Math 1012: Mathematics for Social Sciences

Chapter 1: Introduction to Logic and Set Theory

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

April 24, 2021

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Chapter 1:Propositional Logic and set Theory
1.1 Propositional Logic
1.1.1 Definition and examples of propositions
1.1.2 Propositional Logical connectives
1.1.3 Compound (or complex) Propositions
1.1.4 Tautology and contradiction

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Propositional Logic

Propositional Logic is the study of the logic of sentences (logic is a

proper or reasonable way of thinking about something).
In Propositional Logic we deal with sentences that are of declarative;
that is, we consider sentences to which we can meaningfully apply the
words “true” or “false”.

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Propositional Logic

Propositional Logic is the study of the logic of sentences (logic is a

proper or reasonable way of thinking about something).
In Propositional Logic we deal with sentences that are of declarative;
that is, we consider sentences to which we can meaningfully apply the
words “true” or “false”.

Definition
A declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both, is called a
proposition or statement. The word true or false that is assigned to a given
proposition is called the truth value of the proposition.
(a) If a given proposition is true, then we say that the truth value of the
proposition is True and it is denoted by T, and
(b) if a given proposition is false, we say that the truth value of the propo-
sition is False and it is denoted by F.
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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.”

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10”

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.
4. ”Thank you.”

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.
4. ”Thank you.” This is not a proposition, because the sentence is neither
true nor false.

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.
4. ”Thank you.” This is not a proposition, because the sentence is neither
true nor false.
5. ”Where do you live?”

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.
4. ”Thank you.” This is not a proposition, because the sentence is neither
true nor false.
5. ”Where do you live?” is not a proposition, with the same reasoning as
above.

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.
4. ”Thank you.” This is not a proposition, because the sentence is neither
true nor false.
5. ”Where do you live?” is not a proposition, with the same reasoning as
above.
6. The sentence ”x − 2 = −x”

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Propositional Logic...

Example (Consider the following sentences.)

1. The sentence ”4 is a prime number” is false as 4 is not a prime number
and hence it is a proposition.
2. ”A rectangle has four sides.” This sentence is a proposition which is
true, because from our knowledge in geometry, we know that a rect-
angle is a four sided polygon.
3. The sentence ” I wish 2 + 5 was 10” This is not a proposition.
4. ”Thank you.” This is not a proposition, because the sentence is neither
true nor false.
5. ”Where do you live?” is not a proposition, with the same reasoning as
above.
6. The sentence ”x − 2 = −x” is not a proposition, as we cannot say true
or false for this sentence.
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Propositional Logic...

A proposition is a sentence that has truth value, but this does not mean
that we must always know what the truth value is.

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Propositional Logic...

A proposition is a sentence that has truth value, but this does not mean
that we must always know what the truth value is.
Example
Consider the following sentences.
(a) Addis Ababa university graduated 400,000 students it is 25 years an-
niversary.
(b) There were 20,000 women registered to run on the Ethiopian great run
in 2010 E.C.
(c) Athlet Haile Gebresilase was eating pasta for his dinner on Sene 30,
2012 E.C..

All of the above three sentences are propositions, but, in the absence of
records, the truth value of each of them may not be known.

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Propositional Logic: Propositional Connectives

In the study of propositional logic, we can have two or more propositions

that are joined by connectives like: or, and, etc.
We can create propositions using connectives called propositional con-
nectives (or logical operators) and the newly formed propositions are
called compound propositions.
A propositional connective (or logical operator) is either a unary op-
erator, means it is applied to only a single proposition; or a binary
operator, means it is applied to two propositions.
When we analyze logical propositions it is advisable and very useful to
breakdown a given sentence into some composition of simpler state-
ments or simple propositions and study the properties of the connectives
used.

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Propositional Connectives...

The functions and properties of the propositional (or logical) connec-

tives: ”not”, ”and”, ”or”, ”implication”, ”bi-implication”, in math-
ematical (or propositional) logic and how they are used to connect
two propositions. These connectives are fundamental in the study of
propositional logic.

Remark

(a) We use small letters to represent propositions and the most common
letters used to represent propositions are p, q, r , s, etc.

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Propositional Connectives...

Remark

(b) Because we need to know the truth value of a proposition in all possible
scenarios, we consider all the possible combinations of the simple propo-
sitions that are combined together by Logical Connectives to form the
given proposition. The compilation of all possible scenarios in a tabular
form is called a truth table for the given proposition.
(c) To make a truth table, we start with columns corresponding to the
most basic statements (usually represented by letters) and assign T
for true and F for false for each simple proposition and determine the
truth values of the other propositions involved based on the rules for
the involved connectives.
(d) If there are k of these basic statements, then we will need 2k rows to
list all possible combinations of truth values.
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Propositional Connectives: Negation (¬)

Negation is a unary operator as it is applied only on one proposition.

When negation is applied to a proposition p, it changes the truth value
of p. The negation of p, denoted by ”¬p” and read as ”the negation
of p” or ”not p”
Rule of Negation: Given a proposition p, ¬p has a truth value true
if p is false and ¬p is false if p is true.
The truth table for negation is given in Table 1.
p ¬p
T F
F T
Table: Truth table for Negation.

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Propositional Connectives: Negation (¬)

Example

(1) The negation of ” 2 is a prime number”, which has truth value true, is

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Propositional Connectives: Negation (¬)

Example

(1) The negation of ” 2 is a prime number”, which has truth value true, is
”2 is not a prime number” and it has truth value false.

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Propositional Connectives: Negation (¬)

Example

(1) The negation of ” 2 is a prime number”, which has truth value true, is
”2 is not a prime number” and it has truth value false.
(2) Let p: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. Then ¬p

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Propositional Connectives: Negation (¬)

Example

(1) The negation of ” 2 is a prime number”, which has truth value true, is
”2 is not a prime number” and it has truth value false.
(2) Let p: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. Then ¬p : Addis
Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia.
(3) Let p:The book is interesting.Then ¬p

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Propositional Connectives: Negation (¬)

Example

(1) The negation of ” 2 is a prime number”, which has truth value true, is
”2 is not a prime number” and it has truth value false.
(2) Let p: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. Then ¬p : Addis
Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia.
(3) Let p:The book is interesting.Then ¬p : The book is not interesting.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)
The conjunction connective (or operator) is a binary operator, when it
is applied to two propositions p and q, it gives the proposition ”p and
q”, denoted p ∧q and it is called logical conjunction. In the proposition
p ∧ q, p and q are called its components. The rule for determining the
truth value of p ∧ q is given as follows.
Rule of Conjunction: If p and q are propositions, then the proposition
p ∧ q is true only when both p and q are true and false otherwise.
The truth table of Conjunction is given in Table 2.
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table: Truth table for Conjunction.
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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q :

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q : This book is interesting and I am staying at home.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q : This book is interesting and I am staying at home.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q :

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q : This book is interesting and I am staying at home.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q :This book is not interesting and I am staying at home.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q : This book is interesting and I am staying at home.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q :This book is not interesting and I am staying at home.
(c) p ∧ (¬q) :

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
The conjunction of p : ”Today is Monday” and q : ”It is raining today” is
p ∧ q: ”Today is Monday and it is raining.” This sentence is true only on
rainy Mondays and is false on any other rainy day or on Mondays when it
does not rain.

Example
Let p : This book is interesting and q : I am staying at home. Then express
each of the following in sentences words: p ∧ q, (¬p) ∧ q and p ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q : This book is interesting and I am staying at home.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q :This book is not interesting and I am staying at home.
(c) p ∧ (¬q) : This book is interesting and I am not staying at home.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...
Remark
In English, the word ”but” is often used in place of ”and”.

Example
Consider the sentence: Today is hot, but it is not sunny. Since it is a surprise
that the day is hot without being sunny, we used ”but” instead of ”and”.

Example
Let p : Today is hot and q : Today is sunny. Write each of the following
sentences using symbols.
(a) Today is not hot, but it is sunny.
(b) Today is neither hot nor sunny.
First we have: ¬p: Today is not hot and ¬q: Today is not sunny. Then
(1) ¬p ∧ q: Today is not hot but it is sunny.
(2) ¬p ∧ ¬q: Today is neither hot nor sunny.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q:

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q:

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q: ¬p: 2 is not a prime number and its truth value is false.
Therefore, (¬p) ∧ q is false, by the rule of Conjunction, as ¬p is false
and q is true.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q: ¬p: 2 is not a prime number and its truth value is false.
Therefore, (¬p) ∧ q is false, by the rule of Conjunction, as ¬p is false
and q is true.
(c) p ∧ (¬q) :

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q: ¬p: 2 is not a prime number and its truth value is false.
Therefore, (¬p) ∧ q is false, by the rule of Conjunction, as ¬p is false
and q is true.
(c) p ∧ (¬q) : ¬q: 2 is not an even number and its truth value is false.
Thus, p ∧ (¬q) is a false proposition, by the rule of conjunction.

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q: ¬p: 2 is not a prime number and its truth value is false.
Therefore, (¬p) ∧ q is false, by the rule of Conjunction, as ¬p is false
and q is true.
(c) p ∧ (¬q) : ¬q: 2 is not an even number and its truth value is false.
Thus, p ∧ (¬q) is a false proposition, by the rule of conjunction.
(d) (¬p)∧(¬q)

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Propositional Connectives: Conjunction (∧)...

Example
Consider the propositions p : 2 is a prime number and q : 2 is an even
number. Find the true value of the each of the propositions: p ∧q, (¬p)∧q,
p ∧ (¬q) and (¬p) ∧ (¬q).
(a) p ∧ q: Both p and q are true and hence p ∧ q is true.
(b) (¬p) ∧ q: ¬p: 2 is not a prime number and its truth value is false.
Therefore, (¬p) ∧ q is false, by the rule of Conjunction, as ¬p is false
and q is true.
(c) p ∧ (¬q) : ¬q: 2 is not an even number and its truth value is false.
Thus, p ∧ (¬q) is a false proposition, by the rule of conjunction.
(d) (¬p)∧(¬q) Since both ¬p and ¬q are false, the proposition (¬p)∧(¬q)
has truth value false, again by the rule of conjunction.

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)

The disjunction connective (or operator) is a binary operator, when it

is applied to two propositions p and q it gives the proposition ”p or q”
called logical disjunction and it is denoted by p ∨ q.
Rule of Disjunction: Given two propositions p and q, p ∨ q is false
only when both p and q are false and true otherwise.
The truth table for disjunction is given in Table 3.
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table: Truth table for Disjunction.

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example
The disjunction of the two sentences: p: Today is Monday” and q: ”It is
raining today” is p ∨ q: ”Today is Monday or it is raining today”. This
sentence is true on any day that is a Monday or a rainy day(including rainy
Monday) and is false on any day other than Monday and it also does not
rain.

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example
The disjunction of the two sentences: p: Today is Monday” and q: ”It is
raining today” is p ∨ q: ”Today is Monday or it is raining today”. This
sentence is true on any day that is a Monday or a rainy day(including rainy
Monday) and is false on any day other than Monday and it also does not
rain.

Example
Let p: 0 is a rational number and q: 3 is an even number. Find the truth
value of each of the propositions: p ∨ q, (¬p) ∨ q, p ∨ (¬q) and (¬p) ∨ (¬q).
The truth value for p is true, since 0 is a rational and q is false, since 3 is
not an even number. So,¬p is false and ¬q is true. then

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;
(b) (¬p) ∨ q:

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;
(b) (¬p) ∨ q:”0 is not a rational number or 3 is an even number” is false,
by the rule of disjunction;

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;
(b) (¬p) ∨ q:”0 is not a rational number or 3 is an even number” is false,
by the rule of disjunction;
(c) p ∨ (¬q):

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;
(b) (¬p) ∨ q:”0 is not a rational number or 3 is an even number” is false,
by the rule of disjunction;
(c) p ∨ (¬q):”0 is a rational number or 3 is not an even number” is true,
by the rule of disjunction and

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;
(b) (¬p) ∨ q:”0 is not a rational number or 3 is an even number” is false,
by the rule of disjunction;
(c) p ∨ (¬q):”0 is a rational number or 3 is not an even number” is true,
by the rule of disjunction and
(d) (¬p) ∨ (¬q):

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

Example (cont...)
(a) p ∨ q:”0 is a rational number or 3 is a even number” is true, by the
rule of disjunction;
(b) (¬p) ∨ q:”0 is not a rational number or 3 is an even number” is false,
by the rule of disjunction;
(c) p ∨ (¬q):”0 is a rational number or 3 is not an even number” is true,
by the rule of disjunction and
(d) (¬p) ∨ (¬q):”0 is not a rational number or 3 is not an even number”
is also true, by the rule of disjunction.

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Propositional Connectives: Disjunction (∨)...

The use of ”or ” in propositional logic, is rather different from its normal
use in the English language. Let us consider the following example.
Example
If Tadesse says ”in this evening, I will go to a club or to a cinema”, he meant
that, he will go to a club or to a cinema, but not both. In this sentence
”or” is used in the exclusive sense.

