STUDY AND SURVEYING OF THE FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT CONNECTING KACHORWA TO INARWA

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

ARBIND KUMAR YADAV (19UECV0014)

RAM SHARAN YADAV (19UECV0066)
ROSHAN KUMAR YADAV (19UECV0095)
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Guided by

Ms. V. YAMINI
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERNING

SCHOOL OF MECHANCAL & COMNSTRUCTION

NOVEMBER 2022
 ii

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Report titled “STUDY AND SURVEYING OF THE FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT CONNECTING KOCHARWA TO INDIA BORDER JANKITOL

INARWA” is the bonafide work of “RAM SHARAN YADAV (19UECV0066),

ARBIND KUMAR YADAV (19UECV0014), ROSHAN KUMAR YADAV

(19UECV0095)” who carried out work under my supervision. Certified further that to

the best of my knowledge the work reported here in does not form part of any report

or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier

occasion on this or any other candidate.

Signature of the Supervisor with date Signature of the HOD with date
Ms. V. Yamini. M.E., Dr. A. Geetha Selvarani. Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor Head of the Department
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala
Institute of Science and Technology Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai – 600062. Chennai – 600062.
 iii

CERTIFICATION OF EVALUATION

PROGRAM : Bachelor of Technology

SPECIALIZTION : Civil Engineering
SEMESTER : VII
Name of Students Arbind Kumar Yadav (19UECV0014)
Ram Sharan Yadav (19UECV0066)
Roshan Kumar Yadav (19UECV0095)
Title of the Project “Study and Surveying of Flexible
Pavement Connecting Kachorwa to
Inarwa”
Name of the Guide Ms. V. Yamini. M.E.,
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala
R&D Institute of Science and
Technology
Chennai -600062

The report of the project work submitted by the above students in partial fulfillment for
the award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering of Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr.
Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science of Technology for the Viva – Voce examination
held on _____________ has been evaluated and confirmed

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Name: Name:
Designation: Designation:
Affiliation:
 iv

ABSTRACT

The satisfactory performance of the pavement will result in higher savings in terms of

vehicle operating costs and travel time, which has a bearing on the overall economic

feasibility of the project. Pavements are required for the smooth, safe and systematic

passage of traffic. In the project report, an attempt is made to design a road of 30 km

connecting Kocharwa to Inarwa. This will help in providing all weather connectivity

to the people residing in the nearby villages. Further step in our project is to surveying

of the road construction and excavation (in terms of cutting &filling), machinery, man

power and materials which are used in flexible pavement. The existing roads which

are designed based on the thumb rules are not able to cater to the heavy wheel loads

resulting in the deterioration of the existing roads. In the project report, an attempt is

made to design a road at Birgunj, based on the principles of pavement design. On the

existing alignment of the road, soil samples are collected for the determination of soil

characteristics like sieve analysis, C.B.R. values etc.., Based on this the thickness of

the pavement (flexible) is designed. The alignment of the road is also designed and

fixed by surveying and leveling. The total road length being 30,000 meters of which,

one section is 17500m, other is 8000m and the third section is 4500m.

Keywords: pavement, rigidity, cutting, alignment, feasibility

 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our gratitude and sincere thanks to our respected Founder Chancellor
and President of Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science
and Technology Col. Prof. Dr. R. RANGARAJAN B.E (MECH), M.S (AUTO),
D.Sc. and Founder President Dr. SAGUNTHALA RANGARAJAN., M.B.B.S,
and Managing Trustee & Vice President for providing an opportunity to carry out
this project.

We deem it as a great pride in expressing my heart full gratitude to our beloved Vice
Chancellor Prof. S. SALIVAHANAN, B.E, ME, Ph.D., for providing me with an
environment to complete my project successfully.

It is a great pleasure for me to acknowledge the assistance and contributions of our

Head of the Department Dr. A. GEETHA SELVARANI M.E., Ph.D., for her
assistance and useful suggestions, which helped me in completing the project, in time
for being instrumental in the completion of my project with her encouragement and
unwavering support during the entire course of this minor project.

Our sincere thanks to our Project co-ordinators Mr. M. SRIDHAR B.E., M.E. &
Dr. J. LOGESHWARI, M.E, Ph.D., and our Project guide Ms. V. Yamini, M.E.,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, for her support during the entire course of this project
work and for providing necessary facilities to carry out the work.

Special thanks to external supervisor Er. RAMESH PRASAD CHAUDHARY

Contract Manager for his encouragement, constant support and guidance.

Most importantly, we would like to thank our teaching and non-teaching staff of the
Department of Civil Engineering who helped me in every possible way in this minor
project.
Arbind Kumar Yadav (19UECV0014)
Ram Sharan Yadav (19UECV0066)
Roshan Kumar Yadav (19UECV0095)
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

No. No.
ABSTRACT iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATION x
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 SITE OVERVIEW 1
1.3 PROJECT DETAILS 1
1.4 SCOPE 1
1.5 OBJECTIVES 2
1.6 TYPES OF PAVEMENT 2
1.6.1 Flexible Pavement 2
1.6.2 Rigid Pavement 3
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5
2.1 INTRODUCTION 5
2.2 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW 9
3 METHODOLOGY 10
4 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING 11
4.1 SITE LOCATION 11
4.2 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY 12
4.2.1 General 12
 vii

4.2.2 Levelling 12
4.2.3 auto Level 12
4.2.4 Levelling Staff 13
5 CROSS-SECTION OF A FLEXIBLE 26
PAVEMENT
5.1 TYPES OF COATS 26
5.1.1 Seal Coat 26
5.1.2 Tack Coat 27
5.1.3 Prime Coat 27
5.2 DIFFERENT COURSE OF LAYERS 27
5.2.1 Surface Course 27
5.2.2 Binder Course 28
5.2.3 Base Course 28
5.2.4 Sub-Base Course 28
5.2.5 Sub-Grade 28
6 IMPORTANT TESTS 29
6.1 GENERAL 29
6.2 TESTS 29
6.2.1 Sieve Analysis 29
6.2.2 California Bearing Ratio Test 30
7 FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 33
7.1 ALLEGATOR CRACKING 33
7.2 TYPES OF DISTRESSES/FAILURES 34
AND DEFINITIONS
7.2.1 Longitudinal Cracking 34
7.2.2 Fatigue Cracking 34
7.2.3 Transverse Cracking 35
7.2.4 Reflection Cracking 35
 viii

