BirdingASIA 1 (2004): 22–38

ID FORUM

Identification of Christmas Island,

Great and Lesser Frigatebirds
DAVID J. JAMES

Introduction Background
Frigatebirds rate amongst the most artful and The family Fregatidae contains five very similar
graceful of all flying creatures. With room to stretch species of frigatebirds, all in the genus Fregata. The
their wings, these large tropical seabirds are masters Oriental Region is the only region where three
of flight. Whether speeding and accelerating, species are regularly recorded together (Christmas
gliding, soaring, manoeuvring, hovering, or just Island, Great and Lesser). Apart from these three
playing, they are nothing short of spectacular. Their species, the Magnificent Frigatebird F. magnificens
feeding strategies are dramatic, including piratical occurs mostly along the tropical and subtropical
chasing and harrying of other seabirds, aerial coasts of the Americas, in the eastern Pacific and
pursuit-catching of flying fish, and hovering to pick western Atlantic, while the Ascension Frigatebird
up shoaling bait fish. And their courtship displays, F. aquila is largely restricted to the central Atlantic.
with clusters of males inflating their giant red gular These two species are not considered further here,
sacs, vibrating their bills and wings at females flying but Magnificent has been thoroughly compared
overhead, are truly something to behold. They are with Great by Howell (1994).
spectacular birds to watch, no matter what they Frigatebirds are mostly tropical and marginally
are doing. I hope that this article will help to widen subtropical seabirds. With their large size, long
appreciation and enjoyment of frigatebirds, and angular wings, and long, deeply forked tails, they
improve the documentation of their occurrence are easily recognised as frigatebirds. But
around the Orient. identification to species is a great challenge, thanks
Frigatebirds present a notorious problem for to the similarity between the species and the large
field identification, a situation described by number of different plumages within each species.
Harrison (1983) as “perhaps the most difficult Plumages are mostly black and white (with the
challenge of any seabird group”. This problem is notable exception of the tawny or rufous heads of
nowhere more acute than in the Oriental Region, immature birds), and the pattern of the underparts
where three species occur: Christmas Island is always most helpful in making identifications.
Frigatebird Fregata andrewsi, Great Frigatebird F. The bare parts of the face are often colourful,
minor and Lesser Frigatebird F. ariel. As a result of including the spectacular, bright red, inflatable
identification difficulties, the status and distribution gular pouches of adult males; bill and orbital ring
of frigatebirds remains a little confused in many colours can sometimes assist with an identification.
parts of the region. Although the species are all Detailed accounts of the identification of
rather similar, and each has many plumages, the frigatebirds are relatively few. Nelson’s review of
identification problems stem more from inadequate the biology of the family (Nelson 1976) included
information than from indistinguishable plumages. one of the earliest attempts to describe all the
This article attempts to set out characters that, plumages of the group, but his account was not
given reasonable viewing conditions, will allow the intended to solve the field identification issues. The
field identification of the three Asian species of first comprehensive identification account of any
frigatebird, and facilitate their ageing and sexing. substance was that of Harrison (1983). Although a
Existing characters are refined and new characters major turning point, minor inaccuracies and
are presented, while remaining knowledge-gaps in omissions in Harrison’s treatment have also
these areas are highlighted. Features thought to be introduced a share of confusion. In all fairness,
of limited assistance are largely ignored rather than Harrison made the greatest advance, while
discredited. Colour photographs illustrate 20 of the acknowledging that there was still much to be
24 plumages recognised here, as well as variation learned, but his model of plumage succession can
in some of these. New information is based on field now be improved upon. Howell (1994) provided a
and photographic studies made between 1997 and masterful comparison of Great and Magnificent
2004 at breeding stations in the Indian Ocean and Frigatebirds, but unfortunately it is of limited
the Coral Sea, and shipboard and coastal application in the Oriental Region. Howell’s model
observations in the seas of northern Australia, of plumage succession is comparable to the one
Papua New Guinea and the Sunda Shelf. presented here. Recent handbook accounts (del
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 23