But, in propositional logic, ”or” is used in the inclusive sense; that is, we
allow Tadesse the possibility of going to a club and going to a cinema,
without him being inconsistent.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...
The implication connective (or operator) is a binary operator, when
it is applied to two propositions p and q, it gives the proposition ”p
implies q”, called logical implication and it is denoted by p =⇒ q. The
logical implication p =⇒ q it is often read as ”if p, then q”.
Rule of Implication: Given two propositions p and q, p =⇒ q is false
only when p is true and q is false and it is true otherwise.
The truth table for implication is given in Table 4 .
p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Table: Truth table for Implication.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

Example
Let p: Today is Tuesday and q: Today is sunny. Then the proposition
p ⇒ q can be give as: ”If today is Tuesday, then it is sunny” and it is
(a) true if the day is not Tuesday or if the day is Tuesday and it is sunny,
and
(b) it is false only when the day is Tuesday, but it is not sunny.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

Example
Let p: Today is Tuesday and q: Today is sunny. Then the proposition
p ⇒ q can be give as: ”If today is Tuesday, then it is sunny” and it is
(a) true if the day is not Tuesday or if the day is Tuesday and it is sunny,
and
(b) it is false only when the day is Tuesday, but it is not sunny.

Example
Find the truth value of each of the following implications.
(a) If it rains today, then 2 is a prime number.
(b) If 2 + 2 = 5, then all cars are blue.
(c) If 4 × 4 = 16, then (−1) × (−1) = 1.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

There are many different ways to say the implication connective in

English and one has to study these various forms to have a full under-
standing of the logical implications as implication is one of the most
commonly used logical connective.
If p and q are two propositions, then the following have the same
meaning as the proposition ”p implies q”.
(a) ”If p, then q”.
(b) ”p only if q”.
(c) ”p is a sufficient condition for q”.
(d) ”q is a necessary condition for p”.
(e) ”q follows from p”

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

Remark
One way to think of the meaning of p ⇒ q is to consider it as a contract that
says if the first condition is satisfied, then the second will also be satisfied.
If the first condition, p, is not satisfied, then the condition of the contract
is null and void. In this case, it does not matter if the second condition is
satisfied or not, the contract is still upheld.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

Remark
One way to think of the meaning of p ⇒ q is to consider it as a contract that
says if the first condition is satisfied, then the second will also be satisfied.
If the first condition, p, is not satisfied, then the condition of the contract
is null and void. In this case, it does not matter if the second condition is
satisfied or not, the contract is still upheld.

Example
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(a) Let p: 3 is greater than 2 and q: 4 is greater than 3. Then the
proposition p =⇒ q is read as

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

Remark
One way to think of the meaning of p ⇒ q is to consider it as a contract that
says if the first condition is satisfied, then the second will also be satisfied.
If the first condition, p, is not satisfied, then the condition of the contract
is null and void. In this case, it does not matter if the second condition is
satisfied or not, the contract is still upheld.

Example
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(a) Let p: 3 is greater than 2 and q: 4 is greater than 3. Then the
proposition p =⇒ q is read as ”If 3 is greater than 2, then 4 is greater
than 3”. Since p is true and q is true, p =⇒ q is true.

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Example (cont . . . )
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(b) Let p: Every rectangle is a square and q: Every triangle is an isosceles
triangle. Then the proposition p =⇒ q is read as

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Example (cont . . . )
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(b) Let p: Every rectangle is a square and q: Every triangle is an isosceles
triangle. Then the proposition p =⇒ q is read as ”if every rectangle is
a square, then every triangle is an isosceles triangle”. As both p and q
are false, the proposition p =⇒ q is true.

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Example (cont . . . )
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(b) Let p: Every rectangle is a square and q: Every triangle is an isosceles
triangle. Then the proposition p =⇒ q is read as ”if every rectangle is
a square, then every triangle is an isosceles triangle”. As both p and q
are false, the proposition p =⇒ q is true.
(c) p: Monkeys can fly. and q: Addis Ababa is a city in Africa. The
proposition p =⇒ q is

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Example (cont . . . )
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(b) Let p: Every rectangle is a square and q: Every triangle is an isosceles
triangle. Then the proposition p =⇒ q is read as ”if every rectangle is
a square, then every triangle is an isosceles triangle”. As both p and q
are false, the proposition p =⇒ q is true.
(c) p: Monkeys can fly. and q: Addis Ababa is a city in Africa. The
proposition p =⇒ q is ”If the monkeys can fly, then Addis Ababa is a
city in Africa”.

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Example (cont . . . )
Write the logical implication of each of the following pair of statements and
find their truth values.
(b) Let p: Every rectangle is a square and q: Every triangle is an isosceles
triangle. Then the proposition p =⇒ q is read as ”if every rectangle is
a square, then every triangle is an isosceles triangle”. As both p and q
are false, the proposition p =⇒ q is true.
(c) p: Monkeys can fly. and q: Addis Ababa is a city in Africa. The
proposition p =⇒ q is ”If the monkeys can fly, then Addis Ababa is a
city in Africa”.
In everyday language this statement is simply nonsense. But if we apply
the precise rule given for implication, we observe that p is false and q
is true. Though it seems nonsense, p =⇒ q is a true proposition.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...

Definition
Let p and q be two propositions. In the proposition p =⇒ q:
(a) p is called the premise, hypothesis, or the antecedent.
(b) q is called the conclusion or consequent.
(c) q =⇒ p is the called converse of p =⇒ q.
(d) ¬p =⇒ ¬q is called the inverse of p =⇒ q.
(e) ¬q =⇒ ¬p is called the contrapositive of p =⇒ q.

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Propositional Connectives: Implication (⇒)...
Example
Consider the proposition ”If 3 is a factor of 12, then 5 is an even number”.
(a) The converse of the given proposition is ”If 5 is an even number, then
3 is a factor of 12”.
(b) ”If 3 is not a factor of 12, then 5 is not an even number” is the inverse
of the given proposition.
(c) The contrapositive of the given statement is ”If 5 is not an even num-
ber, then 3 is not a factor of 12”.

Example
Let p: ”It is raining” and q: ”It is cloudy”. Express each of the following
sentences in words.
(a) p =⇒ q (c) ¬p =⇒ ¬q
(b) q =⇒ p (d) ¬q =⇒ ¬p.
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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
If p and q are statements, then the logical bi-implication or bicondi-
tional proposition of p and q, denoted by p ⇐⇒ q, is a proposition
read as ”p if and only if q”
Rule of Bi-implication: Let p and q be propositions. Then the propo-
sition p ⇐⇒ q is true only when both p and q are true, or both p and
q are false and false otherwise.
The truth table for a bi-implication proposition is given in Table 5.
p q p ⇐⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Table: Truth table for bi-implication.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...

Example
Find the logical bi-implication and the truth value of each of the following
pairs of propositions.
(a) Let p: All even numbers are divisible by 2 and q: All natural numbers
divisible by 3 are odd.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...

Example
Find the logical bi-implication and the truth value of each of the following
pairs of propositions.
(a) Let p: All even numbers are divisible by 2 and q: All natural numbers
divisible by 3 are odd.
The logical bi-implication p ⇐⇒ q is ”All even numbers are divisible
by 2 if and only if all natural numbers divisible by 3 are odd.” Since p
is true and q is false, the proposition p ⇐⇒ q is false by the rule of
bi-implication.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...

Example
Find the logical bi-implication and the truth value of each of the following
pairs of propositions.
(a) Let p: All even numbers are divisible by 2 and q: All natural numbers
divisible by 3 are odd.
The logical bi-implication p ⇐⇒ q is ”All even numbers are divisible
by 2 if and only if all natural numbers divisible by 3 are odd.” Since p
is true and q is false, the proposition p ⇐⇒ q is false by the rule of
bi-implication.
(b) p: Every rhombus is a square and q: All numbers are odd.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...

Example
Find the logical bi-implication and the truth value of each of the following
pairs of propositions.
(a) Let p: All even numbers are divisible by 2 and q: All natural numbers
divisible by 3 are odd.
The logical bi-implication p ⇐⇒ q is ”All even numbers are divisible
by 2 if and only if all natural numbers divisible by 3 are odd.” Since p
is true and q is false, the proposition p ⇐⇒ q is false by the rule of
bi-implication.
(b) p: Every rhombus is a square and q: All numbers are odd.
The logical bi-implication p ⇐⇒ q is ”Every rhombus is a square if and
only if all numbers are odd”. Since both p and q are false, p ⇐⇒ q is
true by the rule of bi-implication.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q
(b) Abebe is neither a businessman nor an athlete.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q
(b) Abebe is neither a businessman nor an athlete.¬p ∧ ¬q

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q
(b) Abebe is neither a businessman nor an athlete.¬p ∧ ¬q
(c) Abebe is either a businessman or an athlete.

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q
(b) Abebe is neither a businessman nor an athlete.¬p ∧ ¬q
(c) Abebe is either a businessman or an athlete. p ∨ q

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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q
(b) Abebe is neither a businessman nor an athlete.¬p ∧ ¬q
(c) Abebe is either a businessman or an athlete. p ∨ q
(d) Abebe is a businessman if and only if he is an athlete.
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Propositional Connectives: Bi-implication (⇔)...
Given two propositions p and q, there are some other common ways of
expressing the proposition p ⇐⇒ q. Some of these expressions are:
(a) ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(b) ”if p then q, and conversely”
(c) ”p if and only if q”
(d) ”p is equivalent to q”
Example
Let p : ”Abebe is a businessman” and q: ”Abebe is an athlete”. Write each
of the following sentences in symbolic form.
(a) If Abebe is an athlete, then he is a businessman.p ⇒ q
(b) Abebe is neither a businessman nor an athlete.¬p ∧ ¬q
(c) Abebe is either a businessman or an athlete. p ∨ q
(d) Abebe is a businessman if and only if he is an athlete.p ⇔ q
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Compound (or complex) propositions

In this section we will learn how to form new propositions by using more
than one propositional connectives and how to determine the truth val-
ues of such propositions.For example, if p, q, r and s are propositions,
then we form new propositions like p ∧ q, r ∨ s, p =⇒ q, r ⇐⇒ p, etc.
Definition
A proposition consisting of two or more propositions joined by propositional
connectives is called a compound proposition.
Individual propositions that are used to form a compound propositions are
called components of the compound proposition.

There is always a convention that, in determining the truth values of

compound propositions, the truth values of the propositions in paren-
theses are determined first.

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
If p, q and r are propositions with truth values true, false and true respec-
tively, then (p ∨ q) =⇒ r is a compound proposition with truth value true.
This is because,
(a) p ∨ q is true, by the rule of disjunction, since p is true and q is false
and
(b) (p ∨ q) =⇒ r is true, by the rule of implication, since p ∨ q is true (by
(a) above) and r is true.

Example
a) construct the truth table for the proposition ¬(p ∧ q)
b) construct the truth table for the proposition ¬p ∨ ¬q
c) compare the truth values of the compound propositions
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Compound (or complex) propositions

Remark
When dealing with compound propositions and determining the truth val-
ues of these propositions, we shall adopt the following conventions on the
use of parenthesis and we first determine truth values of propositions in a
parenthesis.
(a) If ”¬” occurs with other connectives, then ”¬” is applied first. For
example,
(i) ¬p ∧ q means (¬p) ∧ q.
(ii) p ∨ ¬q means p ∨ (¬q).
(iii) ¬q =⇒ ¬p means (¬q) =⇒ (¬p).
(iv) ¬p ⇐⇒ ¬q means (¬p) ⇐⇒ (¬q).

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Remark (cont . . . )
(b) If the connectives ”¬”, or ”∨” or ”∧” occur with ”=⇒” or ”⇐⇒”,
then ”¬” or ∨” or ”∧” is applied first, and then ”=⇒” or “⇐⇒” is
applied. For example,
(i) p ∧ q =⇒ r means (p ∧ q) =⇒ r .
(ii) p ∨ q ⇐⇒ r means (p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ r .
(iii) ¬q =⇒ ¬p means (¬q) =⇒ (¬p).
(iv) ¬p ⇐⇒ r means (¬p) ⇐⇒ r .
(c) If the connectives ”=⇒” and ”⇐⇒” occur together, then ”=⇒” ap-
plied first and then ”⇐⇒” is applied.
For example, p ⇐⇒ q =⇒ r means p ⇐⇒ (q =⇒ r ).

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Compound (or complex) propositions
Example
Let p, q and r be propositions with truth values true, false and true re-
spectively. Determine the truth value of each of the following compound
propositions.
(i) p ∨ q ⇒ r (ii) ¬(p ∧ q) ⇒ ¬(p ∨ ¬r )

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Compound (or complex) propositions
Example
Let p, q and r be propositions with truth values true, false and true re-
spectively. Determine the truth value of each of the following compound
propositions.
(i) p ∨ q ⇒ r (ii) ¬(p ∧ q) ⇒ ¬(p ∨ ¬r )
(i) We have that p ∨ q ⇒ r means (p ∨ q) ⇒ r . Thus, by rule of disjunction,
(p ∨ q) has truth value true, since p is true and q is false. Again, by rule of
implication (p ∨ q) ⇒ r has truth value true, since both (p ∨ q) and r are
true.

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Compound (or complex) propositions
Example
Let p, q and r be propositions with truth values true, false and true re-
spectively. Determine the truth value of each of the following compound
propositions.
(i) p ∨ q ⇒ r (ii) ¬(p ∧ q) ⇒ ¬(p ∨ ¬r )
(i) We have that p ∨ q ⇒ r means (p ∨ q) ⇒ r . Thus, by rule of disjunction,
(p ∨ q) has truth value true, since p is true and q is false. Again, by rule of
implication (p ∨ q) ⇒ r has truth value true, since both (p ∨ q) and r are
true.
(ii) By the rule of conjunction, the proposition p ∧ q is false and then by rule
of negation ¬(p ∧ q) is true. By using rule of negation and then rule of
disjunction, the proposition ¬r is false and the proposition p ∨ ¬r is true.
Again, applying rule of negation, the proposition ¬(p ∨ ¬r ) has truth value
false. Therefore, [¬(p ∧ q)] ⇐⇒ [¬(p ∨ ¬r )] is false, by the rule of bi-
implication.
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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
Given the propositions p : ”The earth is round” ; q : ”Mali is in Africa” and
r : ”Man is mortal”, express the following compound propositions in words.