7.2.5 Block Cracking 36

7.2.6 Edge Cracking 36
7.2.7 Rutting 37
7.2.8 Corrugation 37
7.2.9 Shoving 38
7.2.10 Depression 38
8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 40
8.1 GENERAL 41
8.2 TABLE FOR ALL VALUES TEST 41
9 CONCLUSION 42
REFERENCES 43
 ix

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TABLE NAME PAGE

No.
No.
4.1 Survey Report 14
6.1 Observation of Coarse Aggregate 30
Sieve Analysis
6.2 Observation and Calculation 32
8.1 Result of Sieve Analysis Coarse 39
aggregate
8.2 Result of California Bearing Test 41
 x

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE FIGURE NAME PAGE

No. No.
1.1 Flexible Pavement 3
1.2 Rigid Pavement 4
3.1 Methodology 10
4.1 Site Location 11
4.2 Auto Level 13
4.3 Levelling Staff 14
5.1 Cross-Section of Flexible Pavement 26
5.2 Sub Grading 28
7.1 Longitudinal Cracks 34
7.2 Fatigue Crack 35
7.3 Transverse Cracks 35
7.4 Reflection Crack 36
7.5 Block Crack 36
7.6 Edge Cracking 37
7.7 Rutting 37
7.8 Corrugation 38
7.9 Shoving 38
7.10 Depression 39
 xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATON

SYMBOLS ABBREVIATION
LCCA - Life Cycle Cost Analysis
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials
BS - Back Sight
IS - Intermediate Sight
FS - Fore Sight
HI - Height of Instrument
RL - Reduced Level
WMM - Wet Mixed Macadam
AC - Asphalt Concrete
CBR - California Bearing Ratio
ASTM - American Society for Testing and
Materials
IS - Indian Standard
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The proposed project is presently under the Diwa Nirman Sewa pvt.LTD after
transfer by Birgunj metropolitan. In the acquisition and after approval of this road
under annual action plan 2020-21 this road has been surveying and planning the
different layers of the flexible pavement.

Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport of Nepal has decided to

construct the pavement across all over the country. This road is mainly focused for the
promotion of economic and social services.

1.2 SITE OVERVIEW:

This project deals with detailed surveying and strengthening of roads in Parsa
district of Nepal. Under this project single lane road is constructed as intermediate lane
(4 m) roads. This project includes the improvement roads connecting rural area to
different agricultural land near India border.

1.3 PROJECT DETAILS:

• Project type: Surveying and Construction of Flexible Pavement

• Project cost: 15.6 crore
• Location: Kachorwa to Inarwa, Parsa District
• Length: 30 km

1.4 SCOPE:

The scope of the project is to Surveying and detailed design of flexible

pavement with their different layers. The current project focuses on flexible pavement
over the existing traditional pavement for the safe and efficient road with the shortest
route connecting Kachorwa to Jankitol Inarwa near to India border. The main scope of
this project is to connect the shortest path between villages for their easier transport.
 2

1.5 OBJECTIVES:

• To achieve the desired balanced between the level of traffic service provided
safety, whole life costs, flexibility for future upgrading and environmental
impact.
• To keep the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the
network to a minimum.
• To obtain the suitable parameters of materials based on various thichness of
different layers of pavement to ensure the quality of construction of road.

1.6 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

A road surface or pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an

area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the
past, gravel road surfaces, cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but
these surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a compacted
base course. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. Today, permeable
paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways.
Basically, pavement divided in two types, bituminous and concrete pavement they also
known as flexible and rigid pavements.

1.6.1 Flexible Pavement

A road surface or pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an

area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the
past, gravel road surfaces, cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but
these surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a compacted
base course. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. Today, permeable
paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways.
Basically, pavement divided in two types, bituminous and concrete pavement they also
known as flexible and rigid pavements. The pavement which are made by bituminous
material and crushed stone, gravel and soil. Flexible pavement can be defined as the
one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed
on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the
 3

subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without
asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements. The design of flexible
pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any magnitude, the intensity of a
load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of
spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground
through successive layers of granular material. Thus for flexible pavement, there can
be grading in the quality of materials used, the materials with high degree of strength
is used at or near the surface. Thus the strength of subgrade primarily influences the
thickness of the flexible pavement. The ability of transfer load to wider area in shape
of a truncated cone reduced stresses one layer to lower layers. Flexible pavement needs
high repairing cost and their completion cost is low. Strength of road is directly
dependent on strength of their aggregate. The flexible pavement shown in figure (1.1).

Fig 1.1: Flexible Pavement

1.6.2 Rigid Pavement

Rigid pavement which are strong in flexural strength or flexural rigidity. In

rigid pavement loads does not transfer grain to grain to lower layer like flexible
pavement layers. A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced
concrete slabs. Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.
The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete slab
of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity
and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil.
Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity
of a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete
 4

is the major factor and not the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement,
when the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to
bridge over the localized failures and areas of inadequate support from subgrade
because of slab action. Design of rigid pavements is based on Westergaard's analysis,
where modulus of subgrade reaction, radius of relative stiffness, radius of wheel load
distribution are used. For critical design, a combination of load stress, frictional stress
and warping stress is considered. The designer can select the location where the joints
will be placed and, consequently, where the cracks will form. Joints may be thought
of as “controlled cracks” that will reduce the stresses the concrete will experience
during its life and greatly increase the life of the concrete pavement. Through the use
of reinforcement, the location and spacing of cracks can also be controlled. Figure
(1.2) shows the rigid pavement.

Fig 1.2: Rigid Pavement

 5

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
From the word flexible, it is very clear that in this category pavement that come
are those that deflects under the applied load. Flexible pavements are very dependent
on the underlying layers, these underlying layers (surface layer, base, subbase,
subgrade layer) are composed of different materials like silt, clay, gravels, stones etc.
When load acts on the pavement then load spreads on every underlying layer. Type of
material used to construct different layers depends on the load bearing capacity of each
separate layer. Layer with the highest bearing capacity material will be on the top most
layers and the layer with the lowest load bearing capacity will be on the bottom of all
layers.

Some of the literature reviews of flexible pavement are: -

Jalal et. al (2020), Materials refer to the ground or soil underneath a road pavement.
Oftentimes, these materials do not have sufficient capacity to support the weight of the
road pavement and the traffic loads and will require some sort of modification and re-
engineering to enhance its capacity to support the load. Expansive soils can lead to
early distress causing the premature failure of the road pavement structure. Chemical
soil stabilisation techniques have been reportedly used in addressing the problems
associated with expansive subgrades.