Hoyo et al. 1992, Enticott et al. 1997, Marchant et distances from their colonies (Sibley et al. 1967,
al. 1990, Metz et al. 2002), have added very little Metz et al. 2002, Weimerskirch et al. 2003) and
new information, and in some instances have make regular use of non-breeding roost sites far
misreported the facts and introduced greater from their natal islands (Wells 1999).
confusion. As a consequence of insufficient The distributions of the three Oriental species are
information and space limitations, the flurry of summarised below, but a full review of their status
modern regional field guides in Asia and Australasia in each country is beyond the scope of this paper.
have had only limited success in addressing this Christmas Island Frigatebird breeds only on
challenging group, although many regional guides Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean, about
now treat adult plumages with competence. Most 360 km south of Java Head. The population is about
recently, Chalmers (2002) reviewed in detail the 2,000 pairs, plus perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 immature
field characters of juvenile plumages of the three birds. Despite being the rarest frigatebird in the
Oriental species. This was a significant advance, world, it is recorded in Indo-Malaysian seas with
addressing perhaps the biggest problem remaining regularity. The main foraging areas are on the
in frigatebird identification, but it only dealt with Sunda Shelf, including the Java, Natuna, southern
three of the 24 plumages seen in the three species. South China and eastern Andaman Seas.
Rather than build from previous works, this Westwards, vagrants have been reported from the
article will attempt to document the plumage Indian subcontinent and even Africa. They are very
sequences of frigatebirds as I have come to rare east of Java with only a few records from the
understand them from my own studies. In 1997 Lesser Sundas and New Guinea, and one from
and 1998, breeding surveys and photographic Darwin in Australia. Non-breeding birds make
studies were undertaken at the Herald Cays in the regular use of roost islands off western Thailand,
Coral Sea, where Great and Lesser both breed. From eastern Peninsular Malaysia and north-eastern
2002 to 2004 regular visits to Christmas Island in Sabah, at least (Wells 1999), which explains the
the Indian Ocean facilitated a complete survey of many sightings in the Sunda Region (see map in
nesting Christmas Island Frigatebird and partial BirdLife International 2001).
surveys of nesting Great Frigatebird. Numerous Great Frigatebird is a widespread breeder in the
shipboard and coastal observations, and brief visits tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Breeding
to other colonies in northern Australia, Papua New stations in the Oriental Region include Christmas
Guinea and the Sunda Shelf have provided Island (several thousand pairs), the Xisha
additional opportunities to test and refine Archipelago (Paracel Is) in the South China Sea,
identification criteria. About 1,000 photographs of and a handful of islands in the Banda Sea. It is
my own document almost every plumage, and I likely that visitors also originate from the Cocos-
have had the opportunity to examine almost as Keeling Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean,
many photographs again from colleagues in many Aldabra and other islands in the western Indian
parts of the world, to whom I am most grateful. Ocean, the Coral Sea off the east coast of Australia,
and numerous islands in the mid-Pacific (Feare
Distribution and status 1984, Dickinson et al. 1991, de Korte et al. 1994,
Frigatebirds are recorded with varying regularity Wells 1999). Perhaps surprisingly, they seem to
from all coastlines of the Oriental Region, be the least common of the three species in the
particularly within the tropics. However, there are Oriental Region, and only rarely make use of roost
only a handful of breeding stations actually within islands in South-East Asia (Wells 1999). However,
the Orient. Many of the records must therefore be they are more widely recorded than Christmas
of birds originating from breeding stations outside Island away from the Sunda Shelf.
the region, in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Lesser Frigatebird is also a widespread tropical
Frigatebirds are now known to disperse long breeder, mostly in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

3rd yr ƃ 4th yr ƃ Adult ƃ

Juvenile 2nd year

3rd yr Ƃ 4th yr Ƃ Adult Ƃ

Fig. 1. Model of plumage sequence and terminology for frigatebirds in the Oriental Region
 24 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

Plate 1 Plate 2
ALL PHOTOS: D. J. JAMES

Plate 3 Plate 4

Plate 1. Adult male and female Great Frigatebird Fregata Plate 2. Adult male Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata
minor. On the male, note the very faint alar bar. On the female, andrewsi. Note the egg-shaped white belly-patch. Only a small
note the diagnostic pale throat, moderately prominent alar proportion of adult males show white axillary spots like this.
bar, and blue orbital ring (latter diagnostic of South Pacific Note the reddish gular skin and black bill. Christmas Island,
populations). Herald Cays, Coral Sea, June 1997. Indian Ocean, February 2002.
Plate 3. Adult male Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. This is the Plate 4. Adult male Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel. Note the
only frigatebird plumage in the Oriental Region with no white bold white axillary spurs and otherwise all black underparts.
on the underparts. Adult males of all species have inflatable Herald Cays, Coral Sea, September 1998.
red gular pouches. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February
2002.
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 25