(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ):

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
Given the propositions p : ”The earth is round” ; q : ”Mali is in Africa” and
r : ”Man is mortal”, express the following compound propositions in words.

(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ):
If the earth is round, then either Mali is in Africa or man is mortal.

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
Given the propositions p : ”The earth is round” ; q : ”Mali is in Africa” and
r : ”Man is mortal”, express the following compound propositions in words.

(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ):
If the earth is round, then either Mali is in Africa or man is mortal.
(b) (p ∧ ¬r ) =⇒ ¬q:

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
Given the propositions p : ”The earth is round” ; q : ”Mali is in Africa” and
r : ”Man is mortal”, express the following compound propositions in words.

(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ):
If the earth is round, then either Mali is in Africa or man is mortal.
(b) (p ∧ ¬r ) =⇒ ¬q:
If the earth is round or man is not normal, then Mali is not in Africa.

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
Given the propositions p : ”The earth is round” ; q : ”Mali is in Africa” and
r : ”Man is mortal”, express the following compound propositions in words.

(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ):
If the earth is round, then either Mali is in Africa or man is mortal.
(b) (p ∧ ¬r ) =⇒ ¬q:
If the earth is round or man is not normal, then Mali is not in Africa.
(c) (p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ r :

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Example
Given the propositions p : ”The earth is round” ; q : ”Mali is in Africa” and
r : ”Man is mortal”, express the following compound propositions in words.

(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ):
If the earth is round, then either Mali is in Africa or man is mortal.
(b) (p ∧ ¬r ) =⇒ ¬q:
If the earth is round or man is not normal, then Mali is not in Africa.
(c) (p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ r :
The earth is round and Mali is in Africa if and only if man is mortal.

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Compound (or complex) propositions

Exercise
Let p, q and r be propositions with truth values False, False and
True respectively. Determine the truth value of each of the follow-
ing compound propositions.
(a) ¬(¬p) ⇐⇒ q
(b) p ∨ (q ∧ r )
(c) p =⇒ (q ∨ r )
(d) (p ∧ ¬r ) ⇐⇒ q
(e) (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
(f) (p ∧ q) =⇒ ¬(q ∨ r )

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Equivalent propositions

Notation: We usually denote compound propositions by capital letters

like P, Q, R, S, etc.
A given compound proposition can have different forms, but all the
different forms have the same truth value for all possible combinations
of truth values for each of the component proposition occurring in the
given proposition. The different forms of a given proposition are called
equivalent propositions.

Definition
Two compound propositions P and Q are said to be equivalent if they
have the same truth value for all possible combinations of truth values for
the component propositions occurring in both propositions, P and Q.

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Equivalent propositions
We can determine the equivalence of two compound propositions using
truth tables.
First construct a truth table that contains the truth values of the two
compound propositions in two different columns for all possible combi-
nations of truth values for each of the component proposition occurring
in the given propositions.
If the two columns have the same truth values for all possible combi-
nations, then the two propositions are equivalent, otherwise, they are
not equivalent.

Example

Let p and q be propositions and P : p =⇒ q and Q : ¬p ∨ q be compound

propositions. A truth table for both propositions P : p =⇒ q and Q : ¬p ∨q
is given in Table 6.
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Example
p q ¬p p =⇒ q ¬p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
Table: Truth Table for P : p =⇒ q and Q : ¬p ∨ q.

From the fourth and fifth columns in Table6, we can see that P and Q have
the same truth value for all possible combinations of truth values of p and
q. Thus, the propositions P and Q are equivalent.

Notation: If P and Q are equivalent propositions, we denote this relation

by P ≡ Q.

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Example
Let p and q be propositions and P : p ∨ q and Q : p ∧ q be compound
propositions. Use truth table to determine if the propositions P and Q are
equivalent.

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Example
Let p and q be propositions and P : p ∨ q and Q : p ∧ q be compound
propositions. Use truth table to determine if the propositions P and Q are
equivalent.

The truth table for the propositions P : p ∨ q and Q : p ∧ q is given in

Table 7.
p q p∨q p∧q
T T T T
T F T F
F T T F
F F F F
Table: Truth Table for P : p ∨ q and Q : ¬p ∨ ¬q
From the third and fourth columns of Table 7, we can see that the two
propositions, P and Q, do not have identical truth values. Therefore, the
propositions P and Q are not equivalent.
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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Determine if the propositions q =⇒ p,¬p =⇒
¬q and ¬q =⇒ ¬p are equivalent to p =⇒ q.

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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Determine if the propositions q =⇒ p,¬p =⇒
¬q and ¬q =⇒ ¬p are equivalent to p =⇒ q.
Let us construct a truth table that contain these propositions in Table 8.

p q ¬p ¬q p =⇒ q q =⇒ p ¬p =⇒ ¬q ¬q =⇒ ¬p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
Table: Truth table for conditional propositions.
As we can see it from the fifth and the eighth columns of Table 8, the proposition
p =⇒ q and its contrapositive ¬q =⇒ ¬p are equivalent. On the other hand, from
the fifth and the sixth columns of the same table, we can see that p =⇒ q and its
converse, q =⇒ p, are not equivalent. Also, from the fifth and seventh columns of
Table 8, we can see that p =⇒ q and its inverse, ¬p =⇒ ¬q, are not equivalent.

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A compound proposition is always equivalent to its contrapositive
Remark
a If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.
Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not live in
Ethiopia.
Contrapositive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does not live
in Addis Ababa.

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Identities on logical connectives
Some basic properties of conjunction and disjunction are as follows
1) Idempotent law: If p is a proposition then
a) p ≡ p ∨ p
b) p ≡ p ∧ p
p p∨p p∧p
T T T
F F F
2) commutative laws: If p and q are propositions, then
a) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p
b) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
p q p∧q q∧p p∨q q∨p
T T T T T T
T F F F T T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F
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Identities . . .

In similar manner proof that the following propositions are equivalent

3) Associative laws: If p, q and r are propositions, then
(a) p ∧ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r (b) p ∨ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r .
4) Distributive laws
(a) Disjunction is distributive over conjunction. That is, if p, q and r are
propositions, then p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r ).
(b) Conjunction is distributive over disjunction. That is, if p, q and r are
propositions, then p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r ).
5) De Morgan’s Laws: Let p and q be propositions.
Then
(a) ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q.
(b) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q.

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De Morgan’s laws
Let p and q be propositions. Let us prove the two equivalences using truth
tables.
(a) A truth table for the two propositions ¬(p ∧ q) and ¬p ∨ ¬q is given
in Table 9.
p q ¬p ¬q p ∧ q ¬(p ∧ q) ¬p ∨ ¬q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T
Table: Truth table for ¬(p ∧ q) and ¬p ∨ ¬q.

Since the sixth and the seventh columns of Table 9 are identical, the
propositions ¬(p ∧ q) and ¬p ∨ ¬q are equivalent. That is,
¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q.
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Identities . . .

6) Rule of Double Negation :If p is a proposition, then ¬(¬p) ≡ p.

7) Law of contrapositive: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇒ q ≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p
8) Law of Bi-implication: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇔ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

Example
show that ¬(p ⇒ q) and p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.

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Identities . . .

6) Rule of Double Negation :If p is a proposition, then ¬(¬p) ≡ p.

7) Law of contrapositive: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇒ q ≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p
8) Law of Bi-implication: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇔ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

Example
show that ¬(p ⇒ q) and p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.

¬(p ⇒ q) ≡ ¬(¬p ∨ q)

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Identities . . .

6) Rule of Double Negation :If p is a proposition, then ¬(¬p) ≡ p.

7) Law of contrapositive: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇒ q ≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p
8) Law of Bi-implication: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇔ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

Example
show that ¬(p ⇒ q) and p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.

¬(p ⇒ q) ≡ ¬(¬p ∨ q)
≡ ¬(¬p) ∧ ¬q

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Identities . . .

6) Rule of Double Negation :If p is a proposition, then ¬(¬p) ≡ p.

7) Law of contrapositive: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇒ q ≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p
8) Law of Bi-implication: Let p and q be propositions.
Then p ⇔ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

Example
show that ¬(p ⇒ q) and p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.

¬(p ⇒ q) ≡ ¬(¬p ∨ q)
≡ ¬(¬p) ∧ ¬q
≡ p ∧ ¬q

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Identities . . .
Example
Show that p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) and (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p
p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ¬p ∨ (q ∨ r )

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Identities . . .
Example
Show that p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) and (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p
p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ¬p ∨ (q ∨ r )
≡ (q ∨ r ) ∨ ¬p

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Identities . . .
Example
Show that p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) and (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p
p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ¬p ∨ (q ∨ r )
≡ (q ∨ r ) ∨ ¬p
≡ ¬(¬q ∧ ¬r ) ∨ ¬p

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Identities . . .
Example
Show that p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) and (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p
p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ¬p ∨ (q ∨ r )
≡ (q ∨ r ) ∨ ¬p
≡ ¬(¬q ∧ ¬r ) ∨ ¬p
≡ (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p

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Identities . . .
Example
Show that p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) and (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p
p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ¬p ∨ (q ∨ r )
≡ (q ∨ r ) ∨ ¬p
≡ ¬(¬q ∧ ¬r ) ∨ ¬p
≡ (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ⇒ ¬p

Exercise
Let p, q and r be propositions. Then prove each of the following
equivalences.
(a) p =⇒ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (¬q ∧ ¬r ) =⇒ ¬p.
(b) ¬(p ⇐⇒ q) ≡ (p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (q ∧ ¬p).
(c) p ⇐⇒ q ≡ [(p =⇒ q) ∧ (q =⇒ p)].
(d) p ⇐⇒ q ≡ (¬p) ⇐⇒ (¬q).
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Tautology and Contradiction

Definition
A compound proposition that is
(a) always true, no matter what the truth values of the component propo-
sitions that occur in it, is called a tautology;
(b) always false, no matter what the truth values of the component propo-
sitions that occur in it, is called a contradiction;
(c) neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

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Tautology and Contradiction

Definition
A compound proposition that is
(a) always true, no matter what the truth values of the component propo-
sitions that occur in it, is called a tautology;
(b) always false, no matter what the truth values of the component propo-
sitions that occur in it, is called a contradiction;
(c) neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

Example
Let p be a proposition. Show that
(a) P : p ∨ ¬p is a tautology and
(b) Q : p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.
(c) R : (p ∨ q) ⇒ q is a contingency
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Tautology and Contradiction contd. . .
Example
Let p be a proposition. Show that
(a) P : p ∨ ¬p is a tautology

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Tautology and Contradiction contd. . .
Example
Let p be a proposition. Show that
(a) P : p ∨ ¬p is a tautology
If p has truth value true, then ¬p is false and thus P : p ∨ ¬p is true,
by the rule of disjunction.
If p has truth value false, then ¬p is true and thus P : p ∨ ¬p is true,
again by the rule of disjunction.
Therefore, P : p ∨ ¬p is always true and hence it is a tautology.

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Tautology and Contradiction contd. . .
Example
Let p be a proposition. Show that
(a) P : p ∨ ¬p is a tautology
If p has truth value true, then ¬p is false and thus P : p ∨ ¬p is true,
by the rule of disjunction.
If p has truth value false, then ¬p is true and thus P : p ∨ ¬p is true,
again by the rule of disjunction.
Therefore, P : p ∨ ¬p is always true and hence it is a tautology.
(b) Q : p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.

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Tautology and Contradiction contd. . .
Example
Let p be a proposition. Show that
(a) P : p ∨ ¬p is a tautology
If p has truth value true, then ¬p is false and thus P : p ∨ ¬p is true,
by the rule of disjunction.
If p has truth value false, then ¬p is true and thus P : p ∨ ¬p is true,
again by the rule of disjunction.
Therefore, P : p ∨ ¬p is always true and hence it is a tautology.
(b) Q : p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.
If p has truth value true, then ¬p is false and thus Q : p ∧ ¬p is false
by the rule of conjunction.
If p has truth value false, then ¬p is true and thus Q : p ∧ ¬p is false
by the rule of conjunction. Therefore, Q : p ∧ ¬p is always false and
hence it is a contradiction.
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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Consider the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q.
(a) If p and q are true,

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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Consider the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q.
(a) If p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true by the rule of disjunction. Thus,
the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is true by the rule of implication.

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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Consider the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q.
(a) If p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true by the rule of disjunction. Thus,
the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is true by the rule of implication.
(b) If p is true and q is false,

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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Consider the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q.
(a) If p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true by the rule of disjunction. Thus,
the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is true by the rule of implication.
(b) If p is true and q is false,then by the rule of disjunction, p ∨ q is true.
Thus, the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is false by the rule of implication.

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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Consider the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q.
(a) If p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true by the rule of disjunction. Thus,
the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is true by the rule of implication.
(b) If p is true and q is false,then by the rule of disjunction, p ∨ q is true.
Thus, the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is false by the rule of implication.
Therefore, from (a) and (b) above, we have that (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction. Thus, (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is a contingency.

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Example
Let p and q be propositions. Consider the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q.
(a) If p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true by the rule of disjunction. Thus,
the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is true by the rule of implication.
(b) If p is true and q is false,then by the rule of disjunction, p ∨ q is true.
Thus, the proposition (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is false by the rule of implication.
Therefore, from (a) and (b) above, we have that (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction. Thus, (p ∨ q) =⇒ q is a contingency.