Pooni et. al (2019), California bearing ratio is a penetration test to evaluate the
strength of the stabilised subgrade materials to ascertain the bearing capacity of road
subgrade in accordance with the relevant standards. Studies have shown that CBR has
been improved when waste materials were used to stabilise expansive subgrade. In
recent study, CBR values were greater than 30% translating into an improved
foundation during subgrade stabilisation using recycled concrete aggregate as an
additive.
 6

Babashamsi et. al (2016), In this paper cost of road construction consists of design
expenses, material extraction, construction equipment, maintenance and rehabilitation
strategies, and operations over the entire service life. An economic analysis process
known as Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is used to evaluate the cost-efficiency of
alternatives based on the Net Present Value (NPV)concept. It is essential to evaluate
the above-mentioned cost aspects in order to obtain optimum pavement life-cycle
costs. However, pavement managers are often unable to consider each important
element that may be required for performing future maintenance tasks. Over the last
few decades, several approaches have been developed by agencies and institutions for
pavement life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA).

Dilip et. al (2013), Discuss the uncertainty in material properties and traffic
characterization in the design of flexible pavements. This has led to significant efforts
in recent years to incorporate reliability methods and probabilistic design procedures
for the design, rehabilitation, and maintenance of pavements. This study carries out
the reliability analysis for a flexible pavement section based on the first-order
reliability method and second-order reliability method techniques and the crude Monte
Carlo Simulation. The study also advocates the use of narrow bounds to the probability
of failure, which provides a better estimate of the probability of failure, as validated
from the results obtained from Monte Carlo Simulation.

Mehndiratta et. al (2013), In this paper Empirica lapproach is acceptable only if crack
initiation isconsidered and not where crack propagation isconsidered. Especially in the
design of overlays overexisting cracked pavements, fracture mechanics principles may
be used to take into account thedetrimental effects of stress concentration around the
cracks.

Jain et. al (2013), They discuss about the design methods that traditionally being
followed and examine the “Design of rigid and flexible pavements by various methods
and their cost analysis by each method”. Flexible pavements are preferred over cement
concrete roads as they have a great advantage that these can be strengthened and
improved in stages with the growth of traffic and also their surfaces can be milled and
recycled for rehabilitation. The flexible pavement is less expansive also with regard to
 7

initial investment and maintaince. Although rigid pavement is expansive but less
maintenance and have good design period. It is observed that flexible pavements are
more economical for lesser volume of traffic. The life of flexible pavement is near
about 15 years whose initial cost is less needs a periodic maintenance after a certain
period and maintenance costs very high. The life of rigid pavement is much more than
the flexible pavement of about 40 years, approximately 2.5 times life of flexible
pavement whose initial cost is much more than flexible pavement but maintenance
cost is very less.

Ameri et. al (2012), They have used finite element method to analyse and design
pavements. Finite element method is able to analyse stability, time dependent
problems and problems with material nonlinearity. In this paper, a great number of the
prevalent pavements have been analyzed by means of two techniques: Finite element
method and theory of multilayer system. Eventually, from statistical viewpoint, the
results of analysis on these two techniques have been compared by significance
parameter and correlation coefficient. The results of this study indicate that results of
analysis on finite elements are most appropriately compiled with results came from
theory of multilayer system and there is no significant difference among the mean
values in both techniques.

Rahman et. al (2011), They observed that design of flexible pavement is largely based
on empirical methods using layered elastic and two-dimensional finite element
analysis. Currently a shift underway towards more mechanistic design techniques to
minimize the limitations in determining stress, strain and displacement in pavement
analysis. In this study, flexible pavement modeling is done using ABAQUS software
in which model dimensions, element types and meshing strategies are taken by
successive trial and error to achieve desired accuracy and convergence of the study.

Tarefder et. al (2010), Present that reliability is an important factor in flexible

pavement design to consider the variability associated with the design inputs. In this
paper, subgrade strength variability and flexible pavement designs are evaluated for
reliability. Parameters such as mean, maximum likelihood, median, coefficient of
variation, and density distribution, function of subgrade strength are determined.
 8

Design outputs are compared in terms of reliability and thickness using these design
procedures. It is shown that the AASHTO provides higher reliability values compared
to the probabilistic procedure. Finally, the reliability of the flexible pavement design
is evaluated by varying hot mix asphalt properties. Alternative designs are
recommended for the existing pavement thickness by modifying material and subgrade
properties to mitigate different distresses.

Das et. al (2008), Discusses the reliability issues in bituminous pavement design,
based on mechanistic empirical-approach. Variabilities of pavement design input
parameters are considered and reliability, for various proposed failure definitions, of a
given pavement is estimated by simulation as well as by analytical method. A
methodology has been suggested for designing bituminous pavements for a given level
of overall reliability by mechanistic empirical pavement design approach.

Punmia et. al (2005), Have reported stresses in homogeneous mass; elastic

deformation under circular load and Burmister analysis for flexible pavement. Charts
for vertical deflections have been developed. The design curves by Group Index
Method and California Bearing Ratio Method have been developed. In Group Index
Method, the curves are plotted between Group Index and thickness. In California
Bearing Ratio Method curves are plotted between thickness of construction and
California Bearing Ratio.

Subagio et.al (2005), Discusses a case study for multi layer pavement structural
analysis using methods of equivalent thickness. An approximate method has been
developed to calculate stresses and strains in multilayer pavement systems by
transforming this structure into an equivalent one-layer system with equivalent
thicknesses of one elastic modulus. This concept is known as the method of equivalent
thickness which assumes that the stresses and strains below a layer depend on the
stiffness of that layer.

Martin Rogers et. al (2003), His experienced has indicated that, for heavily trafficked
roads, deterioration in the form of cracking/deformation is mostly likely to be found
in the surface of the pavement rather than deeper down within its structure. A well-
 9

constructed pavement will have an extended life span on condition that distress, seen
in the form of surface cracks and ruts, is taken care of before if start to affect the
structural integrity of the highway.

