Mycotoxins

How is it developed?

Mycotoxins are low molecular weight natural products produced by molds that are toxic to vertebrates in low
concentrations. Fungal growth can be either primary or secondary. While primary growth produce primary
metabolites essential to growth; secondary growth happens after a period of maintained growth and may lead, but
not in all cases, to sporulation and production of secondary metabolites. Mycotoxins are substances secreted by
the secondary metabolism which don't have significant effects on growth, however, they seem to be produced upon
the accumulation of excess primary metabolites precursors serving as a way to reduce their concentration in fungi.

The major factors that affect mycotoxin production are temperature, water activity (aw), relative humidity, pH, fungal
strain and substrate. Each fungi has an optimal temperature and water activity range for growth, germination, and
mycotoxin production. Therefore, no single range of temperature and water activity can be defined as inducing to
fungal activity. When humidity and temperature conditions are favorable, fungal invasion can take place and occur
at different stages either on the field or later during drying or storage. Conditions that promote fungal growth may
not always lead to mycotoxin production. However, generally, a temperature range between 25 and 30℃, a
water activity higher than 0.78, and relative humidity between 88% and 95% are considered as favorable for
fungal growth and subsequent mycotoxin production. The effect of pH on the production of certain types of
mycotoxins is yet to be determined, but it is well established that acidic conditions promote germination and
mycotoxin production in most cases. Therefore, mycotoxin production is a naturally occurring process when the
favorable conditions are provided to the mycotoxin producing fungal lineages.

What types impact what foods?

Over 400 mycotoxins have been discovered. However, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins,
zearalenone, and trichothecenes are six forms of mycotoxins typically detected in food. Aflatoxins are produced
by fungi of Aspergillus species and are categorized as aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 based on their fluorescent
properties. The ochratoxin family consists of ochratoxin A, B, C, and TA. The most toxic type, ochratoxin A is
produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species. Patulin is produced by fungi of Penicillium, Aspergillius and
Byssochlamys species. Both fumonisins, zearalenone are produced by fungi of Fusarium species. Zearalenone is an
estrogenic mycotoxin and has various derivatives. Αlpha isomer of zearalenone is more toxic than beta isomer.
Trichothecenes are a wide group of mycotoxins produced primarily by species of Fusarium as well as by
Trichoderma and Trichothecium. There are four varieties of trichothecenes as A, B, C and D. Type A toxins such as
T-2 and HT-2 are produced mostly by F.sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae, whereas type B toxins such as
nivalenol and deoxynivalenol are primarily produced by F. poae and F. graminerarum. Other than the six major
types of mycotoxins described above, there are types such as citrinin which is produced by Penicillium species and
ergot alkaloids produced by Claviceps species.

Mycotoxins can be found in both plant and animal-based foods and can enter the food chain at any point during the
production process, both before and after harvesting. Cereals, dried fruits, nuts, and spices are common sources of
mycotoxins. Aflatoxins can be found in a variety of essential agricultural products, including peanuts, maize,
cottonseed, barley and cocoa beans. Ochratoxins contaminate grains, legumes, oleaginous seeds, peanuts,
cashews, dried fruits, coffee and wine. Patulin can be found in apples, strawberries, tomatoes and olives. Foods
such as maize, wheat, barley, rice, grapes are contaminated with fumonisins. Zearalenones contaminate different
cereals, mainly maize and wheat bran. Trichothecenes contaminate foods such as rye, wheat, triticale, barley,
millet, and oats.