Example
Let p be a proposition. Consider the compound proposition p ⇐⇒ p.
(a) If p is true, then p ⇐⇒ p is true by the rule of bi-implication.
(b) If p is false, then p ⇐⇒ p is true again by the rule of bi-implication.
This implies, for any truth value of p, the compound proposition p ⇐⇒ p
is always true and hence it is a tautology.
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Tautologies and contradictions
Tautologies and contradictions are important and often used in
mathematical reasoning. One can use truth tables to determine if a given
compound proposition is a tautology, a contradiction or a contingency.

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Tautologies and contradictions
Tautologies and contradictions are important and often used in
mathematical reasoning. One can use truth tables to determine if a given
compound proposition is a tautology, a contradiction or a contingency.
Example
Let p and q be propositions.Show that ¬(p ∨ q) ⇔ ¬p ∧ ¬q is a tautology.

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Tautologies and contradictions
Tautologies and contradictions are important and often used in
mathematical reasoning. One can use truth tables to determine if a given
compound proposition is a tautology, a contradiction or a contingency.
Example
Let p and q be propositions.Show that ¬(p ∨ q) ⇔ ¬p ∧ ¬q is a tautology.
The truth table for the compound proposition is given as

p q p∨q ¬(p ∨ q) ¬p ¬q ¬p ∧ ¬q ¬(p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ ¬p ∧ ¬q

T T T F F F F T
T F T F F T F T
F T T F T F F T
F F F T T T T T
Table: Truth table for ¬(p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ ¬p ∧ ¬q.

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Remark
Two propositions P and Q are equivalent if and only if the compound
proposition ”P ⇐⇒ Q” is a tautology.

Example

Let p and q be propositions. Show that the compound propositions p ⇒ q

and ¬p ∨ q are equivalent.
Construct truth table for the compound proposition (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (¬p ∨ q)

p q ¬p p =⇒ q ¬p ∨ q (p =⇒ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p ∨ q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Table: Truth Table for (p =⇒ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p ∨ q)
Hence the propositions p =⇒ q and ¬p ∨ q are equivalent propositions.
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Remark
In any tautology, if we substitute a proposition by another proposition
throughout its occurrence, the result is still a tautology

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Remark
In any tautology, if we substitute a proposition by another proposition
throughout its occurrence, the result is still a tautology

Example
If p is a proposition, then the proposition p ∨ p ⇐⇒ p is a tautology.
If q and r are propositions and we substitute r =⇒ q for p, the compound
proposition [(r =⇒ q) ∨ (r =⇒ q)] ⇐⇒ (r =⇒ q) is still a tautology.

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Remark
In any tautology, if we substitute a proposition by another proposition
throughout its occurrence, the result is still a tautology

Example
If p is a proposition, then the proposition p ∨ p ⇐⇒ p is a tautology.
If q and r are propositions and we substitute r =⇒ q for p, the compound
proposition [(r =⇒ q) ∨ (r =⇒ q)] ⇐⇒ (r =⇒ q) is still a tautology.

Example
If p, q and r are propositions, then [p∨(q∨r )] ⇔ [(p∨q)∨r ] is a tautology.If
we substitute p for q, then the proposition [p ∨ (p ∨ r )] ⇔ [(p ∨ p) ∨ r ] is
still a tautology.

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Remark
In any tautology, if we substitute a proposition by another proposition
throughout its occurrence, the result is still a tautology

Example
If p is a proposition, then the proposition p ∨ p ⇐⇒ p is a tautology.
If q and r are propositions and we substitute r =⇒ q for p, the compound
proposition [(r =⇒ q) ∨ (r =⇒ q)] ⇐⇒ (r =⇒ q) is still a tautology.

Example
If p, q and r are propositions, then [p∨(q∨r )] ⇔ [(p∨q)∨r ] is a tautology.If
we substitute p for q, then the proposition [p ∨ (p ∨ r )] ⇔ [(p ∨ p) ∨ r ] is
still a tautology.

Remark
Since a tautology is always true, the negation of a tautology is always false, and
hence a contradiction. Conversely, the negation of a contradiction is a tautology.
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Exercise

Let p and q be propositions. Determine whether each of the following

propositions is tautology, contradiction or contingency.
(a) (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬p ∨ ¬q)
(b) (p ∧ q) ∨ ¬q
(c) (p =⇒ (q =⇒ p)) =⇒ p
(d) (p ∧ q) =⇒ ¬p
(e) q =⇒ ¬q

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Open propositions

The sentence ” x is a day before Sunday” is not a proposition, as we

cannot say that it is true or false. But if we replace x by Saturday, the
sentence becomes ” Saturday is a day before Sunday”. and hence it is a
proposition with truth value true. If we replace the ”x” by another day,
say ”Monday”, then the new sentence is ”Monday is a day before Sunday”
and it is a proposition with truth value false.

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Open propositions

The sentence ” x is a day before Sunday” is not a proposition, as we

cannot say that it is true or false. But if we replace x by Saturday, the
sentence becomes ” Saturday is a day before Sunday”. and hence it is a
proposition with truth value true. If we replace the ”x” by another day,
say ”Monday”, then the new sentence is ”Monday is a day before Sunday”
and it is a proposition with truth value false.
Definition
A sentence which contains one or more variables and it becomes a proposi-
tion when each of its variables is replaced by a particular individual is called
open proposition.
If, in an open proposition, the collection of objects from which we choose
replacements for the variables is specified, then this collection of objects is
called the universe of the discussion.

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Open propositions examples
Example
The sentences
(a) P(x): x is a city in Ethiopia; (b) Q(x, y ): x is a factor of y ;
(c) R(z): z is a composite number; (d) S(x, y , z):x + y + z = 6;
are all open propositions.

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Open propositions examples
Example
The sentences
(a) P(x): x is a city in Ethiopia; (b) Q(x, y ): x is a factor of y ;
(c) R(z): z is a composite number; (d) S(x, y , z):x + y + z = 6;
are all open propositions.

If we have an open proposition P(x), the proposition we get when we

replace x by the name of an individual ”a” in the universe is denoted by
P(a) and P(a) can be true or false depending on the value for ”a”.

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Open propositions examples
Example
The sentences
(a) P(x): x is a city in Ethiopia; (b) Q(x, y ): x is a factor of y ;
(c) R(z): z is a composite number; (d) S(x, y , z):x + y + z = 6;
are all open propositions.

If we have an open proposition P(x), the proposition we get when we

replace x by the name of an individual ”a” in the universe is denoted by
P(a) and P(a) can be true or false depending on the value for ”a”.
Example
(a) Consider the open proposition P(x, y ) : x + y = 0. Then P(3, −1) is
false, as 3 − 1 = 2 6= 0 and P(1, −1) is true, because 1 + (−1) = 0.

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Open propositions examples
Example
The sentences
(a) P(x): x is a city in Ethiopia; (b) Q(x, y ): x is a factor of y ;
(c) R(z): z is a composite number; (d) S(x, y , z):x + y + z = 6;
are all open propositions.

If we have an open proposition P(x), the proposition we get when we

replace x by the name of an individual ”a” in the universe is denoted by
P(a) and P(a) can be true or false depending on the value for ”a”.
Example
(a) Consider the open proposition P(x, y ) : x + y = 0. Then P(3, −1) is
false, as 3 − 1 = 2 6= 0 and P(1, −1) is true, because 1 + (−1) = 0.
(b) For the open proposition, P(x, y , z) : x + y = z, we have P(3, 4, 5) is
false, because 3 + 4 = 7 6= 5 and P(1, 2, 3) is true, because 1 + 2 = 3.
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Compound Open propositions
If we are given open propositions P(x) and Q(x), we can form compound
open propositions by using logical connectives as follows:
(a) P(x) ∧ Q(x)− Logical Conjunction
(b) P(x) ∨ Q(x)− Logical Disjunction
(c) P(x) =⇒ Q(x)− Logical Implication
(d) P(x) ⇐⇒ Q(x)− Logical Equivalence (Logical Bi-implication)
(e) ¬P(x)− Logical Negation

Example
If P(x) : x is divisible by 2; Q(y ) : y is an integer greater than 5; and
R(z) : z is a prime number, then
(a) P(x) ∧ Q(x) :

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Compound Open propositions
If we are given open propositions P(x) and Q(x), we can form compound
open propositions by using logical connectives as follows:
(a) P(x) ∧ Q(x)− Logical Conjunction
(b) P(x) ∨ Q(x)− Logical Disjunction
(c) P(x) =⇒ Q(x)− Logical Implication
(d) P(x) ⇐⇒ Q(x)− Logical Equivalence (Logical Bi-implication)
(e) ¬P(x)− Logical Negation

Example
If P(x) : x is divisible by 2; Q(y ) : y is an integer greater than 5; and
R(z) : z is a prime number, then
(a) P(x) ∧ Q(x) : x is divisible by 2 and x is an integer greater than 5.
(b) Q(x) ⇒ R(x) :

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Compound Open propositions
If we are given open propositions P(x) and Q(x), we can form compound
open propositions by using logical connectives as follows:
(a) P(x) ∧ Q(x)− Logical Conjunction
(b) P(x) ∨ Q(x)− Logical Disjunction
(c) P(x) =⇒ Q(x)− Logical Implication
(d) P(x) ⇐⇒ Q(x)− Logical Equivalence (Logical Bi-implication)
(e) ¬P(x)− Logical Negation

Example
If P(x) : x is divisible by 2; Q(y ) : y is an integer greater than 5; and
R(z) : z is a prime number, then
(a) P(x) ∧ Q(x) : x is divisible by 2 and x is an integer greater than 5.
(b) Q(x) ⇒ R(x) : If x is an integer greater than 5, then x is a prime
number.
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Compound open propositions

Example
contd
(c) (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ⇔ R(x):

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Compound open propositions

Example
contd
(c) (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ⇔ R(x): x is divisible by 2 or x is an integer greater
than 5 if and only if x a prime number.
(d) ¬R(x):

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Compound open propositions

Example
contd
(c) (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ⇔ R(x): x is divisible by 2 or x is an integer greater
than 5 if and only if x a prime number.
(d) ¬R(x): x is not a prime number.

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Compound open propositions

Example
contd
(c) (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ⇔ R(x): x is divisible by 2 or x is an integer greater
than 5 if and only if x a prime number.
(d) ¬R(x): x is not a prime number.

Definition
Two open proposition Q(x) and R(x) are said to be equivalent if Q(a) ≡
R(a) for all possible individual a.
If the universe U is specified, then the open propositions Q(x) and R(x)
are said to be equivalent if Q(a) ≡ R(a) for all a in U.

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions

Example
Consider the open propositions P(x) : x 2 − 1 = 0 and Q(x) : |x| ≥ 1 with
universe U = {−1, 0, 1}. Then
(a) P(−1) : (−1)2 − 1 = 0 is true and Q(−1) : | − 1| ≥ 1 is true;
(b) P(0) : (0)2 − 1 = 0 is false and Q(0) : |0| ≥ 1 is false and
(c) P(1) : (1)2 − 1 = 0 is true and Q(1) : |1| ≥ 1 is true.
Therefore, P(a) ≡ Q(a) for all a in U and hence the two open propositions
P(x) and Q(a) are equivalent on the universe U = {−1, 0, 1}.

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions

Example
Let R(x) : x 2 + 5x + 4 = 0,
S(x) : (x + 1)(x + 4) = 0 and the universe U be the set of all real numbers.
Then
(a) for any a in U and a 6= −1, −4, both R(a) and S(a) are false and
(b) the propositions R(−1), R(−4), S(−1) and S(−4) are all true.
This implies R(a) and S(a) have the same truth value for any a in U.
Hence, R(a) ≡ S(a) for all a in U.

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions
Example
Let P(x) : x is an integer, Q(x) : x is a rational number, R(x) : x is an
irrational number and S(x) : x is a real number.
Express each of the following in symbolic form.
(a) If x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions
Example
Let P(x) : x is an integer, Q(x) : x is a rational number, R(x) : x is an
irrational number and S(x) : x is a real number.
Express each of the following in symbolic form.
(a) If x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.
R(x) =⇒ S(x).
(b) If x is a real number, then either x is an irrational number or x is a
rational number.

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions
Example
Let P(x) : x is an integer, Q(x) : x is a rational number, R(x) : x is an
irrational number and S(x) : x is a real number.
Express each of the following in symbolic form.
(a) If x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.
R(x) =⇒ S(x).
(b) If x is a real number, then either x is an irrational number or x is a
rational number.
S(x) =⇒ (R(x) ∨ Q(x)).
(c) x is an integer or x is a rational number

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions
Example
Let P(x) : x is an integer, Q(x) : x is a rational number, R(x) : x is an
irrational number and S(x) : x is a real number.
Express each of the following in symbolic form.
(a) If x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.
R(x) =⇒ S(x).
(b) If x is a real number, then either x is an irrational number or x is a
rational number.
S(x) =⇒ (R(x) ∨ Q(x)).
(c) x is an integer or x is a rational number
P(x) ∨ Q(x).
(d) x is a real number if and only if x is an irrational number or x is a
rational number.