Plate 5 Plate 7

ALL PHOTOS: D. J. JAMES

Plate 6 Plate 8

Plate 5. Third-year male Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata Plate 7. Fourth-year male Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel.
andrewsi. This individual has a clearly defined white belly- Note the extensively white flanks and slight mottling on the
patch typical of older males. Note the female-like hood and breast (compare with Plates 4 and 8). Herald Cays, Coral Sea,
remnants of axillary spurs and breast-tabs, but the breast is on June 1997.
the way to being entirely black. The dark grey bill and red
Plate 8. Third-year male Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel. Note
gular skin are already visible, aiding the elimination of females
the extensively white flanks and upper breast, with black
(compare with Plate 16). Christmas Island, Indian Ocean,
mottling spreading on the rest of the underparts. There is an
February 2002.
evident hood, and although it is tawny, not black, it shows the
Plate 6. Fourth-year male Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. The shape of an adult female Lesser. The axillary spurs are
mottled white saddle on the breast is reminiscent of female atypically small on this individual. Compare with Plate 7.
Great (see Plates12 and 17), but the throat is dark. There are Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
no axillary spurs. More advanced individuals show heavier
mottling on the breast. Herald Cays, Coral Sea, June 1997.
26 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

In the Oriental Region there are only a few breeding plumages are deemed to have passed from age-
sites, probably on Christmas Island, possibly in class to the next when the moult between them
eastern Indonesia and the Xisha Archipelago, and has passed its midway point.
possibly formerly in the Malacca Strait (de Korte Despite this seemingly complicated situation,
et al. 1994, Wells 1999). Visitors probably originate ageing is a relatively straightforward process. A
from the Cocos-Keeling Islands in the eastern Indian simple system, using only the gross head and
Ocean, Aldabra and other islands in the western ventral patterns, can be applied for ageing all three
Indian Ocean, the Maldives, the Coral Sea off the species. In general terms, juveniles of both sexes
east coast of Australia, and numerous islands in have tawny-coloured heads (which bleach rapidly),
the mid-Pacific (Sibley et al. 1967, Feare 1984, de broad blackish breast-bands, and clean white
Korte et al. 1994, Wells 1999). This is apparently bellies. Second-year birds lose the breast-band
the most common species at mixed roost islands gradually from the centre outwards (often showing
around the Malay Peninsula and Borneo (Wells blackish tabs or blotches on the sides of the breast)
1999), and the most widely recorded species in the to show extensively white underparts and a pale
Oriental Region. head. They cannot be sexed in most cases. In the
third year, males and females begin to differ in
Identification plumage, when a hint of the incipient adult
plumage can be discerned. Areas of the head and
Moult, ageing and sexing ventral surfaces that are white in juveniles and
Accurate ageing of frigatebirds is an essential step black in adults become increasingly flecked and
in the identification process that cannot be omitted. mottled with black. At this stage, females are
For instance, juveniles of one species look more typically white, mottled with black on the head
like juveniles of other species than like adults of and belly while the breast remains cleanly white.
their own species, and adult females are more like Meanwhile, males start to show black mottling on
females of other species than they are like males the head and belly, but also on the breast. This
or juveniles of their own species. Therefore, it is replacement of white with black continues
necessary to age and sex each bird in the process gradually, and fourth-years show an adult-like
of narrowing down the contenders. Fortunately, plumage of their respective sex except for tell-tale
as described below, the three species show parallel signs of immaturity such as white mottling on the
patterns of progression from the first or juvenile head and underparts. By this stage, adult bare part
plumage to the fifth or adult plumage, even though colours are evident, including the red inflatable
the moults that introduce these plumages (or age- gular pouches of males. Adults have cleanly
classes) are poorly understood. demarcated black and white areas on the
Frigatebirds apparently have one moult per underparts, usually without mottling. Adult males
cycle (or year), in which all the feathers are are mostly black, although some species have small
replaced once, and there are no partial moults. white areas on the underparts. Adult females are
However, it is a so-called wave moult (or more extensively white below (Plate 1).
Staffelmauser), which is protracted, not necessarily
tightly synchronised to season or between Size
individuals, often progresses in an irregular and All species show so-called reverse sexual
asymmetrical manner, and may be punctuated by dimorphism, females being noticeably larger than
periodic interruptions. Consequently, there is a males. This is most pronounced in Christmas Island
slow and gradual progression from one plumage and least pronounced in Lesser. The largest species
to the next, which can make ageing difficult. in the region is Christmas Island. Great averages
Nevertheless, at breeding stations, five age-classes substantially smaller than Christmas Island but
can be recognised at any one time. These age- shows considerable geographical variation in size,
classes appear to represent adults and four cohorts and there is some overlap between the smallest
of pre-adult birds. They probably coincide with male Christmas Island and largest female Great.
year-classes, although there is little corroborative Lesser is considerably smaller than Great and is
evidence (e.g. from ringing studies) to confirm this. dwarfed by Christmas Island. Because of the sexual
In addition, the last three age-classes in the dimorphism, male Great is a little larger than female
sequence are sexually dimorphic. This gives a total Lesser, while female Great dwarfs male Lesser.
of eight distinguishable post-fledging plumages for Datasets of measurements of frigatebirds are
each species: juvenile, second-year, male and remarkably few and mostly involve quite small
female third-year, male and female fourth-year, and sample sizes. Some recent reviews of
male and female adult plumages. These plumage measurements have erroneously implied that
sequences are summarised in Fig. 1. Herein, Christmas Island and Great are similar in size. In
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 27

