UNIT 8:

SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

Main Contents

1. Complementisers: that and whether

2. The functions of that- and whether- clauses
3. Adverbial clauses
INTRODUCTION
Introduction

• A constituent can contain constituents of the same category as itself.

This is called recursion.

• In the last three lessons: sentences that contain sentences as

constituents – with sentential recursion.

E.g. [1a] Georgette said she burned the fritters.

Introduction

[1] is a complex sentence

 it contains a sentential structure as a constituent
Introduction

Compare these two sentences

[1] Georgette said she burned the fritters.
[2] He hired the acrobats and you hired the clown.
• [2] is called a co-ordinate, compound sentence: the two sentential structures are
independent of each other.
• [1] : The two sentential structures are not at the same level of structure.
S2 is part of the structure of S1
S2 is subordinate to S1.
S1 is superordinate to S2
Subordinate sentential structures are traditionally called subordinate clauses
(less traditionally, “embedded sentences”).
Introduction

Consider [3] I thought Georgette said she burned the fritters.

• How many subordinate clauses does it contain?

2 clauses [she burned the fritters] and [Georgette said S]

• How many clauses does this sentence contain?

 3 clauses [she burned the fritters], [Georgette said S] and [I thought S].
Introduction

• Every clause has a lexical verb.

• Clauses can be identified in terms of their lexical verbs

• Clause can simultaneously be subordinate to one clause and superordinate

to another

• The clause that is not subordinate to any other clause is the main clause.

• The lexical verb of the main clause is the main verb.

• In phrase markers, the main clause will be the highest (topmost) clause.
Introduction

ABBREVIATED CLAUSAL ANALYSIS (ACA)

analysis that only represents

• what clauses a sentence contains

• how those clauses relate to each other in

the structure and that strips away all other
details and uses triangles for clauses.
Introduction

An ACA can take the form of a labelled bracketing

• Identify the clauses in [5] and [6].

• Which is the main verb in [5] and in [6]?

Introduction

[9a] [10a]
1.COMPLEMENTISERS:
THAT AND WHETHER
1. Complementisers: That and Whether

Subordinate clauses in [5] and [6] were preceded by that.

That is a marker of clausal subordination

 It serves to introduce subordinate clauses.

That is a complementizer.
1. Complementisers: That and Whether

The complementizer position – “C” – is defined as: daughter of S-bar (S’) and
sister of a following S.

All subordinate clauses are introduced by a complementizer and therefore

dominated by S-bar.
1. Complementisers: That and Whether

• The complementizer may not always be overtly present.

E.g. I thought Georgette said she wouldn’t burn the fritters.

I thought that Georgette said that she wouldn’t burn the fritters.

→that is ellipted.

• There are circumstances in which the complementizer cannot be ellipted:

1. Complementisers: That and Whether

A phrase marker with that ellipted:

 1. Complementisers: That and Whether

• Clauses which can be introduced by that are called that-clauses.

• Not all subordinate clauses are that-clauses.

• Another expression that can occupy C, and introduce a subordinate clause, is whether.

• Whether functions like that as a marker of clausal subordination.

• Whether indicates that the subordinate clause is an interrogative clause.

2. THE FUNCTIONS OF
THAT- AND WHETHER- CLAUSES
2. The Functions of That- and Whether- Clauses

2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

2.2. Complement of V within VP

2.3. Complement of A within AP

2.4. Complement of N within NP

2.5. Complement of P within PP

2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate:

→ A that-clauses is functioning as subject in each case.

2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

→Interrogative (whether-) clauses can also function as subjects.

→Subjects are currently analysed as NPs.

→These subject clauses (clausal subjects) dominated by NP.

→They can be replaced by pronouns.

Eg. It disconcerted her; It was noticed by the critics; It is undeniable.

2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

A characteristic of clausal subjects is that they can be extraposed from under the
subject NP node to the end of the sentence, leaving behind the empty pronoun it.

Extrapose (v): to move a word or words to the end of, or outside, a clause or sentence
without altering its sense
2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

Can you give the extraposed versions of [18] and [19]?

Answers:

“It” in these sentences are called dummy subjects/empty

subjects/expletive it.
2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

• S-bar: symbol introduced by Chomsky in the late 1970s as an informal

label for a clause including its complementizer.

• Complementizer: a word that introduces a clause, esp. a subordinate

clause, such as the word that in I believe that they have eaten lunch.
2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

Note:

Some special verbs can’t have clauses in the normal subject position.

E.g. seem, appear, transpire, happen

2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

• Extraposition of the clausal subject was OPTIONAL

the subordinate clause could appear either in the normal subject

position or extraposed.

E.g. (1) That the book had a missing chapter was noticed by the critics.

(2) It was noticed by the critics that the book had a missing chapter

• Extraposition of a clausal subject is OBLIGATORY when the verb is

intransitive (e.g. seem, appear, happen, transpire).
2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

PRACTICE:

Draw phrase markers for the following sentences,

using triangles for all NPs.

2.1. Subject – and extraposed subject

PRACTICE:
2.2. Complement of V within VP

What is the function of that-clauses in the following sentence?

[31] I thought S2[Georgette said S3[she burned the fritters]].

→ The two that-clauses function as complements of the transitive verbs

think & say (i.e. as direct objects).
2.2. Complement of V within VP

• Verbs that can take clausal direct objects

E.g. notice, think, remind, mean, ask, know, and others.

• Some of these can take either a that-clause or an interrogative

(whether-) clause

E.g. know, tell, worry

I knew that she would come. I don’t know whether she will come.
2.2. Complement of V within VP

• Some can only take an interrogative clause

E.g. ask, wonder

He wonders whether life on other planets really exists.