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Equivalence in Compound open propositions
Example
Let P(x) : x is an integer, Q(x) : x is a rational number, R(x) : x is an
irrational number and S(x) : x is a real number.
Express each of the following in symbolic form.
(a) If x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.
R(x) =⇒ S(x).
(b) If x is a real number, then either x is an irrational number or x is a
rational number.
S(x) =⇒ (R(x) ∨ Q(x)).
(c) x is an integer or x is a rational number
P(x) ∨ Q(x).
(d) x is a real number if and only if x is an irrational number or x is a
rational number.
S(x) ⇐⇒ (R(x) ∨ Q(x)).
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Quantifiers in Open Propositions
Given an open proposition P(x), with universe U, we have the following
three possibilities.
(a) P(x) is true for all x in U.
(b) P(x) is true only for some x in U
(c) P(x) is false for all x in U

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Quantifiers in Open Propositions
Given an open proposition P(x), with universe U, we have the following
three possibilities.
(a) P(x) is true for all x in U.
(b) P(x) is true only for some x in U
(c) P(x) is false for all x in U
Example
Consider the following open propositions with the set of real numbers, R,
as its universe.
(a) P(x) : x 2 + 1 > 0 (b) Q(x) : x 2 − 1 = 0 (c) Q(x) : x 2 + 4 < 0.
Then
(a) P(x) is always true for each (every or all) x in R.
(b) Q(x) is true only for x = 1 and x = −1.
(c) R(x) is always false for all values of x in R.
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Quantifiers in open propositions
An open proposition can be changed to a proposition using the words ”all” and
”some” members of the given universe and these words are called quantifiers.

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Quantifiers in open propositions
An open proposition can be changed to a proposition using the words ”all” and
”some” members of the given universe and these words are called quantifiers.
Definition
(a) The phrase ”for all x” is called Universal quantifier. We regard ”for
all x”, ”for every x” and “ for each x” as having the same meaning and
symbolize each by (∀x). If P(x) is an open proposition with universe
U, then (∀x)P(x) is a (quantified) proposition and is read as ”every x
in U has the property P”.

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Quantifiers in open propositions
An open proposition can be changed to a proposition using the words ”all” and
”some” members of the given universe and these words are called quantifiers.
Definition
(a) The phrase ”for all x” is called Universal quantifier. We regard ”for
all x”, ”for every x” and “ for each x” as having the same meaning and
symbolize each by (∀x). If P(x) is an open proposition with universe
U, then (∀x)P(x) is a (quantified) proposition and is read as ”every x
in U has the property P”.
(b) The phrase ”there exists an x” is called an existential quantifier.
We regard ”there exists an x”,”for some x”, ”for at least one x” as
having the same meaning and we symbolize each by (∃x). If P(x) is
an open proposition with universe U, then (∃x)P(x) is a (quantified)
proposition and is read as ”there exists an x in U with the property
P”.
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Quantifiers in open propositions
Remark
Given an open proposition P(x) with universe U:
(i) to show that (∀x)P(x) is false, it is sufficient to find at least one a in U such
that P(a) is false and such an element a in U is called a counter example.
(ii) The proposition (∃x)P(x) is false if we cannot find an a in U having the
property P.

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Quantifiers in open propositions
Remark
Given an open proposition P(x) with universe U:
(i) to show that (∀x)P(x) is false, it is sufficient to find at least one a in U such
that P(a) is false and such an element a in U is called a counter example.
(ii) The proposition (∃x)P(x) is false if we cannot find an a in U having the
property P.

Definition
If P(x) is an open proposition and U is its universe, then the set of all elements t
of U such that P(t) is true is called the truth set of P(x). That is, the true set of
P(x) is {t ∈ U|P(t) is true }.

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Quantifiers in open propositions
Remark
Given an open proposition P(x) with universe U:
(i) to show that (∀x)P(x) is false, it is sufficient to find at least one a in U such
that P(a) is false and such an element a in U is called a counter example.
(ii) The proposition (∃x)P(x) is false if we cannot find an a in U having the
property P.

Definition
If P(x) is an open proposition and U is its universe, then the set of all elements t
of U such that P(t) is true is called the truth set of P(x). That is, the true set of
P(x) is {t ∈ U|P(t) is true }.

Example
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and P(x) : x is even. Then the truth set
of P(x) is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.
(c) All prime integers are non-negative.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.
(c) All prime integers are non-negative.(∀x)(P(x) =⇒ N(x)) with truth
value true.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.
(c) All prime integers are non-negative.(∀x)(P(x) =⇒ N(x)) with truth
value true.
(d) Not all integers are odd.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.
(c) All prime integers are non-negative.(∀x)(P(x) =⇒ N(x)) with truth
value true.
(d) Not all integers are odd.¬(∀x)O(x) with truth value true.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.
(c) All prime integers are non-negative.(∀x)(P(x) =⇒ N(x)) with truth
value true.
(d) Not all integers are odd.¬(∀x)O(x) with truth value true.
(e) Not all primes are odd.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe the set of integers,
Z: N(x) : x is a non-negative integer, E (x) : x is even, O(x) : x is odd and
P(x) : x is prime. Translate each of the following propositions into symbolic
form using the appropriate quantifiers and find their truth values.
(a) There exists an even integer. (∃x)E (x) with truth value true.
(b) Every integer is either even or odd.(∀x)(E (x) ∨ O(x)) with truth value
true.
(c) All prime integers are non-negative.(∀x)(P(x) =⇒ N(x)) with truth
value true.
(d) Not all integers are odd.¬(∀x)O(x) with truth value true.
(e) Not all primes are odd.¬(∀x)(P(x) =⇒ O(x)) with truth value true.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Finding truth values of open propositions with quantifiers
(a) Let P(x) : x 2 + 1 > 0 and R, the set of real numbers, be the universe.
Then the truth value of the proposition (∀x)P(x)[i.e.(∀x)(x 2 + 1 > 0)]
is True, since the square of every real number is non-negative.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Finding truth values of open propositions with quantifiers
(a) Let P(x) : x 2 + 1 > 0 and R, the set of real numbers, be the universe.
Then the truth value of the proposition (∀x)P(x)[i.e.(∀x)(x 2 + 1 > 0)]
is True, since the square of every real number is non-negative.
(b) Let Q(x) : x −1 = 0 and the universe U be the set of rational numbers.
The truth value for (∀x)Q(x)[i.e.(∀x)(x − 1) = 0] is False, since
Q(2) : 2 − 1 = 1 = 0 is false. On the other hand (∃x)Q(x) is True,
since Q(1) : 1 − 1 = 0 is true.

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Quantifiers in open propositions

Example
Finding truth values of open propositions with quantifiers
(a) Let P(x) : x 2 + 1 > 0 and R, the set of real numbers, be the universe.
Then the truth value of the proposition (∀x)P(x)[i.e.(∀x)(x 2 + 1 > 0)]
is True, since the square of every real number is non-negative.
(b) Let Q(x) : x −1 = 0 and the universe U be the set of rational numbers.
The truth value for (∀x)Q(x)[i.e.(∀x)(x − 1) = 0] is False, since
Q(2) : 2 − 1 = 1 = 0 is false. On the other hand (∃x)Q(x) is True,
since Q(1) : 1 − 1 = 0 is true.
(c) Let S(x) : x 2 = −1 and R, the set of real numbers, be the universe
The truth value for (∃x)S(x) is false, since there is no real number
whose square is −1.

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Relationship Between Existential and Universal Quantifiers

If P(x) is a formula in x , consider the following four statements.

a) (∀x)P(x) translated as ”Everything has property P”
b) (∃x)P(x) translated as ”something has property P”
c) (∀x)¬P(x) translated as ”nothing has property P”
d) (∃x)¬P(x) translated as ”something does not have property P”
In every day language d) is is denial of(is the negation of) a) and c) is is
denial of(is the negation of) b) this means we can create a relation
between the universal and existential quantifiers

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Relationship Between Existential and Universal Quantifiers
Let P(x) be an open proposition and U be its universe.
(a) Then (∃x)P(x) is a proposition and it will be false, if for any individual
”a” in the universe, the proposition P(a) is false. If we cannot get an
individual a in the universe such that P(a) is true, then the proposition
(∀x)¬P(x) is true. Therefore, the negation of (∃x)P(x) is (∀x)¬P(x),
that is, for the quantified proposition (∃x)P(x) ,
¬(∃x)P(x) ≡ (∀x)¬P(x).

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Relationship Between Existential and Universal Quantifiers
Let P(x) be an open proposition and U be its universe.
(a) Then (∃x)P(x) is a proposition and it will be false, if for any individual
”a” in the universe, the proposition P(a) is false. If we cannot get an
individual a in the universe such that P(a) is true, then the proposition
(∀x)¬P(x) is true. Therefore, the negation of (∃x)P(x) is (∀x)¬P(x),
that is, for the quantified proposition (∃x)P(x) ,
¬(∃x)P(x) ≡ (∀x)¬P(x).

(b) (∀x)P(x) is a proposition and it will be false only if we can find an

individual ”a” in the universe such that P(a) is false. If we can get an
individual a in the universe such that P(a) is false, then the proposition
(∃x)¬P(x) is true. Therefore, the negation of (∀x)P(x) is (∃x)¬P(x),
that is, for the quantified proposition (∀x)P(x) ,
¬(∀x)P(x) ≡ (∃x)¬P(x).
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Relationship Between Quantifiers . . . example

Example
Find the negation of each of the following propositions with the set of real
numbers as the universe.
(a) (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0)

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Relationship Between Quantifiers . . . example

Example
Find the negation of each of the following propositions with the set of real
numbers as the universe.
(a) (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) First observe that (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) is false
¬(∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) ≡ (∀x)(¬(x 2 + 1 = 0)) ≡ (∀x)(x 2 + 1 6= 0).
Hence, the negation for (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) is (∀x)(x 2 + 1 6= 0),
which is true.

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Relationship Between Quantifiers . . . example

Example
Find the negation of each of the following propositions with the set of real
numbers as the universe.
(a) (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) First observe that (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) is false
¬(∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) ≡ (∀x)(¬(x 2 + 1 = 0)) ≡ (∀x)(x 2 + 1 6= 0).
Hence, the negation for (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) is (∀x)(x 2 + 1 6= 0),
which is true.
(b) (∀x)(x − 1 ≥ 0)

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Relationship Between Quantifiers . . . example

Example
Find the negation of each of the following propositions with the set of real
numbers as the universe.
(a) (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) First observe that (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) is false
¬(∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) ≡ (∀x)(¬(x 2 + 1 = 0)) ≡ (∀x)(x 2 + 1 6= 0).
Hence, the negation for (∃x)(x 2 + 1 = 0) is (∀x)(x 2 + 1 6= 0),
which is true.
(b) (∀x)(x − 1 ≥ 0) First observe that (∀x)(x − 1 ≥ 0) is false
¬(∀x)(x − 1 ≥ 0) ≡ (∃x)¬(x − 1 ≥ 0) ≡ (∃x)(x − 1 < 0).
Therefore, the negation of (∀x)(x − 1 > 0) is (∃x)(x − 1 < 0),
which is true.

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Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
So far we have only considered cases in which universal and existential quantifiers
appear separately. We now see cases in which universal and existential quantifiers
occur in combination. The following are the simplest forms of these
combinations.
1. (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) ”for all x and for all y , the relation P(x, y ) holds”;
2. (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) ”there is an x and there is a y for which P(x, y )
holds”;
3. (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) ”for every x there is a y such that P(x, y ) holds”;
4. (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) ”there is an x which stands to every y in the relation
P(x, y )”;
In the expression (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ), the two universal quantifiers may be
interchanged without altering the sense of the proposition. The same also
holds for the two existential quantifiers in an expression such as
(∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ). However, in (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ), the order of the symbols
(∀x) and (∃y ) is essential.
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Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations

For example, the expression (∀x)(∃y )(x < y ), where x and y are variables
with universe the set of real numbers, a true proposition, namely, ”For
every number x, there is a number y , such that x is less than y ”,
i.e.,”given any real number, there is a real number greater than the given
number.”
But, if the order of the symbol (∀x) and (∃y ) is changed, in this case we
obtain: (∃y )(∀x)(x < y ) which is a false proposition, because there is no
number which is greater than every number. Therefore, changing the
positions of (∀x) and (∃y ) in a quantified proposition could give us a
different statement.
The logical situation between quantified propositions is given as follows
(∃y )(∀x)P(x, y ) =⇒ (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y )

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Quantifiers in Combinations . . . example

Example
Let P(x, y ) : x + y = 5 and the universe, U, be the set of integers.
(a) The proposition (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) means that there is an integer x and
there is an integer y such that x + y = 5. The proposition is true
when x = 1 and y = 4, since 1 + 4 = 5. Therefore, the proposition
(∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) is always true in the given universe.
(b) The proposition (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) means that there is an integer x such
that for every integer y , x + y = 5. But, this is false, since no fixed
value of x0 will make the statement true for all y in the universe.
For example, if y = 1, then x0 + 1 = 5 implies x0 = 4, but this x0 = 4
does not make the statement true for other values of y , as for example
4 + 4 = 8 6= 5 and P(4, 4)) is false.
Therefore, the proposition (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) is false in the universe.

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Quantifiers in Combinations . . . example

Example (cont)
Let P(x, y ) : x + y = 5 and the universe, U, be the set of integers.
(c) (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) means that for every integer x there is an integer y
such that x + y = 5. If x + y = 5, then y = 5 − x and
x + y = x + (5 − x) = 5 and hence the proposition (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) is
true.
(d) (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) means that for every integer x and for every integer
y , x + y = 5. This proposition is false, because, for example if x = 1
and y = 3, we have 1 + 3 = 4 6= 5 and thus P(1, 3) is false.

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Exercises
Find the truth values
1) For every two real numbers x and y , we have x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0

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Exercises
Find the truth values
1) For every two real numbers x and y , we have x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0
If we let P(x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 where the domain of both x and y is R , the
statement can be expressed as (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) or as (∀x)(∀y )x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0.
Since x 2 ≥ 0 and y 2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x and y , it follows that
x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 and so P(x, y ) is true for all real numbers x and y . Thus the
quantified statement is true.
2) There exist an even integer x and an odd integer y such that |x − 1| +
|y − 2| ≤ 2.

