Unit-II

Algebraic Structures
 Algebraic systems Examples and general
properties
 Semi groups
 Monoids
 Groups
 Sub groups
 Normal Subgroups
• A subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup if a−1Ha ⊆ H,
for every a ∈ G, or, equivalently, if aH = Ha, i.e., if the
right and left cosets coincide.
• Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
• Let (G, *) be a group, then ({e}, *) is a normal sub-
group in G. It is called the trivial normal sub-group.
• (G, *) is normal in (G, *). It is called the improper
normal sub-graph of G.
 Normal Subgroups
Theorem: Every sub-group of an abelian group is normal
sub-group.
Proof:
Let (G, *) be an abelian group and (H, *) be a sub-group
of G. Let g ∈ G, h ∈ H then
g * h * g–1
= h * g * g–1 (since G is abelian and H ≤ G)
=h*e
=h
Therefore, g * h * g–1 = h ∈ H ∀ g ∈ G, h ∈ H
⇒ g H g–1 ⊆ H ∀ g ∈ G, h ∈ H
 (H, *) is normal in G.
 Permutation Group
• A permutation is a one-one mapping of a non-empty
set onto itself.
• Let S = {a1, a2, …, an} be a finite set. The number of
permutations on S is n!.
• The set of all permutations on S is denoted by Sn.
Where |Sn| = n!
• If f ∈ Sn then f is of the form
 Permutation Group
• For example, let S = {1, 2, 3} then the permutations of S
are represented by Sn = {f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 } and the
permutations are:

1 2 3 1 2 3
f1 = f2 =
1 2 3 1 3 2

1 2 3 1 2 3
f3 = f4 =
2 1 3 2 3 1

1 2 3 1 2 3
f5 = f6 =
3 2 1 3 1 2
 Identity Permutation
• Let S be a finite non-empty set. An identity
permutation on S denoted by I is defined I(a) = a for all
a ∈ S.

1 2 3
f1 =
1 2 3
Product of Permutations or Composition of Permutations
• The product of two permutations f and g, of same
degree, is denoted by fog or fg
Product of Permutations or Composition of Permutations

1 2 3 1 2 3
f3 = f4 =
2 1 3 2 3 1

1 2 3 o 1 2 3
f3 o f4 =
2 1 3 2 3 1

1 2 3
⇒ f3 o f4 =
3 2 1
 Inverse Permutation
• let S = {1, 2, 3}, then following two permutations are
inverses to each other
1 2 3 1 2 3
f= f-1 =
2 3 1 3 1 2

• Because the Composition of these Permutations will

result into identity permutation
1 2 3 1 2 3
f o f-1 = o
2 3 1 3 1 2

= 1 2 3
1 2 3
 Why the set of Permutations is a Group?
• Let S = {1, 2, 3} then the permutations of S are
represented by Sn = {p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5} and the
permutations are:
Composition Table of Sn
1 2 3 1 2 3
p0 = p1 =
1 2 3 2 3 1 * p0 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p0 p0 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
1 2 3 1 2 3 p1 p1 p2 p0 p4 p5 p3
p2 = p3 =
3 1 2 1 3 2 p2 p2 p0 p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 p0 p2 p1
1 2 3 1 2 3 p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 p0 p2
p4 = p5 =
3 2 1 2 1 3 p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 p0

Sn satisfies Closure, Associative, Existence of Identity and Existence of Inverse

properties. Hence, it is a group under composition operation.
 Cyclic Permutation
• Let S = {x1, x2, x3,. . . ,x4} be a finite non-empty set. A
cyclic permutation on S can be denoted as

x1 x2 x3 . . . . x4
f= = (x1, x2, x3,...,x4)
x2 x3 x4 . . . . x1

• The same cycle f can be represented as (x1, x2, x3,...,x4)

 Length of a Cycle
• Length of a cycle is the number of element permuted
by that cycle
 Transposition
• A cycle of length 2 is called the transposition. For
example,
1 2 3 4 5 6 = (2 5)
f=
1 5 3 4 2 6
 Rings & Fields
• An algebraic system (R, +, ⋅) is called a ring if the binary
operations ‘+’ and ‘ ⋅ ’ satisfy the following properties:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group.
2. (R, ⋅) is a semi-group.
3. The operation ‘ ⋅ ’ is distributive over ‘+’, that is for
any a, b, c ∈ R,
a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
(b + c) ⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a
 Rings & Fields (Detailed Definition)
• Let R be a nonempty set with two binary + and *
operations. Then R is called a ring if the following
axioms are satisfied:
1. For any a, b∈ R, we have a + b∈ R
2. For any a, b, c ∈ R, we have (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
3. There exists an element 0 ∈ R, called the zero
element, such that, for every a ∈ R,
a+0=0+a=a
4. For each a ∈ R there exists an element −a ∈ R, called
the negative (additive inverse) of a, such that
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
 Rings & Fields (Detailed Definition)
5. For any a, b ∈ R, we have a + b = b + a.
6. For any a, b ∈ R, we have ab ∈ R
7. For any a, b, c ∈ R, we have (ab)c = a(bc).
8. For any a, b, c ∈ R, we have:
a(b + c) = ab + ac
(b + c)a = ba + ca