EXPERIMENT 3

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs

1
betweenu and v or between and
V
*

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED

An optical bench, two sharp edged needles (pins), convex lens, three uprights (with clamps), knitting
needle (or index needle), a meter scale and spirit level.

THEORYIPRINCIPLE
Determination of Focal Length of Convex Lens
Consider an object placed at a distance u from the optical centre of a thin convex lens whose focal
length is f. Then, a real and inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens at a distance v from
the optical centre (O).
The relation betweenu, v and fis given by

This is called lens equation or Gaussian form of lens equation. This lens formula is valid in all
situations for any spherical lens.

To Show Linear Relationship between Object and Image Distances

The focal length of a lens can also be determined by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u
and 1/v.
From Eq. , it is understood thatthe graph betweenandwil be a straight line with negative

slope.
1
If= 0, then =and if = , then Hence, the intercepts of the graph on both the axes are
V V
Therefore, the graph between u and v will be a hyperbola.

Ea. (i) shows that the values ofu and vare interchangeable.It that when an object is placed
at
means a
distance 2f from the optical centre, then a real and inverted image is formed at distance 2f from the
centre on the other side of the lens.
optical
If an obiect is placed between distance 27 and distance , then its real and inverted image is formed
bevond the 2f irom the optical centre on the other side. This proves the linear relationship betweenu
and v.

78
PROCEDURE
Determination of Rough Focal Length of Convex Lens
the image or a
1. determine the rough focal lenath of the given convex lens by focussing
First of all
distant object.
of the distant object such as tree,
Z o derermine the rough focal length, obtain a sharp image on the other side of the
lens.
DUilding. etc. on a screen, say a plane wall or a sheet of paper placed on
centre of the lens and wall
3. By using a meter scale, measure the distance between the optical
of convex
distance will give you the rough focal length
which image of the object appears. This
lens.
Setting up the Apparatus B
4. Now, place the three uprights holding Image
the convex lens LL', object needle AB of AB
and image needle CD in such a way that
the two needles lie on both the sides of
the optical bench and upright holding
Object
2rnage
needle
the lens lies on the middle of the twoo needle | CD D
uprights holding the optical needles (i.e. AB B
image needle and object needle). length of convex lens
Setup to determine the focal
5. Ensure that the object needle, lens and
image needle should be set vertically on
parallel to the optical bench.
the optical bench so that principal axis is
needle so that the optical
the object needle and image
6. Adjust the height of the uprights holding horizontal line.
two needleslie on the same
centre of the lens and the tips of these
on image needle to
differentiate it from the object needle.
Note One can also put a piece of white paper
Distances
Determination of Object and Image lens. At this
in between F and 2F of the
the position of the object needle AB till it lies
7. adjust
Next
image is formed at a point beyond
of the object needle AB, a real, inverted and magnified
position
the other side of the lens.
2F from the optical centre on of the object needle AB.
ts tip touches the tip of the image A'B

9
8 Now adjust
Also ensure
Now move
the image
that the

your eye
needle
meeting
left and
CDtill
of these two tips can also be

right and observe the meeting of

needle. If on moving the eyes,
seen at the centre of
lens.

the tips of the image needle CD

these two are seen separate
from
and
each
3
image A'B' of the object remove the parallax.
to
other, then one needs A'B' of the object needle by
between the tip the image needle CDand image
of
10. Remove the parallax 1.
and (11) given in Experiment
following the steps (10) object needle AB, convex
lens LL'and the
removed, note the position the
of convex lens
T

11. When the parallax gets the object needle AB and

the optical bench. The distance between
image needle CD on needle CD and convex
distance (u) and the distance between the image
LL'will give you the object
the image distance (v). the position of the
lens LL' will give you observations by slightly changing
for five more different
12. Repeat the experiment centre of the lens
2-3 cm) from the optical
object needle AB (say
Correction
Applying the Index distances so now apply the index correction in
noted the image and object
13. In step (13), you have
these two readings. such that its one end
an index needle
and adjust it horizontally
take
the actual lengths, touches the tip of the needle.
14. Todetermine surfaces of the lens
and the other end
touches one of the
curved
between these two points
to find the actual length
of the index needle in
Determine the length
respective needle.
between the lens and the