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Exercises
Find the truth values
1) For every two real numbers x and y , we have x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0
If we let P(x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 where the domain of both x and y is R , the
statement can be expressed as (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) or as (∀x)(∀y )x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0.
Since x 2 ≥ 0 and y 2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x and y , it follows that
x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 and so P(x, y ) is true for all real numbers x and y . Thus the
quantified statement is true.
2) There exist an even integer x and an odd integer y such that |x − 1| +
|y − 2| ≤ 2.
If we let P(x, y ) : |x − 1| + |y − 2| ≤ 2 where the domain of the variable x
is the set E of even integers and the domain of the variable y is the set O of
odd integers. Then the quantified statement is (∃x ∈ E )(∃y ∈ O)P(x, y ) or
as (∃x ∈ E )(∃y ∈ O)|x − 1| + |y − 2| ≤ 2 Since P(2, 3) : 1 + 1 ≤ 2 is true,
the quantified statement is true.
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Exercises . . . cont

Find the truth values

3) For every positive rational number x, there exists a positive rational
number y such that xy = 1

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Exercises . . . cont

Find the truth values

3) For every positive rational number x, there exists a positive rational
number y such that xy = 1
If we let P(x, y ) : xy = 1 where the domain of both x and y is
the set Q+ of positive rational numbers. then for any x ∈ Q+ we
can find corresponding y = x1 ∈ Q+ . Then the quantified statement
(∀x ∈ Q+ )(∃y ∈ Q+ )xy = 1 Which is True.

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Exercises . . . cont

Find the truth values

3) For every positive rational number x, there exists a positive rational
number y such that xy = 1
If we let P(x, y ) : xy = 1 where the domain of both x and y is
the set Q+ of positive rational numbers. then for any x ∈ Q+ we
can find corresponding y = x1 ∈ Q+ . Then the quantified statement
(∀x ∈ Q+ )(∃y ∈ Q+ )xy = 1 Which is True.
4) There exist a natural number x such that for every natural number y
xy is odd.

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Exercises . . . cont

Find the truth values

3) For every positive rational number x, there exists a positive rational
number y such that xy = 1
If we let P(x, y ) : xy = 1 where the domain of both x and y is
the set Q+ of positive rational numbers. then for any x ∈ Q+ we
can find corresponding y = x1 ∈ Q+ . Then the quantified statement
(∀x ∈ Q+ )(∃y ∈ Q+ )xy = 1 Which is True.
4) There exist a natural number x such that for every natural number y
xy is odd.
If we let P(x, y ) : xy is odd where the domain of both x and y is the set
N of natural numbers.Then the quantified statement (∃x ∈ N)(∀y ∈
N)xy is odd is false.

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Argument and Validity

Definition
A logical deduction (or argument form) is an assertion that a given set of
statements P1 , P2 , . . . Pn , called premises yield another statement Q called
the conclusion. Such a logical deduction is denoted by: P1 , P2 , . . . Pn ` Q
or
P1
P2
..
.
Pn
Q

The meaning for the argument form P1 , P2 , . . . Pn ` Q is that, if we

assume that P1 , P2 , . . . Pn (the premises) are true, then Q (the
conclusion) is true.
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Argument and Validity examples

Example
Let p : It is raining and q : The streets are wet.
Consider the following argument.
It is raining; If it is raining, then the streets are wet. Therefore, the streets
are wet.
Thus, the argument form can be written as p, p =⇒ q ` q.

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Argument and Validity examples

Example
Let p : It is raining and q : The streets are wet.
Consider the following argument.
It is raining; If it is raining, then the streets are wet. Therefore, the streets
are wet.
Thus, the argument form can be written as p, p =⇒ q ` q.

Example
Let p :you study hard and q : you will pass the examination.
consider the argument.
If you study hard, then you will pass the examination; you study hard.
Therefore, you will pass the examination.
Thus, the argument form can be written as p =⇒ q, p ` q.

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Validity
An argument is used in order to demonstrate that a certain conclusion follows
from some premises. Therefore, for an argument it is required that under any
assignment of truth values to the statements appearing in the argument, if all the
premises become true, then the conclusion must also become true.

Definition
An argument form P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ` Q is said to be valid if Q is true
whenever all the premises P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are true; otherwise the argument
is said to be invalid.

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Validity
An argument is used in order to demonstrate that a certain conclusion follows
from some premises. Therefore, for an argument it is required that under any
assignment of truth values to the statements appearing in the argument, if all the
premises become true, then the conclusion must also become true.

Definition
An argument form P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ` Q is said to be valid if Q is true
whenever all the premises P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are true; otherwise the argument
is said to be invalid.

Example
Determine the validity of the argument p, p ∧ q ` q.

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Validity
An argument is used in order to demonstrate that a certain conclusion follows
from some premises. Therefore, for an argument it is required that under any
assignment of truth values to the statements appearing in the argument, if all the
premises become true, then the conclusion must also become true.

Definition
An argument form P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ` Q is said to be valid if Q is true
whenever all the premises P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are true; otherwise the argument
is said to be invalid.

Example
Determine the validity of the argument p, p ∧ q ` q.
Assume both p and p ∧ q are true. Then by the rule of conjunction, p ∧ q
is true only when both p and q are true. But, by assumption p is true.
Therefore, the conclusion, q, is true and hence the argument is valid.
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Argument and Validity . . . using truth tables

Truth tables can be used to determine the validity of an argument and to

use truth table for such purpose:
1: make one column for each variable;
2: fill in all combinations of T for true or F for false values;
3: make one column for each premise and fill in with T or F;
4: make one column for the conjunctions of all the premises;
5: if the conjunction implies the conclusion is a tautology, the argument
is valid, otherwise it is invalid.

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Argument and Validity . . . using truth tables

Example
Determine the validity of the argument p, p ∧ q ` q.

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Argument and Validity . . . using truth tables

Example
Determine the validity of the argument p, p ∧ q ` q.
First let us construct a truth-table, for the statements appearing in the
argument form.

p q p∧q p ∧ (p ∧ q) (p ∧ (p ∧ q)) =⇒ q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T F F T
F F F F T

The premises p and p ∧ q are true simultaneously in row 1 only. Since in

this case q is also true, the argument is valid.

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Argument and Validity . . . using truth tables

Example (contd)
Determine the validity of the following argument forms.
p =⇒ q, ¬p ` q.

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Argument and Validity . . . using truth tables

Example (contd)
Determine the validity of the following argument forms.
p =⇒ q, ¬p ` q.
First let us construct a truth-table, for the statements appearing in the
argument form.

p q p =⇒ q ¬p (p =⇒ q) ∧ ¬P ((p =⇒ q) ∧ ¬p) =⇒ q
T T T F F T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T F

From Table above, we can see that the premises p =⇒ q and ¬p are both
true in the third and fourth row and also in these cases q is true and F
respectively. Therefore, the argument is invalid.
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Remark

(i) The important thing in the validity of an argument is the form of

the argument rather than the meanings or contents of the statements
involved.
(ii) A argument form P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ` Q is valid if and only if the statement
(P1 ∧ P2 ∧ . . . ∧ Pn ) =⇒ Q is a tautology.

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Remark

(i) The important thing in the validity of an argument is the form of

the argument rather than the meanings or contents of the statements
involved.
(ii) A argument form P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ` Q is valid if and only if the statement
(P1 ∧ P2 ∧ . . . ∧ Pn ) =⇒ Q is a tautology.

Definition
A formal proof of the validity of a given argument P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ` Q is a
finite sequence of statements S1 , S2 , . . . , Sk such that Si is either a premise
of that argument or follows from the preceding statement by an elementary
valid argument and such that the last statement Sk is the conclusion Q of
the argument whose validity is being proved.

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Rules of Inference

Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences

1)(Modes Ponens) P, P =⇒ Q ` Q
2)(Modes Tollens) ¬Q, P =⇒ Q ` ¬P
3)(Principle of Syllogism ) P =⇒ Q, Q =⇒ R ` P =⇒ R
4)(Principles of Adjunction) a)P, Q ` P ∧ Q b)P ` P ∨ Q
5)(Principle of Detachment)P ∧ Q ` P, Q
6)(Modus Tollendo Ponens)¬P, P ∨ Q ` Q
7)(Modus Ponendo Tollens)¬(P ∧ Q), P ` ¬Q
8)(Constructive Dilemma)(P =⇒ Q) ∧ (R =⇒ S), P ∨ R ` Q ∨ S
9)(Principle of Equivalence)P ⇐⇒ Q, P ` Q
10)(Principle of Conditionalization)P ` Q =⇒ P

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Formal proof using Rules of Inference examples

A formal proof of validity is given by writing the premises and the

statements which follows from them in a single column, and setting off in
another column, to the right of each statement, its justification. It is
convenient to list all the premises first.
Example
Show that p =⇒ ¬q, q ` ¬p is valid

No. Statement Reason

1. q is true Premise
2. p =⇒ ¬q Premise
3. q =⇒ ¬p contrapositive of 2
4. ¬p Modes ponens using 1 and 3

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Formal proof examples contd. . .
Example
Prove the validity of the following argument.
S =⇒ R, (P ∨ Q) =⇒ ¬R, (¬S) =⇒ (¬Q =⇒ R), P ` Q.

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Formal proof examples contd. . .
Example
Prove the validity of the following argument.
S =⇒ R, (P ∨ Q) =⇒ ¬R, (¬S) =⇒ (¬Q =⇒ R), P ` Q.

No. Statement Reason

1. S =⇒ R Premise
2. (P ∨ Q) =⇒ ¬R Premise
3. ¬S =⇒ (¬Q =⇒ R) Premise
4. P Premise
5. P ∨Q 2,4 Adjunction
6. ¬R 2, 5 Modus Ponens
7. ¬S 1, 6 Modus Tollens
8. ¬Q =⇒ R 3, 7 Modus Ponens
9. Q 6, 8 Modus Tollens

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Formal proof example cont.

Example
Show that the hypotheses: It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday. If we go swimming, then it is sunny. If we do not go swimming,
then we will take a canoe trip. If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home
by sunset. Lead to the conclusion: We will be home by sunset.

Let us first change it to a propositional logic.

let p :It is sunny this afternoon.
q : It is colder than yesterday.
r :We go swimming.
s : We take a canoe trip.
t : We will be home by sunset.
then the argument can be written as ¬p ∧ q, r =⇒ p, ¬r =⇒ s, s =⇒ t ` t

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Formal proof example cont.

To check the validity of the argument form

¬p ∧ q, r =⇒ p, ¬r =⇒ s, s =⇒ t ` t

No. Statement Reason

1. ¬p ∧ q Premise
2. r =⇒ p Premise
3. ¬r =⇒ s Premise
4. s =⇒ t Premise
5. ¬p 1, principle of detachment
6. ¬r 2, 5 Modus Tollens
7. s 3, 6 Modus Ponens
8. t 4, 7 Modus Ponens

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Rules of Replacement
1. De Morgan’s Laws [ ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ ¬P ∧ ¬Q, ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ ¬Q]
2. Commutative Laws [P ∨ Q ≡ Q ∨ P, P ∧ Q ≡ Q ∧ P]
3. Associative Laws
P ∨ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∨ R, P ∧ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∧ R
4. Distributive Laws
P ∧(Q ∨R) ≡ (P ∧Q)∨(P ∧R) P ∨(Q ∧R) ≡ (P ∨Q)∧(P ∨R)
5. Double Negation ¬(¬P) ≡ P
6. Contrapositive P =⇒ Q ≡ (¬Q =⇒ ¬P)
7. Material Implication P =⇒ Q ≡ (¬P ∨ Q)
8. Material Equivalence (P ⇐⇒ Q) ≡ (P =⇒ Q) ∧ (Q =⇒ P)
(P ⇐⇒ Q) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ Q)
9. Exportation [(P ∧ Q) =⇒ R] ≡ [P =⇒ (Q =⇒ R)
10. Tautology P ≡ P ∨ P P ≡P ∧P
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Exercises

For the following argument identify the premises,write argument form and
check the validity of the following
1 If he studies medicine, he will get a good job. If he gets a good job,
he will get a good wage. He did not get a good wage. Therefore, he
did not study medicine.
2 ¬p ∧ ¬q, (q ∨ r ) =⇒ p, ` ¬r
3 (p ∨ q) =⇒ r ` p =⇒ r

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Set theory

Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Every object of the collection
is called an element or a member of the set.

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Set theory

Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Every object of the collection
is called an element or a member of the set.

We denote sets by capital letters like A, B, C , etc and elements of a set by

small letters like a, b, c, x, y , z, etc. Given a set A and an object x:
(i) if x is an element of A, then we denote this relation by “x ∈ A” and
read as “x is an element of set A” or “x is a member of set A”.
(ii) If x is not an element of A, then we denote this relation by “x ∈
/ A”.

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Set theory

Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Every object of the collection
is called an element or a member of the set.

We denote sets by capital letters like A, B, C , etc and elements of a set by

small letters like a, b, c, x, y , z, etc. Given a set A and an object x:
(i) if x is an element of A, then we denote this relation by “x ∈ A” and
read as “x is an element of set A” or “x is a member of set A”.
(ii) If x is not an element of A, then we denote this relation by “x ∈
/ A”.