Table 1. Mean measurements of frigatebirds from various localities

Note that all measurements are means only. Measurement techniques vary slightly between sources. Wingspan data have
been omitted because available samples are not representative. All measurements are in millimetres.
Measure Christmas Island Great Lesser Location Reference
male female male female male female

Length 907 999 863 932 Christmas I., IO Gibson-Hill 1947

Wing 610 650 565 587 Christmas I., IO Gibson-Hill 1947
Wing 616 648 563 587 Christmas I., IO Nelson 1976
Wing 608 610 538 553 Aldabra I. Nelson 1976
Wing 582 607 536 547 Cocos-Keeling Is Gibson-Hill 1950
Wing 582 607 534 547 Coral Sea Nelson 1976
Wing 589 606 French Frigate Shoals Metz et al. 2002
Wing 555 577 Christmas I., PO Metz et al. 2002
Culmen 111 132 96 113 Christmas I., IO Nelson 1976
Culmen 104 117 80 87 Aldabra I. Nelson 1976
Culmen 102 116 82 89 Cocos-Keeling Is. Gibson-Hill 1950
Culmen 102 116 83 88 Coral Sea Nelson 1976

Table 1, mean measurements of total length, wing The presence or absence of white spurs in the axillary
cord and exposed culmen are compared for region. These are white wedge-shaped marks
different species, populations and sexes. These data protruding from the body onto the underwing. They
are not definitive, but they do demonstrate are present in Lesser in all plumages, Christmas
significant mean differences between the species. Island in all plumages but not all individuals, and
In the field, size differences are not likely to be Great only in a proportion of juveniles. If present
safely judged on lone individuals, especially at it is important to note the shape of the spurs
distance. However, in mixed flocks the size (triangular or parallel-sided); their location on the
differences can be readily apparent and of great underwing (near the centre or towards the leading
help. Comparative bill length can be quite helpful, edge); the direction they run in (perpendicular to
particularly on perched birds. Christmas Island has the body or angling forward); and whether or not
a much longer bill than Great, which in turn has a they are isolated from white areas on the
longer bill than Lesser. However, within species, underbody.
females have longer bills than males, so there is
overlap in the ranges of different species. Whether there is a dark breast-band. If there is a
pale head and white breast separated by a black
Plumage characters breast-band, then the bird is a juvenile, and the
The plumages of frigatebirds are mostly black (to shape of the belly-patch and axillary spurs is
dark brown) and white, or nearly all black, with diagnostic. Note the shape of the white belly-patch
the exception that juveniles can have tawny head (round to oval, triangular with the base formed by
feathers. The most useful features for identification the breast-band and the peak pointing to the rear,
of frigatebirds are the plumage patterns of the or diamond-shaped). If there are axillary spurs, note
ventral surfaces and head. Features to make note whether they extend from near the front or the
of on all birds include: middle of the belly-patch.