79
 Oe n e actual length (or the distance between the tio of the needle and optical
thecentre
lens because
or n e jens)
oplIcal
s

detemined by measuring the length of index needle plus half of the i metrical centre. But i one is
cenire of a
double convex lens with geom
using a thin convex lens, then the surtaces equal curvature
of is
thickness of the lens can be igno
16. Find the difference between the observed distance (or distance noted in step 13) and actual
aistance (or distance noted in step 16). This difference will give you the index correction for the
distance between lens and
Note Index correction tor respective needle.
und.
both the distances i.e. image and object
distario nd for eacn
set of
y g he index correction, find the corrected distances u andV
observations.
Determination of Focal Length
i n d the focal length of the given convex lens by using the following relation.
Uv
f-
U+V
Nore i e r e u and v represent the corrected object and image distances respectively.

all different values.

18 O eacn set of observations, find the focal length and take the mean of
19. Plot a graph between u and v and andby
u V
taking them along negative X-axis and
positive Y-axis respectively and find the focal length from the slope of the graph also.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONSs

1. Least count of the meter scale = ..... cm.

Determination of Rough Focal Length

2. Approximate/rough focal length of convex lens.cm.

Determination of Index Correction

3. Length of the index/knitting needle measured by the meter scale, Lo *** CT1.

4. Thickness ofthe thin convex lens (given),t=.. cm.

5 Actual length between optical cerntre O ofthe lens andtip of object needle, =Lo+=..
* Cm.

3 6. Observed length of object needle,

Distance between the centre of convex lens and tip of the object needle
= Position of lens upright on the scale -position of object needle upright on the scale
. cm.
***

7. Index correction for object distance, e = -o . Cm

8. Similarly, one can find the index correction for image distance,e = - } = . . . . . cm

Table to Determine the Focal Length of Convex Lens

Object mage Observed Observed Corrected Corrected

Lens needle needle distance distance object image
upright, upright, of object, of image, distance, distance, I+V
No upright, u'=a - b V=a - c (cm) (cm) cm)
a (cm) b (cm) c (cm) U =u' +e0 V v+e,
=

(cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

.. Cm

2 T ..... cm
3 3 . . . Cm
4 T4 . cm

80
Determination of Focal Length of Lens
9. Focal length, f =U
u +V

10. Mean of the different values of focal length, f =*htkt

4

ERROR
Same as given in Experiment 1.
Determination of Focal Length by Plotting Graphs
1. Graph between u and v
Hence, consider u along negative X-axis and v
along positive Y-axis. The scales of X and Y-axes
should be same. For different values of u and v,
draw a graph to obtain hyperbola. Label the 9
points u, uUg, U3 . . along negative X-axis and 301
V1 V2, Va points on Y-axis.
Thus, focal length of the lens is given by

Distance OA(=2f) on Y-axis = . . c m

Distance 0B (=2f) on negative X-axis = . .

cm
30 20 -10 0
Mean focal length of convex lens,
O A +OB8
u(Cm)
. . . . Cm
relation between u and v of
Graph showing
convex lens

2. Graph between and

u

Now, consider along negative X-axis and-along positive

Y-axis and draw a graph to obtain a straight
U V

line.
3
0..12
A

99
.10
99
88
0.08
(cm
0.06

0.04

0.02

-0.10-0.08-0.06-0.04-0.02 O
(cm
Graph showing relation between and of convex lens

81
 Botn the intercepts OA' on Y-axis and OB' on negative X-axis will be equai to Thus, the focal

length is given by
= Intercept on X-axis, OB =..... Cm

and Intercept
=
on Y-axis, OA' = . . . cm
Mean focal length () of the convex lens,
2
F '' Cm
OA' +OB

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens
) From calculations, f t Af =... Cm
Af is maximum Or SIX values
where, 7 Is the mean value of the different values of focal length and
determined for erro.
(i) Fromu-v graph, f = ...... Cm

(ii) From graph, f = cm

V

PRECAUTIONS
1. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
from the
than the least distance of distinct vision i.e. 25
cm
2. Eye should be kept at a distance more

image needle.
different sets of observations.
3. image and object needles should not be interchanged for
The
at the same height as the
4. Parallax should be removed by using one eye only. Always keep the eye
tips of needles and the centre of the lens.
of the image needle and should
5. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip
not overlap. This helps in removing the parallax.