2.2 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

From all of the literature review, it concludes that the flexible pavement is less
expansive with regard to initial investment and maintains. A well-constructed
pavement will have an extended life span on condition that distress, seen in the form
of surface cracks and ruts, The life of rigid pavement is much more than the flexible
pavement of about 40 years, approximately 2.5 times life of flexible pavement whose
initial cost is much more than flexible pavement but maintenance cost is very less.
Expansive soils can lead to early distress causing the premature failure of the road
pavement structure. The results of this study indicate that results of analysis on finite
elements are most appropriately compiled with results came from theory of multilayer
system and there is no significant difference among the mean values in both
techniques. Finally, the reliability of the flexible pavement design is evaluated by
varying hot mix asphalt properties. Alternative designs are recommended for the
existing pavement thickness by modifying material and subgrade properties to mitigate
different distresses.
 10

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL
Flexible pavements consist of several layers of materials and rely on the
combination of layers to transmit load to the subgrade. The methodology for flexible
pavement is given below, Figure (3.1) shows the methodology of the project.
Site Selection

Tests (Sieve analysis, CBR)

Survey

Topographical Survey

Auto level, Levelling staff & tape

HI method for RL calculation

Sub Grade (Compaction and Grading with the help of

Roller and Grader)

Sub Base (Compaction and levelling with the help of

Roller and Grader)

Results and Discussion

Conclusion

Fig. 3.1 Methodology

 11

CHAPTER 4

SURVEYING AND LEVELLING

4.1 SITE LOCATION

Figure (4.1) shows the site location of our project.

Fig 4.1: Site Location

➢ Total Length of Road = 30000 meter

➢ Road width = 4 meter

Road connectivity is a key component of development by promoting access to

economic and social services and thereby generating increased agricultural incomes
and productive employment. The project road is a link road to the buildings of different
villages. This road directly connects all the possible ways of the agricultural land
which provides a smooth passage to all passengers and villagers. The "site" is
the actual location of a settlement on the Earth, and the term includes the physical
characteristics of the landscape specific to the area. Site factors include landforms,
climate, vegetation, availability of water, soil quality, minerals, and wildlife.
 12

4.2 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

4.2.1 General

Survey was done and temporary bench marks were established. Levels for
cross section have been taken at every 20 m intervals at various locations. Road plans
& L-Sections have been developed on AutoCAD. A topographic survey locates all
surface features of a property, and depicts all natural features and elevations. In
essence it is a 3-dimensional map of a 3-dimensional property showing all natural and
man-made features and improvements. Specifically, it shows their location, size,
height and any changes in elevation.

4.2.2 Levelling

All leveling for establishing Benchmark are carried out having accuracy ± 5
mm/km. We started the work by assuming arbitrary level which was marked earlier,
as no GTS benchmark was available on the nearby location of the road.

Leveling work is carried over using a technical instrument named AUTO

LEVEL by taking temporary bench mark of 91.89 meter from the standard mean sea
level. TBMs are used to transfer reduce levels in road construction. Temporary bench
marks should be established at the rate of four per km and also at or near all structures.

4.2.3 Auto Level

An auto level is similar to the dumpy level, with its telescope fixed to the
tribrach. For more precise leveling of the instrument a spirit level is attached to the
telescope. It is used to measure the reduced level of any plane. An automatic level,
self-leveling level or builder's auto level includes an internal compensator mechanism
(a swinging prism) that, when set close to level, automatically removes any remaining
variation from level. This reduces the need to set the instrument truly level, as with a
dumpy or tilting level. Self-leveling instruments are the preferred instrument on
building sites, construction and surveying due to ease of use and rapid setup time. An
auto level is a levelling instrument and used by contractors, builders, land surveying
professionals for surveying, and auto level setup is fast & are easy to use, and saves
time and money. No adjustment for staff reading is required as the actual reading is
 13

seen from the eyepiece in the auto level and with any 3 screws. Figure (4.2) shows the
Auto Level Machine.

Fig 4.2: Auto Level

4.2.4 Levelling Staff

A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium

rod, used with a levelling instrument to determine the difference in height between
points or heights of points above a vertical datum. It cannot be used without a
leveling instrument.

Levelling rod come in two classes;

1. Self-reading rods (sometimes called speaking rods).

2. Target rods.

Self-reading rods are rods that are read by the person viewing the rod through the
telescope of the instrument. The graduations are sufficiently clear to read with good
accuracy. Target rods, on the other hand, are equipped with a target. The target is a
round or oval plate marked in quarters in contrasting colours such as red and white in
opposite quarters. A hole in the centre allows the instrument user to see the rod's scale.
The target is adjusted by the rodman according to the instructions from the instrument
man. When the target is set to align with the crosshairs of the instrument, the rodman
records the level value. The target may have a vernier to allow fractional increments
of the graduation to be read. Leveling Staff is an instrument used to determine the
 14

difference in height between two points. Levelling Staff is known as the staff rod,
Levelling rod, and self-reading staff, as the staff readings may be taken directly by the
instrument man from the levelling instrument. Figure (4.3) shows the Levelling Staff
and Table (4.1) shows the survey report.

Fig 4.3: Levelling Staff

Using the formula

Height of the Instrument = Back Sight + Reduced Level

i.e. HI = BS + RL

Temporary Bench Mark = 91.89 m

Table 4.1: Survey Report

I.S. Reduc R. L
Chaina Cent Rig Offis F.S H.I/c. ed Righ
ge B.S. Left re ht et m . p Level left t
1.71
1 94 91.9
1.74 1.72 91. 91.87
0+00 6 1.734 4 2M 91.9 9 7
 15

1.80 1.48 1.75 91. 92.11

2 2 M 8 9
2.54 1.00 91. 90.85
5 2.75 M 1 1
1.56 1.62 91.97
0+20 2 1.605 9 2M 92 92 2
2.07 1.75 91. 91.52
1.93 4 M 7 7
2.64 90.85
4 2.75 1M 91 1
1.49 1.61 92. 91.98
0+40 1 1.542 2 2M 92.1 1 9
1.87 1.93 1.75 91. 91.66
4 2 M 7 9
2.32 2.68 91.
9 1 1M 3 90.92
1.46 1.47 92. 92.12
0+60 1 1.501 4 2M 92.1 1 7
2.04 1.75 91.55
1.61 4 M 92 7
2.34 91. 91.02
1 2.58 1M 3 1
1.56 1.52
0+80 2 1.526 1 92.1 92 92.08
1.91 2.03 91.
4 1 7 91.57
2.09 2.70 91.
4 1 5 90.9
1.58 1.51 92.08
0+100 1 1.571 5 92 92 6
1.78 1.75 91. 91.84
2 2 8 9
 16