Example
If A is the set of even numbers, then 2 ∈ A and 3 ∈
/ A, since we know from
our knowledge in theory of numbers that 2 is an even number and 3 is not
an even number.
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Description of sets

Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different

ways.
1. A verbal description of a set uses a sentence or sentences to state a
rule that allows us to determine whether or not an object is in the set.

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Description of sets

Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different

ways.
1. A verbal description of a set uses a sentence or sentences to state a
rule that allows us to determine whether or not an object is in the set.
Example
The following sets are given using a verbal description.
(1) The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.”
(2) The set of counting numbers less than ten.
(3) The set of all countries in Africa.

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Description of sets cont...

2. Roster/Complete Listing Method If the elements of a set can all

be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces, {}, without rep-
etition separating by commas, and without concern about the order
of their appearance. Such a method of describing a set is called the
roster/complete listing method.

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Description of sets cont...

2. Roster/Complete Listing Method If the elements of a set can all

be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces, {}, without rep-
etition separating by commas, and without concern about the order
of their appearance. Such a method of describing a set is called the
roster/complete listing method.

Example

1. The set of vowels in English alphabet is the set C = {a, e, i, o, u} and the
elements of the set are completely listed.
2. The set of positive integers that are factors of 12 is the set D =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}. The elements of the set are completely listed.
3. The set of all possible outcomes, P, of rolling a die once is P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
The elements of the set are completely listed.

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Description of sets cont...

3. Partial Listing Method when the elements have an obvious pattern,

we can partially list the elements that follow a certain pattern followed
by three dots, enclose these elements within braces or curly brackets,
{}, and separate each element by a comma.

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Description of sets cont...

3. Partial Listing Method when the elements have an obvious pattern,

we can partially list the elements that follow a certain pattern followed
by three dots, enclose these elements within braces or curly brackets,
{}, and separate each element by a comma.

Example
1. The set of two-digit positive integers that are divisible by 5 is the set D =
{10, 15, 20, . . . , 95}. The elements of the set are partially listed.
2. The set of odd natural numbers is O = {1, 3, 5, . . .}. The elements of the set
are partially listed and they follow a certain defined pattern.
3. The set of integers if Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, . . .}

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Description of sets cont...

4. Set-Builder Method If the elements of a set cannot be listed, we

define a set variable and a rule or a description used to determine
which elements are in the set and which are not. The description is
enclosed by curly braces and the set variable and verbal description are
separated either by a colon “:” or a vertical line “|”.

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Description of sets cont...

4. Set-Builder Method If the elements of a set cannot be listed, we

define a set variable and a rule or a description used to determine
which elements are in the set and which are not. The description is
enclosed by curly braces and the set variable and verbal description are
separated either by a colon “:” or a vertical line “|”.

Example
The following sets are given using set-builder method.
(a) V = {v |v is a consonant in the English alphabet}.
(b) O = {n|n is a positive odd number}.
(c) A = {x ∈ R|0 < x < 1}.

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Description of sets cont...

4. Set-Builder Method If the elements of a set cannot be listed, we

define a set variable and a rule or a description used to determine
which elements are in the set and which are not. The description is
enclosed by curly braces and the set variable and verbal description are
separated either by a colon “:” or a vertical line “|”.

Example
The following sets are given using set-builder method.
(a) V = {v |v is a consonant in the English alphabet}.
(b) O = {n|n is a positive odd number}.
(c) A = {x ∈ R|0 < x < 1}.

This method is very useful when we cannot possibly or conveniently list

all the elements of the set or partially list the elements of a set.
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Special Types of Sets : Empty Set
Sets can be classified by their size or the number of elements they contain.
A set may not contain an element; may contain a finite number of
elements or may contain infinite elements.
Definition
A set which contains no element is called empty set (null or void set).
Empty set is denoted by ∅ or {}.

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Special Types of Sets : Empty Set
Sets can be classified by their size or the number of elements they contain.
A set may not contain an element; may contain a finite number of
elements or may contain infinite elements.
Definition
A set which contains no element is called empty set (null or void set).
Empty set is denoted by ∅ or {}.

Example
Each of the following are empty sets.
(1) A = {x ∈ R|x 2 = −1} is an empty set, because there is no real number
whose square is a negative number. That is, A = ∅.
(2) B = {x ∈ R||x| = −5} is an empty set, because there is no real
number whose absolute value is a negative number. That is, B = ∅.

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Finite and infinite set
Definition
A set S is said to be a finite set if S contains exactly n elements for some
positive integer n or S = ∅. A set that is not finite is called infinite set.
(a) If there are exactly n distinct elements in S, where n is a nonnegative
integer, we say that n is the cardinality of S.
The cardinality of S is denoted by |S| or n(S).
(b) If S is an infinite set, then we define the cardinality of S to be ∞, that
is, |S| = ∞.

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Finite and infinite set
Definition
A set S is said to be a finite set if S contains exactly n elements for some
positive integer n or S = ∅. A set that is not finite is called infinite set.
(a) If there are exactly n distinct elements in S, where n is a nonnegative
integer, we say that n is the cardinality of S.
The cardinality of S is denoted by |S| or n(S).
(b) If S is an infinite set, then we define the cardinality of S to be ∞, that
is, |S| = ∞.

Example
a) Let S = {a, b, c, 0, 1}. Then, |S| = 5.
b) Empty set does not have any member, and hence the cardinality of the
empty set is always 0. i.e., |∅| = 0.
c) If P = {∅} then |P| = 1, since P contains only one element, that is, ∅.
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Exercise

Classify each of the following sets as finite or infinite.

(a) A = {1, 2, a, b, c},

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Exercise

Classify each of the following sets as finite or infinite.

(a) A = {1, 2, a, b, c}, then A is a finite set, since A contains five elements,
that is n(A) = 5.
(b) B = {1, 2, . . . 100},

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Exercise

Classify each of the following sets as finite or infinite.

(a) A = {1, 2, a, b, c}, then A is a finite set, since A contains five elements,
that is n(A) = 5.
(b) B = {1, 2, . . . 100},then B is a finite set and n(B) = 100.
(c) S = {x ∈ N|x = 3n for some n ∈ N},

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Exercise

Classify each of the following sets as finite or infinite.

(a) A = {1, 2, a, b, c}, then A is a finite set, since A contains five elements,
that is n(A) = 5.
(b) B = {1, 2, . . . 100},then B is a finite set and n(B) = 100.
(c) S = {x ∈ N|x = 3n for some n ∈ N}, then S is an infinite set. The
set S contains all multiples of 3 and it is not possible list all of these
numbers. Thus, |S| = ∞.
(d) Let E = {x : 2 < x < 3 and x is a natural number }.

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Exercise

Classify each of the following sets as finite or infinite.

(a) A = {1, 2, a, b, c}, then A is a finite set, since A contains five elements,
that is n(A) = 5.
(b) B = {1, 2, . . . 100},then B is a finite set and n(B) = 100.
(c) S = {x ∈ N|x = 3n for some n ∈ N}, then S is an infinite set. The
set S contains all multiples of 3 and it is not possible list all of these
numbers. Thus, |S| = ∞.
(d) Let E = {x : 2 < x < 3 and x is a natural number }. Since there is
no natural number that is greater than 2 and less than 3, E is empty
set and hence it is a finite set with n(E ) = 0.
(e) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 20},

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Exercise

Classify each of the following sets as finite or infinite.

(a) A = {1, 2, a, b, c}, then A is a finite set, since A contains five elements,
that is n(A) = 5.
(b) B = {1, 2, . . . 100},then B is a finite set and n(B) = 100.
(c) S = {x ∈ N|x = 3n for some n ∈ N}, then S is an infinite set. The
set S contains all multiples of 3 and it is not possible list all of these
numbers. Thus, |S| = ∞.
(d) Let E = {x : 2 < x < 3 and x is a natural number }. Since there is
no natural number that is greater than 2 and less than 3, E is empty
set and hence it is a finite set with n(E ) = 0.
(e) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 20}, then the set B is finite. since B contains 20
elements |B| = 20.

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Relationships Between Sets

Definition
Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is an element of B, then we
say that A is a subset of B and we denote this relation by A ⊆ B. That is,
A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ (∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B).
It follows that set B is not a subset of set A if at least one element of B is
not an element of A. i.e.B * A ⇐⇒ (∃x)(x ∈ B =⇒ x 6∈ A).

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Relationships Between Sets

Definition
Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is an element of B, then we
say that A is a subset of B and we denote this relation by A ⊆ B. That is,
A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ (∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B).
It follows that set B is not a subset of set A if at least one element of B is
not an element of A. i.e.B * A ⇐⇒ (∃x)(x ∈ B =⇒ x 6∈ A).

Remark

(a) If A is not a subset of B, then we denote this by A * B.

(b) For any set A, ∅ ⊆ A. Since the proposition (∀x)(x ∈ ∅ =⇒ x ∈ A) is
always true by the rule of implication, as x ∈ ∅ is false.
(c) A ⊆ A. That is, A set is a subset of itself and this is because, the
proposition (∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ A).
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Examples

Example
We can consider the following relations between the set of natural numbers,
N, the set of integers, Z, the set of rational numbers, Q, and the set of real
numbers, R.
N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R.

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Examples

Example
We can consider the following relations between the set of natural numbers,
N, the set of integers, Z, the set of rational numbers, Q, and the set of real
numbers, R.
N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R.

Example
a. If A = {a, b}, B = {a, b, c} and C = {a, b, d} then A ⊆ B and A ⊆ C
on the other hand it is clear that B * A, B * C and C * B.
b. If A = {a, {b}} then {a} ⊆ A and {{b}} ⊆ A. on the other hand
b 6∈ A, {b} * A and {a, b} * A
c. Let A = {a, b, {c}} Note that c and {c} are different objects.
{c} ∈ A {c} ⊆ A but c 6∈ A Moreover the subsets are
{}, {a}, {b}, {{c}}, {a, b}, {a, {c}}, {b, {c}} and A
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Power set
If A = {a, b}, then ∅, {a}, {b} and A are all the subsets of A. If we collect
these subsets in a set, then we get the set {∅, {a}, {b}, A}, which is the
set of all subsets of A and this set is called the power set of A. Observe
that the elements of this set are sets.
Definition
Given a set A, the set of all subsets of A, denoted by P(A) or 2A , is called
the power set of A. That is, P(A) = {B|B ⊆ A} = 2A .

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Power set
If A = {a, b}, then ∅, {a}, {b} and A are all the subsets of A. If we collect
these subsets in a set, then we get the set {∅, {a}, {b}, A}, which is the
set of all subsets of A and this set is called the power set of A. Observe
that the elements of this set are sets.
Definition
Given a set A, the set of all subsets of A, denoted by P(A) or 2A , is called
the power set of A. That is, P(A) = {B|B ⊆ A} = 2A .

Example
(a) If A = ∅, then P(A) = {∅} and number of subsets of A is 1 = 20 .
(b) If B = {4}, then P(B) = {∅, {4}} and n(P(B)) = 2 = 21
(c) If C = {1, {0}}, then P(C ) = {∅, {1}, {{0}}, C } This implies
n(P(C )) = 4 = 22 .

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Proper subset

Definition
Given two sets A and B , A is said to be a proper subset of B, denoted by
A ⊂ B, if A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element that is not
in A. That is,
A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ [(∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (∃y )(y ∈ B ∧ y ∈ / A)].

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Proper subset

Definition
Given two sets A and B , A is said to be a proper subset of B, denoted by
A ⊂ B, if A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element that is not
in A. That is,
A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ [(∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (∃y )(y ∈ B ∧ y ∈ / A)].

Example
Let A = {1, 2, a}. Find all the proper subsets of A.

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Proper subset

Definition
Given two sets A and B , A is said to be a proper subset of B, denoted by
A ⊂ B, if A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element that is not
in A. That is,
A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ [(∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (∃y )(y ∈ B ∧ y ∈ / A)].

Example
Let A = {1, 2, a}. Find all the proper subsets of A.
First let us list all the subsets of A:
∅, {1}, {2} , {a}, {1, 2}, {1, a}, {2, a} and A itself.
From this list, we can see that the proper subsets of A are ∅, {1}, {2} ,
{a, }, {1, 2}, {1, a} and {2, a} and they are seven in number.

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Proper subsets

Remark
(a) For two sets A and B, A ⊂ B if A ⊆ B and B * A.
(b) ∅ has no proper subset.
(c) If A has n elements, then the number of proper subsets of A is 2n − 1.
Since all the subsets of A are also proper subsets of A, except A itself.

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Proper subsets

Remark
(a) For two sets A and B, A ⊂ B if A ⊆ B and B * A.
(b) ∅ has no proper subset.
(c) If A has n elements, then the number of proper subsets of A is 2n − 1.
Since all the subsets of A are also proper subsets of A, except A itself.

Example
Consider the following three sets. A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {2, 4, 6} and
C = {2, 3, 4, 6}.
(a) B ⊆ A, since every element of B is an element of A. In addition, 8 ∈ A,
but 8 ∈
/ B. This implies B is a proper subset of A.
(b) As every element of B is contained in C, it is also true that B ⊆ C .
But, 3 ∈ C and 3 ∈
/ B. This implies B is a proper subset of C .
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Equal Sets

Definition
Given two sets A and B, we say that A and B are equal, written as A = B
if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. (i.e. A = B ⇐⇒ A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A)
If A and B are not equal, then we write this as A 6= B.

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Equal Sets

Definition
Given two sets A and B, we say that A and B are equal, written as A = B
if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. (i.e. A = B ⇐⇒ A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A)
If A and B are not equal, then we write this as A 6= B.

