster than
ever before.
With traffic congestion reduced (or eliminated) from our
streets, emergency vehicles will be able to reach their
destinations much more quickly. Additionally, drivers who are
having a medical emergency will be able to automatically
adjust the course of their vehicle to the nearest E.R without
having to worry about operating the vehicle.

What if the driver is unconscious and cannot make the

manual adjustment?
In the future, it’s not impossible to imagine that our vehicles
will be equipped with various technologies capable of
monitoring the vitals of individual occupants, and if the car
senses that there is a medical emergency, the vehicle can
then make the decision to drive to the E.R while getting in
touch with the facility and uploading its information to the
medical staff.
https://www.landmarkdividend.com/self-driving-car/
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(CPE0051)
 Module 4
Quantum Computers
1. Introduce the concept of quantum computing.
2. Identify the applications for quantum computing.
Quantum computers perform calculations based on the
probability of an object's state before it is measured - instead
of just 1s or 0s - which means they have the potential to
process exponentially more data compared to classical
computers.
Classical computers carry out logical operations using the
definite position of a physical state. These are usually binary,
meaning its operations are based on one of two positions. A
single state - such as on or off, up or down, 1 or 0 - is called
a bit.
In quantum computing, operations instead use the quantum
state of an object to produce what's known as a qubit. These
states are the undefined properties of an object before
they've been detected, such as the spin of an electron or the
polarisation of a photon.
Rather than having a clear position, unmeasured quantum
states occur in a mixed 'superposition', not unlike a coin
spinning through the air before it lands in your hand.

These superpositions can be entangled with those of other

objects, meaning their final outcomes will be mathematically
related even if we don't know yet what they are.
The complex mathematics behind these unsettled states of
entangled 'spinning coins' can be plugged into special
algorithms to make short work of problems that would take a
classical computer a long time to work out... if they could ever
calculate them at all.
Such algorithms would be useful in solving complex
mathematical problems, producing hard-to-break security
codes, or predicting multiple particle interactions in chemical
reactions.
What is a Quantum
Computer?
A quantum computer harnesses some of the almost-mystical
phenomena of quantum mechanics to deliver huge leaps
forward in processing power. Quantum machines promise to
outstrip even the most capable of today’s—and tomorrow’s—
supercomputers.
They won’t wipe out conventional computers, though. Using a
classical machine will still be the easiest and most
economical solution for tackling most problems. But quantum
computers promise to power exciting advances in various
fields, from materials science to pharmaceuticals research.
Companies are already experimenting with them to develop
things like lighter and more powerful batteries for electric
cars, and to help create novel drugs.