3 6. Index Correction for u and

v should be used
v should be applied and to find the focal length, corrected values ofu and

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
be measured accurately scale.
If the index needle is not sharp, then its length may not
on
3.
4. The table may not be horizontal.
the two axes are not same, then the straight line
5. In plotting 1/v versus 1/u graph, if scales for both
to X-axis. This may result in confusions and error in
graph may (rather will) not be at 45° negative
drawing the graph.

82
Viva-Voce
Q1 Draw the ray diagram for image Q6 Define the principal axis of a plano-convexx
NCERT)
formation in case of a convex lens for an lens.
lens is
object placed at the infinity. The principal axis of a plano-convex
INCERT which is
defined as that straight line
to the plane surface but passes
perpendicular
of the curved
through the centre of
curvature

Surface.
lens
Q7 How does t length of a
focal convex

2F2 change if it is dipped in water? [NCERT

The focal length of lens changes when
immersed in water, as the lens works

according refraction of light. The

to the
be found by
change in focal length can
What differences between the
are the using lens maker's formula.
Q2
image by convex lens and a
formed
concave lens? NCERT
The image formed by the concave lens is
virtual, erect and diminished. where, a and Hy are refractive indices of glass
is 1.33. If the
The image formed by the convex lens is and water. As we know that, u,y
than that of
real, inverted and the size of the image refractive index of lens is greater
reduced.
near the water, then the focal length is
increases as the object moves
focal length
lens. Q8 What is the relation between
and radius of curvature of a plano-convex
Q3 How does the focal length of a thick INCERT
convex lens differ from that of a thin lens?
and
[NCERT) The relation between the focal length
lens? radius of curvature is given by
A thin lens is one whose thickness is
and
negligible as compared to the image
s o a thin lens has a larger
object distances,
thick lens. where, =refractive index, R
focal length than the
a convex lens, a and R2 = radü of curvatures
Q4 How can you recognise lens be
lens, image produced by a
Circular glass slab and a
without touching them?
concave

[NCERT] Q9 Can a
inverted?
virtual
INCERT]3
on a printed lens cannot
When the glass piece is put No, a virtual image produced by a
page and the
virtual image of the printed be inverted.
Then, the magnification of for violet
page is seen. Focal length of a given lens is f,
the inage is judged. Q10 is
if
slab, the colour and f, for red colour. Which one
is a glass
() The gloss piece of object.
image has s a n e
size as that larger? lens material is
is a convex if the inage is The refractive index of the
Ci) The glass piece than for red colour. Hence,
greater for violet
magnified. for violet than red,
if the image the lens is more refracting
is a concave
(ii) The glass piece so f,>,
is dirninished.

Q11 Write three practical

uses of lenses.
Where does the
centre ofcurvature of
lens of lenses are
Q5 surface of a plano-convex Theuses
practical
the plane INCERT (0Spectacles
lie? Ci) Optical instruments
curvature of the plane
The centre of lens les at the
(iu) Photographic camera

surface of a plano-convex
centre of the lens.

83
EXPERIMENT 5
deviation for a given
o determine the angle of minimumthe angle of incidence
prism by plottinga graph between
and the angle of deviation.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

meter scale, alpins, cellotape/drawing pins,
Drawing board, white paper sheet, triangular glass prism,
graph paper. protractor and a sharp pencil.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUus
Refracting
Prism edge Principal
A prism is a wedge shaped portion of a Refracting section
faces
transparent refracting medium bounded by iwo
plane refracting sufaces inclined to each other Angle
at a certain angle. of prism
A ray of light entering through the first surface
of the prism suffers refraction which on
emerging out through the second surface
suffers a further refraction. On drawing board A prism
white sheet is fixed.Cellotape/drawing pins are
Used to fix the sheet on drawing board.
Protractor is used to measure the angles drawn.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
5
Determination of Angle of Minimum Deviation
the prism. A ray of light PQ
Consider the principal section ABC of
(say from air to glass) incident on the surtace AB at an angle iis
refracted at an angleralong QR and finally emerges out along
RS as shown in the figure.
the normal to the
The dotted lines in the figure represent
incidence at the second surface AC (or
Surfaces. The angle of
of refraction or emergence
from glass to air) isr'and the angle
is between the direction of
be e. The angle of deviation ö
and the direction of emergent
incident ray PO produced fonward B4
backward.
ray AS produced Refraction of light through a prism
considerations, we have
From geometrical
A =r +r
= ZMOR + ZMRQ =(i - r) + (e - r ' )
and
o = i +e - A
..()

89
 For minimum deviation &, the light ray passes through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the
base, so that
d = 8m, i =e »r =
vote At the minimum deviation of position of the Drism, we got the brightest image of an o0/eet

From Eq. (i), it is understood that by measuring the i, eand A, one can nmeasure ð and hence can

find the minimum angle of deviation.