2.65 91. 90.94

2.14 8 5 3
1.50 92. 92.06
0+120 1 1.522 1.54 92.1 1 1
1.50 92. 91.72
2 1.88 1 1
2.10 1.52 91. 92.07
6 4 5 7
1.41 1.39 92.
0+140 1 1.416 1 92.2 2 92.21
1.58 1.76 91.83
3 6 92 5
2.08 2.44 91. 91.15
1 2 5 9
1.58 1.3
7 9 94 92.2
1.62 1.52
0+160 1 1.563 1 92.2 92 92.08
1.71 1.96 91. 91.63
5 5 9 6
2.17 2.06 91. 91.53
5 4 4 7
1.44 1.56 92.
0+180 9 1.527 1 92.3 2 92.04
1.82 91. 92.38
8 1.22 8 1
2.10 2.50 91.
8 1 5 91.1
1.50 1.43 92.
0+200 4 1.542 1 92.3 1 92.17
1.58 1.55 92.04
1 8 92 3
 17

2.06 91. 91.13

1 2.47 5 1
1.36 1.31 92.
0+220 1 1.32 1 92.5 2 92.29
1.62 92. 91.97
1.54 2 1 9
2.03 2.36 91. 91.23
1 8 6 3
1.30 92. 92.29
0+240 1.31 1.32 8 92.5 3 3
1.42
1.57 1 92 92.18
1.74 2.55 91. 91.04
5 5 9 6
1.19 1.19 92.
0+260 4 1.166 1 92.6 4 92.41
1.40 1.39 92. 92.20
2 5 2 6
1.65 2.10 91. 91.49
2 6 9 5
1.17 1.14 92. 92.45
0+280 1 1.185 8 92.6 4 3
1.34 1.53 92. 92.06
6 2 3 9
1.52 2.06 92. 91.53
1 8 1 3
0.51
5 0.1 94 93.7
1.58 92. 92.62
0+300 1.63 1.634 1 92.6 6 2
1.80 92. 92.24
8 1.96 4 3
 18

92. 91.64
1.88 2.56 3 3
1.43 1.49 92. 92.71
0+320 1 1.47 1 92.7 8 2
1.78 1.90 92. 92.30
1 1 4 2
2.04 2.47 92. 91.72
4 4 2 9
1.53 1.59 92. 92.60
0+340 7 1.541 5 92.7 7 8
1.54 1.61 92. 92.59
5 2 7 1
2.06 2.50 92. 91.70
5 1 1 2
1.66
9 1.5 94 92.7
1.58 1.63 92. 92.73
0+360 6 1.652 9 92.7 8 5
1.70 1.76 92. 92.60
7 6 7 8
92. 92.56
1.75 1.81 6 4
1.42 92. 92.94
0.+380 1.46 1.478 7 92.9 9 7
1.89 92. 92.47
1.63 7 7 7
1.76 2.73 92. 91.64
8 1 6 3
1.30 1.30 93. 93.07
0.+400 4 1.322 2 93.1 1 2
1.74 1.76 92. 92.61
1 1 6 3
 19

1.38 2.79 91.57

8 6 93 8
1.26 1.24 93.
0+420 1 1.218 4 93.2 1 93.13
1.55 1.90 92. 92.47
1 1 8 3
2.32 2.64 91.73
9 2 92 2
1.19 1.26 93. 93.10
0+440 5 1.181 7 93.2 2 7
1.52 1.92 92. 92.45
5 1 8 3
2.22 2.86 92. 91.51
4 2 2 2
1.20 1.24 93. 93.13
0+460 4 1.251 3 93.1 2 1
1.60 1.28 92. 93.08
5 8 8 6
2.19 2.36 92. 92.00
2 8 2 6
1.37 1.1
0 5 7 95 93.2
1.21 1.23 93. 93.34
0+480 4 1.245 4 93.3 4 8
1.51 1.65 93. 92.93
2 1 1 1
2.06 2.53 92. 92.04
1 4 5 8
1.25 1.37 93. 93.20
0+500 6 1.334 5 93.2 3 7
1.57 1.86 92.71
8 7 93 5
 20

2.08 92. 92.26

1 2.32 5 2
1.54 93. 93.04
0+520 1.46 1.445 1 93.1 1 1
1.58 1.91 92.67
1 1 93 1
2.09 1.14 92. 93.43
1 5 5 7
1.51 1.55 93. 93.03
0+540 8 1.481 1 93.1 1 1
1.73 1.66 92. 92.91
1 7 9 5
2.03 2.24 92. 92.33
3 7 5 5
1.37 1.33 93. 93.24
0+560 2 1.344 4 93.2 2 8
1.73 1.51 92.
9 2 8 93.07
2.48 2.29 92. 92.28
1 5 1 7
1.27 1.35 93. 93.22
0+580 1 1.296 6 93.3 3 6
1.63 1.46 92. 93.11
5 5 9 7
2.30 92. 92.24
5 2.34 3 2
2.05 1.2
5 7 95 93.3
1.93 1.93 93. 93.43
0+600 5 1.978 4 93.4 4 2
2.32 2.52 92.84
5 1 93 5
 21

3.20 2.97 92. 92.39

1 4 2 2
1.85 93. 93.48
0+620 4 1.891 1.88 93.5 5 6
2.06 93. 92.63
4 2.73 3 6
2.94 2.95 92. 92.40
3 7 4 9
1.62 1.61 93. 93.75
0+640 1 1.67 1 93.7 7 5
2.96 1.94 92. 93.41
3 7 4 9
2.88 92. 92.48
3.22 5 1 1
1.54 1.49 93. 93.87
0+660 6 1.532 1 93.8 8 5
1.91 93. 93.20
3 2.16 5 6
2.92 2.81 92. 92.54
1 8 4 8
1.74 1.73 93. 93.63
0+680 1 1.764 1 93.6 6 5
2.34 2.04 93.32
1 1 93 5
2.86 2.69 92. 92.67
1 4 5 2
1.72 93. 93.57
0+700 1 1.791 1.79 93.6 6 6
2.14 1.98 93.
1 6 2 93.38
2.92 1.68 92. 93.67
5 9 4 7
 22

1.69 1.9
5 3 95 93.4
1.55 1.52 93.
0+720 5 1.562 4 93.6 6 93.61
1.88 1.98 93. 93.15
5 2 2 2
2.68 2.57 92. 92.56
1 3 5 1
1.50 1.53 93. 93.59
0+740 8 1.523 7 93.6 6 7
1.48 2.15 93. 92.97
9 7 6 7
2.69 2.66 92. 92.47
1 1 4 3
1.49 93. 93.64
0+760 1.46 1.481 1 93.7 7 3
1.64 1.98 93. 93.14
2 7 5 7
2.57 2.41 92. 92.71
3 8 6 6
1.64 1.65 93. 93.47
0+780 1 1.633 7 93.5 5 7
1.99 93. 93.14
1.66 1 5 3
2.73 2.13 92. 93.00
5 1 4 3
1.49 1.52 93. 93.60
0+800 4 1.556 7 93.6 6 7
1.99 93. 93.13
1.51 8 6 6
2.64 92. 92.67
7 2.46 5 4
 23