Example
(a) Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 2, 1}. and C = {2, 1, 3}
Then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A This implies A = B.
On the other hand, B ⊆ C and C ⊆ B This implies B = C .
Therefore, A = B = C .
(b) Let C = {a, c, e, g } and D = {c, a, g }
Then, since every element of D is an element of C, D ⊆ C . On the
other hand, e ∈ C and e ∈ / D. This implies, C 6= D.

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Equal Sets examples

Example
(c) Let E = {1, 2, 3, a, b} and F = {a, 1, b, 3, 2}.
Then every element of E is an element of F and every element of F is
an element of an element of E. That is, E ⊆ F and F ⊆ E and hence
E = F.
d) Let G = {x|x is a counting numbers } and H = {x|x is a positive
integer }Then every element of G is an element of H and every element
of H is an element of an element of G . That is, G ⊆ H and H ⊆ G
and hence G = H.

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Equivalent Sets

Definition
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent, written as A ←→ B (or A ∼ B),
if there is a one to one correspondence between elements of the two sets.

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Equivalent Sets

Definition
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent, written as A ←→ B (or A ∼ B),
if there is a one to one correspondence between elements of the two sets.

Example

(a) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. Then there is a 1-1 correspon-
dence between the elements of the two sets A and B. One of such
correspondences is 1 ←→ a, 2 ←→ b, 3 ←→ c. Therefore, A and B
are equivalent sets, that is, A ∼ B.

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Equivalent Sets

Definition
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent, written as A ←→ B (or A ∼ B),
if there is a one to one correspondence between elements of the two sets.

Example

(a) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. Then there is a 1-1 correspon-
dence between the elements of the two sets A and B. One of such
correspondences is 1 ←→ a, 2 ←→ b, 3 ←→ c. Therefore, A and B
are equivalent sets, that is, A ∼ B.
Observe that, this correspondence is not the only one-to-one correspon-
dence between the elements of these two sets. For example 1 ←→ c,
2 ←→ a, 3 ←→ b. is another one-to-one correspondence between the
elements of the two sets.
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Equivalent Sets Examples

Example (cont)
(b) If C = {a, {b, c}} and D = {1, 2, 3}, there is no one-to-one correspon-
dence between the elements of the sets C and D. This is because, C
has two elements and D has three elements. Therefore,
the sets C and D are not equivalent.

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Equivalent Sets Examples

Example (cont)
(b) If C = {a, {b, c}} and D = {1, 2, 3}, there is no one-to-one correspon-
dence between the elements of the sets C and D. This is because, C
has two elements and D has three elements. Therefore,
the sets C and D are not equivalent.

Remark

(a) If A and B are equal sets, then there is an obvious one-to-one cor-
respondence between the elements the two sets and hence they are
equivalent. That is, equal sets are equivalent.
(b) If A and B are finite sets, then A ∼ B if and only if n(A) = n(B).

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Operation on Sets

Definition
Let A and B be sets.
(a) The union of A and B is a set that contains all the elements contained
in either set (or both sets) and it is denoted by A ∪ B. That is,
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.
(b) The intersection of A and B is the set that contains only the elements
that are in both sets and it is denoted by A ∩ B. That is,
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

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Operation on Sets

Definition
Let A and B be sets.
(a) The union of A and B is a set that contains all the elements contained
in either set (or both sets) and it is denoted by A ∪ B. That is,
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.
(b) The intersection of A and B is the set that contains only the elements
that are in both sets and it is denoted by A ∩ B. That is,
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

Example
Consider the sets: A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, 1, 2}.
(a) The union of A and B, A ∪ B ={a, b, c, 1, 2}
(b) The intersection of A and B, A ∩ B ={a}.

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Theorem (Commutativity Properties)
Both union and intersection of sets are commutative. i.e, if A and B are
sets, then (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A and (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

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Theorem (Commutativity Properties)
Both union and intersection of sets are commutative. i.e, if A and B are
sets, then (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A and (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Proof.
Let A and B be sets.
(a) The union of A and B is given by
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} (Definition of ∪ ))
= {x | x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ A} (Commutativity Property of ∨)
= B ∪ A (Definition of ∪ )

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Theorem (Commutativity Properties)
Both union and intersection of sets are commutative. i.e, if A and B are
sets, then (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A and (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Proof.
Let A and B be sets.
(a) The union of A and B is given by
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} (Definition of ∪ ))
= {x | x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ A} (Commutativity Property of ∨)
= B ∪ A (Definition of ∪ )

This implies A ∪ B = B ∪ A.
(b) The intersection of A and B is given by
A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B} (Definition of ∩ ))
= {x | x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ A} (Commutativity Property of ∧)
= B ∩ A (Definition of ∩ )

This implies A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

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Example
Let A = {1, {∅}, {1, 2}, 3} and B = {a, ∅, 1, 4, 7}. Then
(a) A ∪ B = {1, ∅, {1, 2}, 3, 4, a, 7, {∅}} = B ∪ A.
(b) A ∩ B = {1} = B ∩ A.

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Example
Let A = {1, {∅}, {1, 2}, 3} and B = {a, ∅, 1, 4, 7}. Then
(a) A ∪ B = {1, ∅, {1, 2}, 3, 4, a, 7, {∅}} = B ∪ A.
(b) A ∩ B = {1} = B ∩ A.

Theorem (Associative Property)

Both Union and intersection of sets are associative. That is, if A, B and C
are sets, then
(a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ) and (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ).

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {1, 3, 4} and C = {1, 4, a}.
(a) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B ∪ C = {1, 3, 4, a}. Then
A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, a} = (A ∪ B) ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, a}.
(b) A ∩ B = {1, 4} and B ∩ C = {1, 4}. Then A ∩ (B ∩ C ) = {1, 4} and
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = {1, 4}. This implies A ∩ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C .
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Remark
For sets A and B;
(a) A ∪ ∅ = A. (The union of a set and an empty set is the set itself.)
(b) A ∪ A = A. (The union of a set with itself is the set itself.)
(c) If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B.
(d) A ∩ A = A. (The intersection of a set with itself is the set itself.)
(e) A ∩ ∅ = ∅. (The intersection of a set with empty set is empty set.)
(f) If A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B = A.

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Remark
For sets A and B;
(a) A ∪ ∅ = A. (The union of a set and an empty set is the set itself.)
(b) A ∪ A = A. (The union of a set with itself is the set itself.)
(c) If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B.
(d) A ∩ A = A. (The intersection of a set with itself is the set itself.)
(e) A ∩ ∅ = ∅. (The intersection of a set with empty set is empty set.)
(f) If A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B = A.

Theorem (Distributive Properties)

Union of sets is distributive over intersection of sets and intersection of sets
is distributive over union of sets. That is, if A, B and C are sets, then
(a) A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ) and
(b) A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ).

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Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 3, 5, 6} and C = {1, 4, 6}. Then

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Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 3, 5, 6} and C = {1, 4, 6}. Then
(a) A ∩ B = {1, 3}, A ∩ C = {1, 4} and B ∪ C = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then
A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = {1, 3, 4} and (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) = {1, 3, 4}.
This implies A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ).
(b) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} and B ∩ C = {1, 6}.
Then A∪(B ∩C ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} and (A∪B)∩(A∪C ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.
This implies A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ).

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Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 3, 5, 6} and C = {1, 4, 6}. Then
(a) A ∩ B = {1, 3}, A ∩ C = {1, 4} and B ∪ C = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then
A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = {1, 3, 4} and (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) = {1, 3, 4}.
This implies A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ).
(b) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} and B ∩ C = {1, 6}.
Then A∪(B ∩C ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} and (A∪B)∩(A∪C ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.
This implies A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ).

Remark
If A and B are finite sets, then A ∪ B is a finite set which contains elements
that are either in A or in B or in both A and B. Thus, to determine the
cardinality of A ∪ B, we have to add n(A) and n(B), but from the sum we
have to subtract n(A ∩ B), as it was considered twice in the sum. That is,

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).

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Example
A group of 100 people were offered drinks Suppose 15 take tea only, 45 take
coffee only, 25 drink both.
(a) How many people drink tea?
(b) How many people drink coffee?
(c) How many people drink neither tea nor coffee?

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Example
A group of 100 people were offered drinks Suppose 15 take tea only, 45 take
coffee only, 25 drink both.
(a) How many people drink tea?
(b) How many people drink coffee?
(c) How many people drink neither tea nor coffee?
Let T be the set of people that drink tea, C be for coffee and B be for both
and N be the set of people that drink neither of the two drinks.
Then n(N) = 100 − n(T ∪ C ) and n(T ∪ C ) = n(T ) + n(C ) − n(T ∩ C ).
On the other hand n(T ) = 15 + 25 = 40 and n(C ) = 45 + 25 = 70. Thus,
n(N) = 100 − n(T ∪ C ) = 100 − [(40 + 70) − 25] = 100 − 85 = 15.
Therefore,
(a) the number of people who drink tea in the morning is 40.
(b) the number of people who drink coffee in the morning is 70 and
(c) the number of people who drink neither tea nor coffee is 15.
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Universal Set and complement
Definition
A set that contains all the elements under consideration in a particular
discussion is called a universal set. A universal set is usually denoted by U.

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Universal Set and complement
Definition
A set that contains all the elements under consideration in a particular
discussion is called a universal set. A universal set is usually denoted by U.

Definition
Let A be a set and U be a universal set for A. The complement(or Absolute
complement) of A, denoted by A0 or Ac , is the set of elements in U that
are not in A. That is, A0 = {x ∈ U|x ∈ / A}.

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Universal Set and complement
Definition
A set that contains all the elements under consideration in a particular
discussion is called a universal set. A universal set is usually denoted by U.

Definition
Let A be a set and U be a universal set for A. The complement(or Absolute
complement) of A, denoted by A0 or Ac , is the set of elements in U that
are not in A. That is, A0 = {x ∈ U|x ∈ / A}.

Definition
Given two sets A and B, the relative complement of B with respect to A,
denoted by A \ B or A − B, is the set of all elements in A that are not in
B. That is:
A\B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ / B}
and A\B is read as “A less B or A without B”.
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Definition
The sets A and B are said to be disjoint if there are no elements that are
in both A and B. That is, A and B are said to be disjoint, if A ∩ B = ∅.

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Definition
The sets A and B are said to be disjoint if there are no elements that are
in both A and B. That is, A and B are said to be disjoint, if A ∩ B = ∅.

Example
Let U = Z, the set of integers, E, the set of even integers and O, the set
of odd integers. Then
0 0
(a) E ∩ O = ∅, O = E and E = O.
0 0 0 0
(b) (O ∩ E) = ∅ = Z = O ∪ E .
0 0 0 0
(c) O ∪ E = Z and (O ∪ E) = Z = ∅ = O ∩ E .
(d) O0 = E and (O0 )0 = E0 = O.

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Definition
The sets A and B are said to be disjoint if there are no elements that are
in both A and B. That is, A and B are said to be disjoint, if A ∩ B = ∅.

Example
Let U = Z, the set of integers, E, the set of even integers and O, the set
of odd integers. Then
0 0
(a) E ∩ O = ∅, O = E and E = O.
0 0 0 0
(b) (O ∩ E) = ∅ = Z = O ∪ E .
0 0 0 0
(c) O ∪ E = Z and (O ∪ E) = Z = ∅ = O ∩ E .
(d) O0 = E and (O0 )0 = E0 = O.

Example
Let A = {1, {∅} a, b} and B = {∅, {a}, b}. Then A\B = {1, {∅}, a} and
B\A = {∅, {a}}. we can also see that A \ B 6= B \ A,

Relative complement of sets is not commutative.

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Theorem
For any two sets A and B and a universal set U, we have the following
properties of complement.
(a) (De Morgan’s Law)
(i) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 . (The complement of a union is the intersection of
the complements.)
(ii) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 . (The complement of an intersection is the union of
the complements.)
(b) A ∩ A0 = ∅. (The intersection of a set and its complement is empty
set.)
(c) A ∪ A0 = U. (The union of a set and its complement is the universal
set.)
(d) (A0 )0 = A. (The complement of the complement of a set is itself.)
(e) A0 = U − A
(f) A − B = A ∩ B 0
(g) A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ B 0 ⊆ A0
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Symmetric difference of two Sets

Definition
Given two sets A and B, the symmetric difference of A and B, denoted
by A4B, is the union of A\B and B\A. That is,

A4B = (A\B) ∪ (B\A)

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Symmetric difference of two Sets

Definition
Given two sets A and B, the symmetric difference of A and B, denoted
by A4B, is the union of A\B and B\A. That is,

A4B = (A\B) ∪ (B\A)

Example
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} be universal set
A = {2, 4, 5, 8, 9} and
B = {3, 5, 7, 9} then
B − A = {3, 7} and A − B = {2, 4, 8} now
A4B = {2, 3, 4, 7, 8}

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Venn Diagrams

A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the sets

involved in the discussion. Usually sets are represented as interlocking
circles, each of which is enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the
universal set U.
Example
IfU = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and A = {2, 4, 6} , then a Venn diagram represen-
tation of these two sets looks like the following.

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Example
Let U =The set of one digits numbers A = The set of one digits even
numbers B = The set of positive prime numbers less than 10 We illustrate
the sets using a Venn diagram as follows.

Remark
A ∩ B, A0 and A − B are illustrated using venn diagram

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Intersection and union in venn diag

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Symmetric difference in venn diag

The symmetric difference of A and B, A4B, is the set of elements that

are in set A and in set B, but not in the intersection of the two sets. This
is represented by a Venn diagram, shading the region in enclosed by the
circles representing the set A and B, but not the region in the intersection
of the two regions

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