PROCEDURE
Drawing the Incident Ray
FIX a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cellotape or drawing pins.

a sharp pencil, drawa straightline XY in the middle and parallel to the length ot the paper.
Byusing
O n tne straight line XY mark the points, O.O..Oa... at suitable distances 10 to 12 cm and draw

normals NO, NO2, NOg on these points as shown in figure.

Na
P N N2
P
i = 30 Q2 i = 35° i =40°
1
N
O2A
K o37 N3
e
e N2
N
R2
S
SfG S2G
Determination of angle of minimum deviation

of incidence
4. Draw straight lines PO, PO2 POg....corresponding to the incident rays making angle
at 30°, 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55 respectively with the normals using a protractor. These lines represent

the incident rays.

5. Note the values of the angles LPON, LPON2. LPION3,...On white sheet of pape.
5 Drawing the Emergent Ray
is in the middle of
6. Put the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY in such a way that point O,
AB. Draw the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
7. Fix two alpins Pand Q, with sharp tips vertically 12 cm apart, on the incident ray line PQ, such that
pin Q, is close to point O.
8. Close your leit eye and looking through the prism, bring your right eye in line with the images of the
pins Pand Q.
9. Now, fix alpins A, and S, about 12 cm apart vertically on the white paper sheet with their tips in line
with the tips of the images of pins P and Q,. Thus. pins R, and S, are collinear with the images of pins
R and Q
10. Remove the pins R and S, and encircle their pin pricks on the paper sheet with the help of sharp
pencil. Also, remove the pins P and Q and encircle the pin pricks.
11. Join the pin pricks R, and S, with the help of sharp pencil and scale to obtain the emergent ray RS

Measurement of Minimum Angle of Deviation

12, Keep on drawing the emergent ray RS, backwards and incident ray PQ, forward so that they can
meet at point 7
13. Drawarrow heads on PO, and RS, to shoWtne direction of incident and emergent raysrespectively

90
 14. With the help f protractor, measure the angle of deviation 8, and the ZBAC of the prism.
40, 45, 30.90
i.e. 35,
15.
nat ue steps (6) to (14) by chanaing the values of angle of incidence,
and eSUre the corresponding angles of deviation 8, 82.8485.o6.. With protracio
Note One can take more set of observations by suitably increasing the angle ot inciOETI

16. Note your observations in tabular form with proper units and significant igures
them along X- andY-axes
17. lota
graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation by taking
respectively.
o
18. the lOwest point of the in the plotted graph to obtain the minimum angie
hoose curve
deviation.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Least count of the protractor = ........ degree 2. Angle of prism, (A) = .
degree

Table for the Angle of Incidence i and

Measuring
of Deviation for a Prism
Angle
S. No. Angle of incidence, i (degree) Angle of deviation, 5 (degree)
30
2 35
3 40
45
Note Even from the observation table, one can choose the minimum value of angle of deviation by taking two
of angle of deviation are observed
Consecutive values of angle of incidence at which the readings this calculated value
minimum and then finding the mean of these two readings. After plotting the graph,
can be verified.

PLOTTING GRAPH
Choose angle of incidence i along X-axis and angle
of deviation ð along Y-axis and suitable scales on
these axes. Plot a graph betweeni and ö by drawing , n = 160, A = 60
a free hand smooth cunve passing practically 60
through all the plotted points. 9
Draw a tangent on the lowest point of the graph
parallel to X-axis, note the angle of minimum
deviation 8m on the Y-axis of the graph. Express
50
öm.
5
your result with proper significant figures.
From graph, it can be said that the angle of
deviation 8 decreases with increase in angle of 40 5060 70
incidence upto a certain value called minimum (n degrees)
the angle
angle of deviation dm. then on increasing A graph between angle of incidence and
of incidernce, the angle of deviation also increases
angle of deviation

RESULT The angle of minimum deviation,8m..degree

PRECAUTIONS
1. To locate the incident and emergent rays with greater accuracy, the distance PQ and RS should be
about 12 cm.
2. To take various sets of observations, the angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 55°.
3. While fixing the alpins, it should be ensured that their tips must be in line.
4. The position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
5. The angle of incidence and the angle of deviation should be measured accurately by using
protractor.