1.42 93. 93.59

0+820 1 1.483 1.54 93.7 7 4
93. 93.07
1.64 2.06 5 4
2.59 2.64 92. 92.48
8 5 5 9
1.34 1.41 93. 93.72
0+840 2 1.378 2 93.8 8 2
1.57 1.84 93. 93.29
8 2 6 2
2.58 2.62 92. 92.50
1 8 6 6
1.29 1.30 93. 93.83
0+860 9 1.343 1 93.8 8 3
1.46 93.
5 1.72 7
1.65 2.58 2.58 1.3
3 8 2 4 95 93.8
1.62 93. 93.75
0+880 9 1.688 1.69 93.8 8 6
2.23 93. 93.21
1.71 4 7 2
2.81 92.
2.86 6 6 92.63
1.61 1.76 93.
0+900 4 1.743 6 93.7 8 93.68
1.59 2.04 93. 93.40
4 4 9 2
2.78 92. 92.65
2.81 9 6 7
1.46 93.98
0+920 1.49 1.51 2 93.9 94 4
 24

1.85 1.91 93.

1 6 6 93.53
2.85 2.46 92. 92.97
8 7 6 9
1.53 1.55 93. 93.89
0+940 6 1.574 1 93.9 9 5
1.60 1.57 93. 93.86
1 8 8 8
2.68 2.48 92. 92.96
9 2 8 4
1.35 1.33 94. 94.11
0+960 6 1.391 4 94.1 1 2
1.58 1.48 93. 93.95
4 9 9 7
2.62 2.51 92. 92.93
5 2 8 4
1.20 1.21 94. 94.23
0+980 1 1.224 1 94.2 2 5
1.56 1.38 93. 94.06
8 5 9 1
2.38 1.82 93. 93.62
1 5 1 1
1.07 94. 94.23
1+000 5 1.081 1.21 94.4 4 6
1.09 1.38 94. 94.05
2 9 4 7
1.12 1.80 94. 93.64
5 5 3 1
0.9
1.45 2 96 94.5
94. 94.48
1+020 1.34 1.46 1.49 94.5 6 2
 25

1.82 1.74 94.

9 2 1 94.23
2.92 93.79
5 2.18 93 2
1.47 94. 94.49
1+040 1.31 1.414 5 94.6 7 7
1.88 1.71 94.
4 2 1 94.26
2.90 93. 93.91
5 2.06 1 2
1.48 94. 94.44
1+060 2 1.481 1.53 94.5 5 2
1.61 94. 94.40
8 1.57 4 2
93. 94.20
2.37 1.77 6 2
1.44 94. 94.53
1+067 1.46 1.44 1 94.5 5 1
1.54 94.
1.43 2 5 94.43
94. 94.32
1.48 1.65 5 2
0.17 0.1
7 8 96 95.8
0.23 0.0
6 9 96 95.9
 26

CHAPTER 5

CROSS-SECTION OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface

course, tack coat, Binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted
sub-grade, and natural sub-grade. The surface course is the topmost layer of the
flexible pavement and is generally the layer of the best quality as it has to withstand
maximum stress and wear and tear. The different layers with thickness and coats are
given below. Figure (5.1) shows the cross-section of flexible pavement.

Prime Coat

Tack Coat

Seal Coat

Surface Course (25-50 mm)

Binder Course (50-100 mm)

Base Course (100-300 mm)

Subbase Course (100-300 mm)

Compacted Subgrade (150-300 mm)

Natural Subgrade

Fig 5.1: Cross-Section of Flexible Pavement

5.1 TYPES OF COATS

5.1.1 Seal Coat

The seal coat has to be provided which is a thin surface treatment used to
water-proof the surface and to provide skid resistance. Seal coat increase the life
 27

span of pavement. It also provides friction to the vehicles which is moving on the
road.

5.1.2 Tack Coat

Tack coat has to be provided between two layers of binder course. This coat is
very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It must
be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast. It behave like bonding
coat between W.M.M or asphalt layers. It also form a bond between asphalt base
course and asphalt wearing course.

5.1.3 Prime Coat

Prime coat provides bonding between two layers which penetrates into the
layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface. That's why both prime
coat and tack coat has to be provided. They both have different functions. It is an
application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular bases
on which binder layer is placed. Prime coat apply before the 24 hours then the base
coarse surface behave like asphalt base coarse.

5.2 DIFFERENT COURSE OF LAYERS

5.2.1 Surface Course

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials. They have to be constructed with dense graded
asphalt concrete (AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also, it will

prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying are,
sub-base and sub-grade.

It must be though to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface, it must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade
from the weakening effect of water. As per our design, combined thickness of base
and surfacing should be 30 cm.
 28

5.2.2 Binder Course

The binder course having aggregates less than asphalt has to be used as it
doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design. This layer provides the
bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute load to
the base course.

5.2.3 Base course

The binder course having aggregates less than asphalt has to be used as it
doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design. This layer provides the
bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute load to
the base course.

5.2.4 Sub-Base Course

The Sub-base course is the layer of material which has to be provided beneath
the base course and its primary functions are to provide structural support, improve
drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement
structure. As per our design 20 cm thick sub base course has to be provided.

5.2.5 Sub-Grade

The top soil sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It
should be compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture. Figure (5.2)
shows the sub grading.

Fig 5.2: Sub grading

 29

CHAPTER 6

IMPORTANT TESTS

6.1 GENERAL

After selection of the final center line of the road investigation for soil and
other materials require for construction are carried out in respect of the likely sources
and the availability and suitability of materials. The characteristics of the materials can
be qualitatively determined by appropriate testing procedures, the result of which
supplement knowledge of the material gained from visual inspection and a study of
the geological/geophysical environment.

6.2 TESTS

There are several types of tests which are being performed for identifying the
properties of soil, bitumen etc. Some tests are performed on the site and some are
performed in the laboratory. Some of the important tests are described below;

1. Sieve Analysis
2. California Bearing Ratio Test

6.2.1 Sieve Analysis

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used in civil

engineering and chemical engineering to assess the particle size distribution (also
called gradation) of a granular material by allowing the material to pass through a
series of sieves of progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the amount of
material that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass. The procedure
for the sieve analysis is:

• In this there are different sizes of sieves.