The shape of any white patch(es) on the underparts. The colour and pattern of the head. The head
Note in detail the shape, location and extent of all provides the first clues for ageing and sexing
white plumage on the ventral surface, and how it frigatebirds and is sometimes diagnostic of species.
relates to black on the underparts. Bear in mind that Juveniles and second-years have tawny, bleached
the underbody is not flat but curved. This presents buff or white heads. Adults have black heads
two problems: (1) patterns can appear to differ (except for the paler throat of female Great). Third-
according to the angle from which they are viewed; and fourth-year birds have mottled black-and-pale
and (2) the patterns tend to be comprehended and heads. Note whether the bird has a black hood and,
described as flat projections rather than the curved if it does, note its shape, particularly on the throat.
projections that they actually are (similar to mapping Look for white hind-collars.
the land masses of a globe on flat paper).
 28 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

Plate 9 Plate 11
ALL PHOTOS: D. J. JAMES

Plate 10 Plate 12

Plate 9. Adult female Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata Plate 11. Adult female Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata
andrewsi. Note the vertical demarcation between the black andrewsi. Note the white collar (incomplete in this case),
hood and the white underparts, the black breast-tabs, white prominent alar bars and pink bill. Compare with Plates 1 and
axillary spurs and white belly. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, 13. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
February 2002.
Plate 12. Adult female Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. Note
Plate 10. Adult female Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata how the pale throat and lack of a bold white hind-collar
andrewsi. Note the prominent alar bar and the location of the produce a diagonal demarcation between black and white on
axillary spur close to the leading edge of the underwing. the side of the head. The broadly rounded, saddle-shaped
Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002. white breast and flanks and broadly rounded black belly-
point are diagnostic of Great. The dirty wash on the white
breast is typical of many adult female Great and is not an
indication of immaturity (compare with Plate 17). Christmas
Island, Indian Ocean, September 2002.
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 29

Plate 13

Plate 15

ALL PHOTOS: D. J. JAMES

Plate 14 Plate 16

Plate 13. Adult female Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. Note Plate 15. Fourth-year female Christmas Island Frigatebird
the light brown hind-collar, and moderately prominent, Fregata andrewsi. Note the adult-like dark throat, white belly
narrow, brownish alar bars. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, and axillary spurs, black breast-tabs (compare with Plate 14)
May 2002. and pink bill. The white mottling on the throat is the last trace
of immaturity. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
Plate 14. Adult female Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel. Note
the white axillary spurs and all-black hood including throat. Plate 16. Third-year female Christmas Island Frigatebird
The black belly-point and absence of black breast-tabs Fregata andrewsi. Note the pink bill, indicative of older
distinguish this bird from adult female Christmas. Herald Cays, females. The white axillary spurs and hind-collar, and the black
Coral Sea, June 1997. breast-tabs, though messy, are strongly evident, indicating
this is a female (compare with Plate 5). The breast-tabs and
white belly separate from similar stages of Lesser (compare
with Plate 19). Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
30 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