91
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The pins may not be fixed
properly.
2. Pin pricks may be thick.
3. lf all the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not equal, then

A+6ti+e
4. Errors may be created while measuring the values of the angles by using protractor.
5. The curve drawn may not be a smooth hand curve

Viva-Voce
f the ermergent ray be reversed, then angle e
Q1 Interpret the graph i and 6 INCERT becomes i and angle i becomes e The
t is the variation of angle of deviation ð with reversed ray will have sarme deviation as
the angle of incidence i. As i increases, the
angle &first decreases and reaches a before. Thus, i and'e are two diferent values
for same angle of deviation
minimum value 8m and then increases.
Q2 Ifthe experiment is performed with angle Q7 Does angle of minimum deviation depend
on the colour of light?
of emergence taken as angle of incidence,
will there be any change in the ö values? If Yes, angle of minimum deviation depends on

the colour of light.

yes, why? If not, why not? INCERT ray of light refracted
During experiment, if angle of emergence is Q8 How many times a
taken as angle of incidence, then as per once on passing through a prism?
symmetry the value of deviation remains the A ray of light suffers two refractions on
Same as passing through a prisrn.
8 =i+e - A
Omrin2i-A
Q9 When is the deviation produced by a
asLi = Le prism is maximum?
The deviation produced by a prism is
Q3 On what factors does the angle of maximurn when the angle of incidence is
deviation depend? 90.
The angle of deviation depends upon the
following factors: Q 10 On what factor does the deviation
() Angle of incidence produced by a prism of small angle not
(i) Refracting angle of the prism
depend?
Cii) Material of the prism It does not depend on the angle of incidence
What is the condition for minimum and is given by
Q4 8 = (1 - 1)A
deviation?
When the light ray travels inside a prism Q11 What happens when a ray of light travels
parallel to the base of the prism and the from a rarer medium to a denser medium
angle of incidence is equal to angle of of prism?
emergence, then we get minimum deviation. Since, the speed of light in denser medium is
Q5 What does the graph between i and 8 slower than that in rarer medium. So, a ray
indicate? of light bends towards the normal while
entering to a denser medium of prism
The graph between i and ô ndicates that
there is only one unique value of angle of Q12 How does the refractive index of material
incidence for which the deviation is change with addition of different colours?
minimum.
Since, the refractive index is inversely
proportional to the wavelength. Also, the
Q6 Why there are two values ofangle of wavelength of red colour is maximum and
incidence for one value of angle of
that of voilet colour is minimum.
deviation? So, , >Hr

92
EXPERIMENT 8
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in
forward bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Ap-n juntion diode (or semiconductor diode), a resistor of value 32, a variable voltage power Supply
(0-12V), a voltmeter (0-12V), a milliammeter (0-200 mA), a microammeter (0-200 uA), a one-way Key
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
p-n Junction Diode
When a p-type semiconductor is grown over an n-type semiconductor, the compound crystal torms a

device called p-n junction diode.

Symbol of p-n junction diode

Forward and Reverse Biasing of Diode

When an external potential difference is applied to a pn junction, then two types of biasing may take 8
place.
if its p-region is connected to the positive terminal of the
() A diode is said to be forward biased,
terminal of the battery.
battery and n-region to the negative
if its p-region is connected to the negative terminal of the
(i) A diode is said to be reverse biased,
terminal of the battery
battery and n-region to the positive
Draw Forward
I. Circuit Diagram to
Bias Characteristic
junction diode in
Ihe circuit diagram for a pn
in the figure. R
forward bias mode is given wwwwwww-
the negligible forward
With increase in bias voltage, certain
Current flows till the applied
voltage c r o s s e s a
0.7 V for Si mA
value. After a characteristic
voltage (about
increases suddenly
and 0.3 V for Ge), the diode current
increase in bias voltage.
exponentially for small
even
forward current
at which the
value of bias voltage threshold voltage or cut-in
Ihe called
increases rapidly is
Fig. 8 (a) Forward biasing of p-n junction
voltage (Vh

103
 2. Circuit Diagram to Draw Reverse Bias
C CircuIt
diagram for a p-n junction diode
Characteristic
in reverse bias mode is given in the tigure
DETOW

wwwwwwww
pn

mA

()-K

Fig. 8 (b) Reverse biasing of p-n junction

AS the applied voltage is increased in reverse bias condition, initially very small reverse current
(a current in the order of microamperes) flows. At the moment when reverse bias voltage increases to
Sufticiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value and becomes constant.
This constant current (in range of uA) is called reverse saturation current.