• The material passes through these sieves and calculated the % weight
passing through these sieves, and compared these values with JMF Value.
• First of all, 5 kg of dried sample is taken.
 30

• The sieves are arranged in the order

• Now pass the sample from different sieves.
• After passing each sieve, the retained weight, % weight retained,
cumulative weight retained and percentage passing of aggregates is
calculated.
• Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of
aggregates retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100. Table (6.1)
shows the observation of course aggregate sieve analysis.

Table 6.1: Observation of Course Aggregate Sieve Analysis

S. No Sieve size Weight Retained Cumulative Material

(mm) retained (%) retained passed
(%) (%)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
1 25 3.52 70.4 70.4 29.6
2 20 1.23 24.6 95 5
3 13.2 0.11 2.2 97.2 2.8
4 12.5 0.09 1.8 99 1
5 6.7 0.05 1 100 0

Sum of cumulative % retained = 461.6

Fineness modulus = 4.616

6.2.2 CBR Test

The California bearing ratio (CBR) is a penetration test for evaluation of the
mechanical strength of natural ground, subgrades and base courses beneath new
carriageway construction. It was developed by the California Department of
Transportation before World War II. The basic site test is performed by measuring the
pressure required to penetrate soil or aggregate with a plunger of standard area. The
measured pressure is then divided by the pressure required to achieve an equal
penetration on a standard crushed rock material.
 31

The CBR test is conducted one of the following standards :

o ASTM Standards D1883-05 (for laboratory-prepared samples) and D4429 (for

soils in place in field), and AASHTO T193.
o BS 1377: Soils for civil engineering purposes: Part 4, Compaction related
tests, and in Part 9: In-situ tests.
o IS: 2720 (Part 16) – 1987, Methods of Test for Soil (Part 16 Laboratory
Determination of CBR).

The harder the surface, the higher the CBR rating. A CBR of 3 equates to tilled
farmland, a CBR of 4.75 equates to turf or moist clay, while moist sand may have a
CBR of 10. High quality crushed rock has a CBR over 80. The standard material for
this test is crushed California limestone which has a value of 100, meaning that it is
not unusual to see CBR values of over 100 in well-compacted areas. The CBR test is
a penetration test in which a standard piston, with a diameter of 50 mm (1.969 in), is
used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. Although the force
increases with the depth of penetration, in most cases, it does not increase as quickly
as it does for the standard crushed rock, so the ratio decreases.

To determine the bearing capacity of a soil. As per IS 2720-part (16) Loading

machines cylinder moulds 150mm diameter and 175cm height having a collar of 50cm
length and perforated base which is detachable, compaction rammer. IS sieves of
20mm, filter paper, balance. By using 20mm sieve sample is sieved. 5kg of sample is
taken. Then add water to the sample upto it reach optimum moisture content After
adding the water mix the sample gently at the bottom of the mould spacer disc is placed
and over the spacer filter paper is Placed The sample is divided into 5 part. The mould
is cleaned and oil is applied. fill the mould of one fifth with prepared sample of soil.
.By giving 56 blows soil is compacted same process is repeated upto 3 layers collar is
attached after 3rd layer. Same process is repeated. A weight of 2.5 kgs is placed on the
soil surface top. on testing machine specimen is placed and plunger is brought near to
soil sample a load of four kgs is applied. Dial reading is adjusted. penetration power
rate 1.2mm per min. Table 6 showing the observation and calculations CBR test. And
shows the graph of the CBR results. Table (6.2) shows the observation and calculation
for CBR test.
 32

Table 6.2: Observations and calculations

Penetration Proving Ring Load Intensity Standard Load

Reading (Kg/cm2 ) (Kg/cm2)
0.0 0 0
0.5 22 1.45
1.0 38 2.50
1.5 52 3.42
2.0 75 4.93
2.5 93 6.11 70
3.0 110 7.23
4.0 118 7.76
5.0 131 8.61 105
7.5 144 9.47
10.0 160 10.52
12.5 172 11.31

Calculation

Load intensity = Proving ring reading*load factor/Area of plunger

Load factor = 1.29

22∗1.29
= 𝜋 2
4
∗𝑑

22∗1.29
= 𝜋 2
4
∗5

= 1.45 kg/cm2

6.11
CBR at 2.5 mm penetration = *100 = 8.72%
70

8.61
CBR at 2.5 mm penetration = *100 = 8.2%, So, Value of CBR = 8.72%
105
 33

CHAPTER 7

FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Different types of failure encountered in flexible pavements are as follow:

1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)

2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)
3. Shear failure cracking
4. Longitudinal cracking
5. Frost heaving
6. Lack of binding to the lower course
7. Reflection cracking
8. Formation of waves and corrugation
9. Bleeding
10. Pumping

7.1 Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)

Followings are the primary causes of this types of failure:

• Relative movement of pavement layer material

• Repeated application of heavy wheel loads
• Swelling or shrinkage of sub grade or other layers due to moisture variation

Alligator cracks are also called as map cracking. This is a fatigue failure caused in the
asphalt concrete. A series of interconnected cracks are observed due to such distress.

The tensile stress is maximum at the asphalt surface (base). This is the position where
the cracks are formed, ie, the area with maximum tensile stress. A parallel of
longitudinal cracks will propagate with time and reaches the surface. Repeated loading
and stress concentration will help the individual cracks to get connected. These will
 34

resemble as a chicken wire or similar to the alligator skin. This is termed as the alligator
cracking. It is also known as the crocodile cracking.

These cracking are observed only in areas that have repeated traffic loading. Alligator
cracking is one of the major structural distress. This distress is later
accompanied by rutting.

Cases of Premature Failures

• Rutting due to high variation in ambient temperature

• Uncontrolled heavy axle loads
• Limitation of pavement design procedure to meet local environment
conditions

7.2 TYPES OF DISTRESSES/FAILURES AND DEFINITIONS

7.2.1 Longitudinal Cracking

Cracks that are approximately parallel to pavement. centerline and are not in
the wheel path. Longitudinal cracks are non-load associated cracks. Location within
the lane (wheel path versus non-wheel path) is significant. Longitudinal cracks in the
wheel path are normally rated as Alligator ‘A’ cracking. Figure (7.1) shows the
longitudinal cracking.

Fig 7.1: Longitudinal Cracks

7.2.2 Fatigue Cracking

Cracks in asphalt layers that are caused by repeated traffic loadings. The cracks
indicate fatigue failure of the asphalt layer. When cracking is characterized by
 35

interconnected cracks, the cracking pattern resembles that of an alligator's skin or

chicken wire. Therefore, it is also referred to as alligator cracking. Figure (7.2) shows
the fatigue crack.