* He wonders that life on other planets really exists.

• Note that some verbs are ditransitive verbs

E.g. remind, tell, convince, warn, persuade, promise, inform.

2.2. Complement of V within VP

That- and whether-clauses can function as the complements of verbs

which also take NPs (including pronouns) as direct objects:
2.2. Complement of V within VP

• These clausal objects can become subjects in passive sentences

E.g. The critics noticed that the book had a missing chapter.

That the book had a missing chapter was noticed by the critics.

=> Clausal objects are being dominated by an NP node:

2.2. Complement of V within VP

• Not all verbs that take clausal complements can take an NP complement

E.g.

• Not all object clauses can appear as subjects in passive sentences

E.g.
2.2. Complement of V within VP

PRACTICE:

Using triangles for PPs and NPs, draw the phrase marker for the following sentence:

It was noticed by the critics that the book had a missing chapter.
Three things to note about this sentence:

(a) Its main verb is a passive [transitive] V

(b) By the critics is a VP-adverbial

(c) The subordinate clause is an extraposed subject

2.2. Complement of V within VP

PRACTICE:
2.2. Complement of V within VP

• that- and whether- clauses can function as subject predicative.

• Only the copula (be) can take a clausal predicative.

• In addition to NP, AP, and PP, S’ can function as a subject predicative

2.2. Complement of V within VP

PRACTICE:
Draw a phrase marker for [40], using triangles for all NPs:

[40] The consensus is that you should taste the stew first.
2.2. Complement of V within VP

PRACTICE:
2.3. Complement of A within AP

• An AP can consist of A + a PP complement

E.g. nervous of exams, worried about the outcome, full of hope

• Adjectives can also be complemented by a that-clause/ whether-clause.

• An AP can consist of A + a CLAUSAL (S’) complement

E.g.
2.3. Complement of A within AP

Identify the functions of APs in the following sentences:

2.3. Complement of A within AP

Here’s a phrase marker for

[43b] The men seemed happy that they had not been chosen.
2.3. Complement of A within AP

PRACTICE:

• Draw a phrase marker for [45b], using triangles for NPs and the
embedded S.

• Then draw a full phrase marker for [46].

[45b] She made him aware that he had overstepped the mark.

[46] Drivers anxious that they had made mistakes complained.

2.3. Complement of A within AP
2.3. Complement of A within AP

Can you explain the difference between the following two sentences:
2.4. Complement of N within NP

Consider the following NP:

• It contains a that-clause complementing the N (fact).

• Noun complement clauses can only complement abstract nouns

E.g. fact, rumour, idea, news, claim, suggestion, rule, message, indication
2.4. Complement of N within NP

Compare the following:

2.4. Complement of N within NP

• In phrase markers, this clausal complement is represented as the sister

of the head (V, A, or N).

• As a sister of the head N, it is dominated by NOM.

E.g.
2.4. Complement of N within NP

Among these sentences, identify

(a) those that contain noun-complement clauses within NPs
(b) those that contain extraposed subjects.
2.5. Complement of P within PP

Identify the function of whether-clauses in these sentences.

An interrogative (whether-) clause can function as the complement of

a preposition within PP
2.5. Complement of P within PP

• that-clauses CANNOT function as complement to a P within PP (even

when that is omitted):

• after, until, before, and since admit a following clause, but not one
introduced by that:
2.5. Complement of P within PP

• after, until, before, and since are categorised as complementizers

 fill the “C” slot => leave no room for the complementizer that.

• after, until, before, and since can be categorized as prepositions when they take an
NP

• after, until, before, and since are prepositions which can take either a clause (S) or
an NP as complement
3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
3. Adverbial Clauses
• Adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions

E.g. although, unless, if, because, once, as, now, so, while, since.

• Subordinating conjunctions can only introduce clauses (not NPs).

• Certain word-sequences are phrasal complementizers.

E.g. now that, so that, except that, as if, in case, in order that, as soon as. In phrase
markers, use triangles to represent them.

• Subordinating conjunctions occupy the complementizer position C.

• Compared with the complementizers that and whether, Subordinating conjunctions

carry extra meaning
3. Adverbial Clauses

• Subordinating conjunction if => subordinating clause function as a

conditional adverbial clause.

E.g.

• Because makes for an adverbial clause of reason or result

=> makes for an adverbial clause of purpose:

E.g.
3. Adverbial Clauses

Here is a phrase marker for [68]:

3. Adverbial Clauses

Notice the difference in meaning between these two cases:

Since (1) as a preposition and (2) as a subordinating conjunction.

• As a preposition, since has a temporal meaning

E.g. since he came; since his arrival

• As a subordinating conjunction, since has a meaning akin to because or

as, which can only introduce a clause, not an NP:
3. Adverbial Clauses

• since can function as a preposition in a PP that modifies an NP,

E.g.: his behaviour since he became a friend.

• An adverbial can’t modify N or NOM:

E.g. *his behaviour since he is a friend.

• before, after, and until are prepositions – head of PP – and PPs can
post-modify Ns in NPs:
3. Adverbial Clauses

• Unless, as if, and although, for example, are subordinating conjunctions,

which make for adverbial clauses.

• They can’t modify N or NOM:

All the examples given above are VP-adverbials.

3. Adverbial Clauses

Here are examples of adverbial clauses functioning as S-adverbials:

3. Adverbial Clauses

PRACTICE:
Draw phrase markers for [69], using triangles for NPs and APs:
[69] Taxes are rising because the bankers need huge bonuses.
3. Adverbial Clauses

PRACTICE:
Draw phrase markers for [82], using triangles for NPs and APs:
[82] Unless I’m gravely mistaken, you are King Kong.