PROCEDURE
) To Draw Forward Bias Characteristics
1. Draw diagram of forward bias characteristic as shown
a neat circuit in Fig. 8 (a)
2. Note the range and least count of given voltmeter (V) and milliammeter (mA).
3. Remove the insulating layers from the leads of diode and connecting wires by using a sand paper
4. Connect the variable voltage power supply, voltmeter, p-n junction diode, milliammeter, resistor
and a plug key as per the circuit diagram of forward bias characteristic of diode.
Note It should be ensured that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-section and negative
terminal to n-section of diode.
5. Give a small voltage to the circuit by gently turning the knob of power supply.
6. Note down the voltmeter reading across the diode and corresponding milliammeter reading
7. Now increase the applied voltage gradually in stepwise manner and note the corresponding
voltmeter and milliammeter readings in each step.
8. Once the threshold voltage is reached, increase the voltage across the diode very slowly (in steps of
0.1 V). Then, note the corresponding current flowing through the diode.
Note You will notice that the value of Current flowing through the diode will be negligibly small till the applied
voltage crosses the cut-in voltage after which the current suddenly increases with the
or threshold
then the threshold voltage will be 0.3 Vand for silicon
rapid rate. If you are using a germanium type diode,
type diode, it will be 0.7 V.
the current reaches the maximum value of milliammeter and note
9 Keep on increasing the voltage till
the readings of milliammeter and voltmeter
tabular form.
10. Note the observations in the
Plot a graph between V and/ by taking
them along X- and Y-axes respectively. This graph will give
11.
bias characteristic of diode.
you the forward
To Draw Reverse Bias Characteristics
characteristic as shown in Fig. o
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram of reverse bias circuit diagram for reverse
as per the
2. DIsconnect the circuit connections and make the connections
bias characteristic. tne
of power supply and replace
diode to the negative terminal
3. Connect the p-section of junction
milliammeter with a microammeter.
microammeter (wA).
(V) and
4. Note the range and least count of voltmeter miliammeter and
power supply of
15 V instead of
micrometer and
Note In case of
reverse biasing, we use

power supply of 3 V as used in forward biasing. in steps and

gradually, increase the applied voltage
5. With the help of variable voltage power supply,
form.
note the corresponding voltmeter reading in the tabular
value of microammeter.
the till the current reaches the maximum
6. Continue increasing voltage respectively.
X-axis and negative Y-axis,
7. Plot a graph between V and / by taking them along negative
will give you the reverse bias characteristic of
diode.
This graph

OBSERVATIONS

0 For Forward Biasing9 V

ofvoltmeter scale
=....

1. Range of voltmeter =(... to . ) V 2. Least count

MA
Leastcount of milliammeter scale
=...

3. Range ofmilliammeter =( . to.)MA 4.

Table for Forward Bias Voltage and Current

S. No. Forward voltage,V, (V) Forward current, , (mnA)

10

i) For Reverse Biasing

1. Range of voltmeter=(...to ..) V
2. Least count of voltmeter scale = V
3. Range of microammeter = (.. to .. ) HA
. . .
8
4. Least count of microammeter scale = . . A

Table for Reverse Bias Voltage and Current

S. No Reverse voltage, V, (V) Reverse current, , (uA)

PLOTTING GRAPH
1. Plot a araph between forward voltage (, along positive X-axis and forward current
(4)the
positive Y-axis. Locate the knee and delermine the threshold voltage. The point where along the
current
starts increasing suddenly is called knee point in the forward bias characteristic.