Fig 7.2: Fatigue Crack

7.2.3 Transverse Cracking

Cracks that are predominately perpendicular to pavement centerline and are

not located over Portland cement concrete joints. Thermal cracking is typically
in this category. Figure (7.3) shows the transverse cracks.

Fig 7.3: Transverse Cracks

7.2.4 Reflection Cracking

Cracks in HMA overlay surfaces that occur over joints in concrete or over
cracks in HMA pavements. The cracks occur directly over the underlying cracks or
joints. “Joint reflection cracking” specifically refers to reflection cracks arising from
underlying PCC pavement joint movement. Reflection cracking is a serious challenge
associated with pavement rehabilitation as it leads to premature failure of the overlay
and allows water infiltration through the cracks, which causes stripping in HMA layers
 36

and weakening and deterioration in the base and/or subgrade. Figure (7.4) shows the
reflection crack.

Fig 7.4: Reflection Crack

7.2.5 Block Cracking

Pattern of cracks that divides the pavement into approximately rectangular

pieces. Rectangular blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 square yard to
12 square yards. Figure (7.5) shows the block cracking.

Fig 7.5: Block Cracking

7.2.6 Edge Cracking

Crescent-shaped cracks or fairly continuous cracks that intersect the pavement

edge and are located within 2 feet of the pavement edge, adjacent to the unpaved
shoulder. Includes longitudinal cracks outside of the wheel path and within 2 feet of
 37

the pavement edge. Edge cracks are parallel to and usually within 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to
1.5 ft.) of the outer edge of the pavement. This distress is accelerated by traffic loading
and can be caused by frost-weakened base or subgrade near the edge of the pavement.
Figure (7.6) shows the edge cracking.

Fig 7.6: Edge Cracking

7.2.7 Rutting

Longitudinal surface depression that develops in 'e wheel paths of flexible

pavement under traffic. It may have associated transverse displacement. Ruts can be
formed by wear,as from studded snow tires common in cold climate areas,or they can
form through the deformation of the asphalt concrete,pavement or subbase material.
Figure (7.7) shows rutting.

Fig 7.7: Rutting

 38

7.2.8 Corrugation

Transverse undulations appear at regular interval due to the unstable surface

course caused by stop-and-go traffic. The formation of ripples or waves on the flexible
pavement generally perpendicular to the traffic flow is called corrugation or wash
boarding. It occurs at the points where traffic starts and stops. Figure (7.8) shows
corrugation.

Fig 7.8: Corrugation

7.2.9 Shoving

A longitudinal displacement of a localized area of the pavement surface. It is

generally caused by braking or accelerating vehicles, and is usually located on hills or
curves, or at intersections. It also may have vertical displacement. It occurs at points
where a vehicle pulls its brakes or at points where pavement meets rigid objects. If the
soil subgrade is poor then the problems like corrugation and shoving arise in flexible
pavements. Subgrade soil is said to be weak when it consists of highly plastic clays,
organic soil etc. Presence of water table nearer to subgrade soil also makes it weak to
take loads. Figure (7.9) shows shoving.

Fig. 7.9: Shoving

 39

7.2.10 Depression

Small, localized surface settlement that can cause a rough, even hazardous ride
to motorists. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
Depression in an access roadway probably caused by subgrade settlement. Note that
the pavement has fatigue cracked significantly as it has settled. Figure (7.10) shows
depression of pavement.

Fig 7.10: Depression

.
 40

CHAPTER 8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

8.1. GENERAL

The following are the results which were obtained after calculating the test
value. The acquire value are then compared with the IS Code books. The obtain value
are den comparing with the IS Code books in the table below:

8.2. TABLE FOR ALL VALUES OF TEST

The below table show the values of the test that was done and also the values
are compared with Indian Standard value. The following table 8.1 and table 8.2 shows
the value obtain from test done with the comparison of Indian standard level.

Table 8.1: Obtained test of sieve analysis

S. No Sieve size Weight Retained Cumulative Material

(mm) retained (%) retained passed
(%) (%)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
1 25 3.52 70.4 70.4 29.6
2 20 1.23 24.6 95 5
3 13.2 0.11 2.2 97.2 2.8
4 12.5 0.09 1.8 99 1
5 6.7 0.05 1 100 0

Sum of cumulative % retained = 461.6

Fineness modulus = 4.616

Table 8.2: Observations and calculations of CBR test

 41

Penetration Proving Ring Load Intensity Standard Load

Reading (Kg/cm2 ) (Kg/cm2)
0.0 0 0
0.5 22 1.45
1.0 38 2.50
1.5 52 3.42
2.0 75 4.93
2.5 93 6.11 70
3.0 110 7.23
4.0 118 7.76
5.0 131 8.61 105
7.5 144 9.47
10.0 160 10.52
12.5 172 11.31

Calculation

Load intensity = Proving ring reading*load factor/Area of plunger

Load factor = 1.29

22∗1.29
= 𝜋 2
4
∗𝑑

22∗1.29
= 𝜋 2
4
∗5

= 1.45Kg/cm2

6.11
CBR at 2.5 mm penetration = *100 = 8.72%
70

8.61
CBR at 5 mm penetration = *100 = 8.2%, So, Value of CBR = 8.72%
105
 42

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

The main observations and conclusions drawn are summarized below:

• Our project naming “STUDY AND SURVEYING OF THE FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT CONNECTING KACHORWA TO INARWA” consists of total
length 30km and road width 4 m. It took about 3 months to complete half
portion of project including surveying, soil testing, grading, sub grading etc.

• To have a practical concept of road surveying and report prepration of

surveying.

• is carried out.

• The gradation of aggregate for base and sub-base fulfils the NHA
specification.

• The Fineness modulus of Coarse Aggregate of given sample is 4.616 which

follows AASHTO specification so aggregate is suitable for both base and sub-
base course.

• Value of CBR of taken sample i.e The study of different layers of pavement
including their coats. clayey soil is 8.72 % at CBR penetration of 2.5 mm and
5mm.

• For our project, thickness for subgrade, Granular sub-base, Base-coarse

Bituminous Macadam, and surface-coarse was provided as 0.295m, 0.125m,
0.05m and 0.025m respectively. So, the final cost for the whole construction
will be about approx. Rs. 15.6 crore.

• From this study and surveying, it can conclude that, the process of pavement
construction has favorably impact on local residents.
 43

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