Whether there is any mottled plumage. The presence patch. Lesser (Plate 4) is always entirely black on
of mottled black-and-white plumage on the head the underside except for white axillary spurs. These
and underbody is usually a sign of immaturity. spurs are quite small and distinctly triangular. The
Document the extent of any mottling. Also note peak of the triangle points directly out along the
whether the demarcation between black and white wing. The spurs are located roughly midway
on the underparts and head is crisp or blurred. between the leading and trailing edge of the wing.
Great (Plate 3) is almost entirely blackish below,
The prominence of the alar bars. Most frigatebirds except for thin and subtle pale barring or scalloping
have a pale alar bar of varying prominence on the on the axillaries which is only evident at close
upperwing, formed by broad pale edges to some of range. This never looks like a white spur.
the upperwing-coverts. The alar bar runs diagonally The upper surfaces of all three are mostly black,
inwards and backwards across the secondary coverts with a metallic gloss on the mantle and scapulars.
from the leading edge just inside the carpal, and This is greenish on Christmas Island and Great
peters out well before reaching the trailing edge and (though a little stronger on Christmas Island) and
base of the wing. In general the alar bar is more varies from greenish to purplish on Lesser. Gloss
prominent in juveniles than in adults of a given is only visible at close range and unreliable for
species, more prominent in females than in males identification. Christmas Island always shows a
of a given age and species, and more prominent in moderately prominent pale alar bar. Great usually
Christmas Island than in Great or Lesser. Alar bars has a faint to moderate alar bar (Plate 1), although
may be slightly diminished by wear, but they also it is said to be lacking in Greats from Aldabra Island
vary between individuals of the same species, sex (Diamond 1975), and this might also be true of
and age. They are especially useful in identifying other Indian Ocean populations. In Lesser the alar
perched juveniles. bar varies from moderate to absent, between and
possibly within populations.
Colours of bare parts When perched, Christmas Island shows a slight
Adult and subadult female frigatebirds have either shaggy rear crest formed by lanceolate crown
pink or blue-grey bills and either red or blue orbital feathers. The other species lack this feature. Bills
rings. The combination of these colours can be and orbital rings of all species are black to dark grey.
diagnostic of subspecies as well as species, although
they are only visible at close ranges. For males and Adult females
juveniles, the colours of bare parts provide little Females have a dark upper surface (except for alar
assistance for field identification. Harrison (1983) bars), an all or mostly black head, and a white breast.
suggested that foot colour is useful, but this is rarely The pattern of the under surface is always diagnostic.
visible in the field and rarely has diagnostic value, Christmas Island (Plates 9–11) and Lesser
especially for juveniles. (Plate 14) both have an all-black head. The black
throat of both has a peak in the centre that points
Adult males back towards the breast. On both species there is a
Adult males of all three species are mostly black clean white collar across the back of the neck,
or blackish, but the pattern of the underside is separating the black head and mantle. The lower
always diagnostic. neck and breast are also white, which makes for a
Christmas Island (Plate 2) always has an egg- clean, vertical line of demarcation (on flying birds)
shaped white patch on the belly, with the larger between the black head and the white breast and
end facing the breast. The patch appears to vary in hind-collar. Thus, both Christmas Island and Lesser
shape slightly depending upon the angle of view, appear completely hooded. Occasionally the hind-
looking more elliptical when viewed from behind collar is narrowly incomplete on Christmas Island,
and more semi-circular (with the straight edge but the vertically demarcated hood is always
towards the breast) when viewed from in front. In apparent. Conversely, Great (Plates 1, 13 and 14)
favourable conditions this patch is readily visible has a greyish or mottled throat and lacks a clean
at hundreds of metres. Christmas Island is the only hind-collar. On flying birds there is an obvious
species of frigatebird in which the adult males show diagonal line of demarcation between the black top
any white on the belly, making this one of the of the head and the paler underside. The
easiest plumages to recognise in the entire genus. demarcation line (on flying birds) runs diagonally
A small percentage of Christmas Island show an backwards and up from the chin to the upper side
irregular white spot in the (subhumeral) coverts of the neck. When they are overhead, the black
of the underwing close to the body and the leading throats of Christmas Island and Lesser versus the
edge (isolated from the white belly-patch) or a hint paler, vaguely defined and sullied throat of Great
of axillary spurs off the widest part of their belly- are quite easily discerned.
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 31