105
 along current
the reverse the negative X-axis and the corresponding
voltage (V,) along
iot and determine the reverse saturation
the hegative Y-axis. Locate the breakdown voltage (Vr)
Current ((at)
(mA)
100

80
Forward

60 biasing

40

Knee
20
voltage(th
100 800 60 40 20
TV (volt)
V(volt)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Reverse 10
oreakdown
voltage (Vbr 20

30

(uA)
curve for p-n junction diode in
Current-voltage (-V) characteristic
forward bias and reverse biaas

Note When there is a sudden increase in reverse saturation current, this phenomenon is called breakdownof
p-n junction diode and the corresponding voltage is called reverse breakdown votage. The currentis
called saturation current because it gets saturated as its value is not affected by increase in applied
Voltage.
RESULT
1. The value ofthreshold voltage for given diode, Vn =.
2. The reverse saturation current for the given diode, sat A

PRECAUTIONS

3 1. Before connecting the wires, their ends should be cleaned with the help of sand paper to remove
the insulation.
2. All connections in circuit should be neat and clean.
3 The voltmeter, milliammeter and micrometer should be of suitable range and the current and
voltage should not be exceeded beyond their limits.
4 The key should be opened when the circuit is not being in use and it should be opened only at the
time of taking observations.
5. Find out manufacturer's specification for maximum current through the diode in forward bias
voltage. Never exceed this limit else the diode may get damaged.
6. Find out manufacturer's specification for maximum reverse voltage to be applied to the diode in

reverse bias. Never exceed this limit.

7. The potential difference (V) across the diode should be increased gradually in small steps (0.1V)
Take care that the current should not be exceeded beyond the specified limit.

sOURCES OF ERROR
1. The pnjunction diode kit may befaulty
2. The forward voltage may be applied beyond the tolerance limit (or a limit specified on a diode) of the
diode.
3 The connections in circuit may be loosen.

106
Viva-Voce
Q1 How can you operate the p-njunction diode Name three trivalent impurities.
Q9
as switch? ( Boron (B,)
INGERTI
(ii) Aluminium (Al13)
An ideal junction diode acts as closed switch
(ii) Indium (n ,9)
when operated in forward bias whereas, it acts
as an open switch when operated in reverse Q10 Name four pentavalent impurities
bias. () Arsenic (As 3)
(i) Antimony (Sbs)
Q2 What is theprinciple of working of Ci) Bismuth (Bi 83)
p-njunction diode as a rectifier? INCERT (iv) Phosphorous (P15)
The resistance of the junction diode becomes
carriers in
low when forward biased and high when Q11 Name the majority charge
reverse biased. semiconductor and p-type
n-type
semiconductor.

Q3 Define the term depletion layer. semiconductor and

Free electrons in n-type
The regiorn near the p-njunction free from semiconductor.
holes in p-type
electrons and holes is called depletion laye
extrinsic
Q12 Give the definition of
Q4 What do you mean by the term potential semiconductor and intrinsic
barrier? semiconductor.
the with suitable
The potential difference developed across i) A semiconductor doped semiconductor.
and semiconductor in extrinsic
junction of p-type n-type impurity is called
It is so called
the diode is called potential barrier. in its pure form is
(i) A semiconductor
charge carriers
called because it prevents free intrinsic semiconductor.

from entering the depletion layer by Define cut-in voltage.

themselves. Q13 characteristic curve of a p-n
The forward
The diode connected to the battery is not
junction shows a rise in forward
current
Q5 the reason behind it? forward voltage. This
conducting. What is only beyond a certain is known as cut-in
connected in reverse bias value of forward voltage
When the diode is the
the positive terminal of voltage.
Le. by connecting terminal of the
and negative forward current and
battery to n-side What is the order of
then no current flows Q 14
battery to p-side, reverse Current?
through the diode.

Define the term 'biasing ofjunction'.

The order of forward
(mA), whereas of
current
reverse
is milliampere
current is 8
Q6 potential difference
more
microampere (uA).
an external
Applying barrier on the faces
of be
than the potential the junction. Q15 When is a junction diode said to
p-n
called biasing of
junction is in forward biased?
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
m e a n by
the diode is said to be in
Q7 What do you Ap-n junction mode when p-type
a junction diode? forward biasing
diode reveal connected to positive
junction semiconductor is
The
characteristics of a diode. It is a and n-type
behaviour ofjunction terminal of the battery
the way of current and
bias connected to the negative
between
circuit semiconductor is
drawn
graph terminal of the battery
diode
voltage of a junction hole?
b What do you mean by
Q8 Define doping. a suitable impurity to
an
The deficiency or vacancy
of an electron is
adding
The process of
When act as positive
semiconductor
is called 'doping. called as a hole. Holes
intrinsic the pure
added then charge carriers.
trivalernt impurity is semiconductor

b e c o m e s p-type
a
semiconductor
pentavalent
when
becomes n-type
and it
impurity is added.

107