Other than plant based foods, people are exposed to mycotoxins in animal based foods by ingestion of meat, eggs or
milk of animals that have been fed with contaminated feed. Meat products can be contaminated by ochratoxin A
and aflatoxin B1. Other than that, citrinin, cyclopiazonic acid and sterigmatocystin like mycotoxins contaminate
meat products. The most prevalent mycotoxins identified in eggs are aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone and
fumonisins. Milk and milk products are contaminated by aflatoxin M1 which is the most toxic metabolite of
aflatoxin B1. Other mycotoxins, such as zearalenone and fumonisins also contaminate milk.
Risk levels to consumers

Among the several hundred of mycotoxins recognised so far, few (about a dozen) are associated with severe impact
on consumer health due-to their occurrence in food in higher quantities. In lower quantities, the impact of
mycotoxins is more variable. They weaken immunological responsiveness and interfere natural resistance
mechanism which cause more susceptible to infections. Some food-borne mycotoxins which associate with acute
symptoms of severe illness are appearing quickly as soon as the ingestion of the mycotoxins contaminated food.
Other mycotoxins present in foods have chronic effects on consumers’ health, including the immune deficiencies
and cancer inductions. Specific toxins have effects on specific tissues and organs such as kidney, liver, brain, oral
and gastric mucosa, gastric mucosa etc.

Consumption of aflatoxins via the contaminated food in large doses (>2-12 µg/kg for B1, >4-15 for total, >0.05 in
milk & >0.025 in infant formulae & infant milk) are capable to lead the acute poisoning known as aflatoxicosis
which can have life threatening by damaging to the liver. Except that aflatoxins can damage DNA and capable to
lead cancers in human which means that they have been shown to be genotoxic. Evidences show that they can cause
liver cancers. Ochratoxin contamination (>80µg/kg) can occur at the time of storage of susceptible food products
and cause numerous toxic effects to the consumers. Among them kidney damage is the most notable and dominant
one. Apart from that toxin may have negative impact on immune system and on the fetal development.

Apple is the major dietary source which can occur patulin intoxication. The toxicity of this patulin toxin (>50µg/kg)
have severe impact on the immune system of the consumers. Liver and spleen damage as well as kidney damage
also associated with acute symptoms of this intoxication. Gastrointestinal disturbances, nausea and vomiting have
been reported after the ingestion of toxin contaminated foods. Likewise, aflatoxin this also considered to be
genotoxic, although its carcinogenic potential has not been recognized so far.

Trichothecenes can have acute intoxications to consumers causing intestinal mucosa which leads to diarrhoea or
rapid irritation in the skin. Chronic effects are associate with suppression of the immune system. ZEN have been
reported to have leads to the hormonal effects particularly to the oestrogen by causing infertility at higher level
intakes while fumonisins have been reported to have oesophageal cancers and kidney toxicities.

How to mitigate the risk?

Different strategies should be followed to completely control or suppress the mycotoxin infection. Mainly these
mycotoxin producing fungi enter to the harvest at pre harvesting period, harvesting time, during post- harvest
handling and in storage. Control measures and mitigation methods should be taken during these stages to prevent the
infections. This controlling action consists of three main steps.

First step is primary prevention which is the easiest and the most effective step for preventing mycotoxin. This is
done before the mycotoxin infection by keeping unfavorable conditions for fungal growth. Developing fungal
resistant varieties of plants, controlling field infection by growing various plants, making a schedule for before
planting in pre harvest stage, determining the harvest time plan in the storage, using fungicides and preservatives,
using insecticides to control insect infestation in storage rooms are some frequent instance that can be used in this
stage.

The second prevention is started soon as fungal infection is first detected in harvested crop. This is to eliminate
existing toxins and prevent further spread of the infection. Removing of contaminated crop, stopping growth of
toxin produced fungi by re-drying crop, prevention of favorable conditions of storage, inactivate or detoxification of
mycotoxin are the actions that can be taken.

The third step/ tertiary prevention is to completely infect the crop with mycotoxin. Then the first and second
valuation methods are not important when fully infected. When it happens, crops are often made to wholly destroy
or fully detoxify. This is done as these affected crops can cause huge health hazards. As an example, when peanut
oil extracted from poor quality peanuts, it may be containing aflatoxins which is concerned as a mycotoxin. So this
toxin should be eliminated by detoxification or complete destruction of contaminated oil. By these steps this health
hazard can be prevented.