The secret to a quantum computer’s power lies in its ability to

generate and manipulate quantum bits, or qubits.
What is a qubit?
Today's computers use bits—a stream of electrical or optical
pulses representing 1s or 0s. Everything from your tweets
and e-mails to your iTunes songs and YouTube videos are
essentially long strings of these binary digits.
Quantum computers, on the other hand, use qubits,
which are typically subatomic particles such as electrons or
photons. Generating and managing qubits is a scientific and
engineering challenge. Some companies, such as IBM,
Google, and Rigetti Computing, use superconducting circuits
cooled to temperatures colder than deep space.
Others, like IonQ, trap individual atoms in electromagnetic
fields on a silicon chip in ultra-high-vacuum chambers. In
both cases, the goal is to isolate the qubits in a controlled
quantum state.
Qubits have some quirky quantum properties that mean a
connected group of them can provide way more processing
power than the same number of binary bits. One of those
properties is known as superposition and another is called
entanglement.
superposition?
Qubits can represent numerous possible combinations
of 1 and 0 at the same time. This ability to simultaneously be
in multiple states is called superposition. To put qubits into
superposition, researchers manipulate them using precision
lasers or microwave beams.
Thanks to this counterintuitive phenomenon, a quantum
computer with several qubits in superposition can crunch
through a vast number of potential outcomes simultaneously.
The final result of a calculation emerges only once the qubits
are measured, which immediately causes their quantum state
to “collapse” to either 1 or 0.
What is entanglement?
Researchers can generate pairs of qubits that are
“entangled,” which means the two members of a pair exist in
a single quantum state. Changing the state of one of the
qubits will instantaneously change the state of the other one
in a predictable way. This happens even if they are separated
by very long distances.
Nobody really knows quite how or why entanglement works.
It even baffled Einstein, who famously described it as
“spooky action at a distance.” But it’s key to the power of
quantum computers. In a conventional computer, doubling
the number of bits doubles its processing power. But thanks
to entanglement, adding extra qubits to a quantum machine
produces an exponential increase in its number-crunching
ability.
Quantum computers harness entangled qubits in a kind of
quantum daisy chain to work their magic. The machines’
ability to speed up calculations using specially designed
quantum algorithms is why there’s so much buzz about their
potential.
That’s the good news. The bad news is that quantum
machines are way more error-prone than classical computers
because of decoherence.
What is decoherence?
The interaction of qubits with their environment in ways that
cause their quantum behavior to decay and ultimately
disappear is called decoherence. Their quantum state is
extremely fragile.
The slightest vibration or change in temperature—
disturbances known as “noise” in quantum-speak—can
cause them to tumble out of superposition before their job
has been properly done. That’s why researchers do their best
to protect qubits from the outside world in those supercooled
fridges and vacuum chambers.
But despite their efforts, noise still causes lots of errors to
creep into calculations. Smart quantum algorithms can
compensate for some of these, and adding more qubits also
helps. However, it will likely take thousands of standard
qubits to create a single, highly reliable one, known as a
“logical” qubit. This will sap a lot of a quantum computer’s
computational capacity.
And there’s the rub: so far, researchers haven’t been able to
generate more than 128 standard qubits. So we’re still many
years away from getting quantum computers that will be
broadly useful.

That hasn’t dented pioneers’ hopes of being the first to

demonstrate “quantum supremacy.”
 Applications of
quantum computers
What is quantum supremacy?
It’s the point at which a quantum computer can complete a
mathematical calculation that is demonstrably beyond the
reach of even the most powerful supercomputer.
It’s still unclear exactly how many qubits will be needed to
achieve this because researchers keep finding new
algorithms to boost the performance of classical machines,
and supercomputing hardware keeps getting better. But
researchers and companies are working hard to claim the
title, running tests against some of the world’s most powerful
supercomputers.
There’s plenty of debate in the research world about just how
significant achieving this milestone will be. Rather than wait
for supremacy to be declared, companies are already starting
to experiment with quantum computers made by companies
like IBM, Rigetti, and D-Wave, a Canadian firm.
Chinese firms like Alibaba are also offering access to
quantum machines. Some businesses are buying quantum
computers, while others are using ones made
available through cloud computing services.
Where is a quantum computer likely to be most useful
first?
One of the most promising applications of quantum
computers is for simulating the behavior of matter down to
the molecular level.
Auto manufacturers like Volkswagen and Daimler are using
quantum computers to simulate the chemical composition of
electrical-vehicle batteries to help find new ways to improve
their performance. And pharmaceutical companies are
leveraging them to analyze and compare compounds that
could lead to the creation of new drugs.
The machines are also great for optimization problems
because they can crunch through vast numbers of potential
solutions extremely fast. Airbus, for instance, is using them to
help calculate the most fuel-efficient ascent and descent
paths for aircraft.
And Volkswagen has unveiled a service that calculates the
optimal routes for buses and taxis in cities in order to
minimize congestion. Some researchers also think the
machines could be used to accelerate artificial intelligence.
It could take quite a few years for quantum computers to
achieve their full potential. Universities and businesses
working on them are facing a shortage of skilled
researchers in the field—and a lack of suppliers of some key
components. But if these exotic new computing machines live
up to their promise, they could transform entire industries and
turbocharge global innovation.
https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/01/29/66141/wha
t-is-quantum-computing/
https://www.sciencealert.com/quantum-computers