Christmas Island and Lesser are best separated prominent than Great’s but less prominent than
on the belly pattern. Lesser has a white breast and Christmas Island’s.
black belly. The black belly extends forward as a On perched birds the grey throat of Great
rounded point, leaving the rear flanks white. On (Plate 1) is readily apparent and diagnostic. The
Christmas Island the breast and belly are both black hoods of Christmas Island and Lesser are
white, with only the undertail-coverts and vent similar, but the very long bill of Christmas Island
black (behind the legs). In the demarcation between dwarfs that of Lesser. The black belly of Lesser or
black and white, the white is convex on Christmas white belly of Christmas Island will not always be
Island, concave on Lesser. Both Christmas Island evident on perched birds. Female Christmas Island
and Lesser always show axillary spurs. On Lesser, has a shaggy rear crest like the male Christmas
the spurs originate from a broad base on the flanks, Island, and unlike any plumage of the other two
and are partly behind the forwardmost point of the species. Female Christmas Island also has bright
black belly. They are triangular and point out orange gular skin that is often visible in flight and
straight along the wing, close to its midline. On on perched birds. At the nest, this is sometimes
Christmas Island the spurs are larger, more parallel- inflated into a pouch about the size of a tennis
edged and squarer-ended. They originate from a ball, a feature unique amongst female frigatebirds.
narrower base on the sides of the breast, just Female Christmas Island has a bright pink bill
forward of the centre line of the wing, but angle and red orbital ring throughout the year. The bare
forwards and outwards to terminate near the parts of Great differ significantly across the range:
leading edge. On Christmas Island there is also a in the western Indian Ocean, South China Sea and
broad black tab on the side of the breast, outlined Cocos-Keeling Islands the bill is pink (brighter in
by the spur and the white side of the neck. This the breeding season) and the orbital ring is red; at
tab angles back and inwards. Occasionally the spur Christmas Island the bill is blue-grey and the orbital
of Christmas Island is reduced to a series of ragged ring red; in the South Pacific both the bill and the
spots or a single white spot on the inner underwing- orbital ring are blue-grey; and in the North Pacific
coverts, isolated from the white underbody. Lesser the bill can be either pink or blue-grey, but the
never shows a pattern like this. Great has a black orbital ring is always red. Most populations of
belly pattern similar to Lesser, but the black belly Lesser are dimorphic in bill colour (either pink or
is more widely rounded at its anterior point, and blue-grey) with red orbital rings, but it is reported
the white flanks are much more rounded, extending that some have blue-grey orbital rings on Aldabra
in a saddle shape around the belly-point. The white Island (Diamond 1975).
on the flanks, though broad, appears more confined
than it does on Lesser, because there are no axillary Juveniles (first-year birds)
spurs. Conversely, on Lesser the spurs combine Juveniles have a complete or nearly complete dark
with the flanks to form a much larger and less breast-band, a white belly, and a pale head (tawny
confined white shape that the belly-patch points when fresh, fading to white). They cannot be sexed
into. The upper breast of Great is often smudged on present knowledge. The breast-band is partly
with grey and rufous, which is not a sign of black with varying amounts of rufous or dark
immaturity. Some Lesser may show a little tawny chestnut feathers towards the centre on the anterior
wash on the breast, but this is not typical. edge, but usually appears all black in flight. The
The upperparts of all three are largely blackish, shape of the white belly-patch below the breast-
with some greenish gloss on the mantle and band, and any axillary spurs joined to it, are
scapulars, although less than males show. Again, diagnostic in combination. However, care must be
it is more prominent in Christmas Island than the taken when assessing the shape of the belly-patch,
others. Christmas Island (Plate 11) and Lesser both as it can appear slightly different if viewed from
show a white hind-collar (occasionally narrowly front-on versus the side or rear. The breast-band
incomplete in Christmas Island). Great tends to appears to be of limited assistance in identification.
show a slightly paler brown mantle with no gloss The white belly-patch of Lesser (Plate 30) is
(Plate 13), visible only in close views. Christmas roughly triangular with a rounded, narrow peak
Island occasionally shows an isolated white spot pointing rearwards and almost straight base
on the inner upperwing-coverts (usually just one bordering the black breast-band. The axillary spurs
feather), forward (inside) of the alar bar, which is originate from the two anterior basal corners of
presumably diagnostic. All three species always the triangle, which places them in line with the
show alar bars. On Christmas Island, these are very front of the belly-patch. The spurs originate from
prominent, relatively broad and whitish. On Great the front corners of the triangle. As with adults,
they are moderately prominent, relatively narrower the spurs originate at the midline of the wing, but
and brownish. Lesser has alar bars that are more they are narrower, more parallel-edged, and angled
 32 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

Plate 17 Plate 19
ALL PHOTOS: D. J. JAMES

Plate 18 Plate 20
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 33

Plate 21

Plate 23 Plate 22

Plate 17. Fourth-year female Great Frigatebird Fregata minor.

Unlike adult female Great (see Plate 12), the white mottling on
the black belly indicates this individual is not quite mature.
Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
Plate 18. Third-year female Great Frigatebird Fregata minor.
The black belly, mottled with white, and the extensive sullying
on the whitish flanks indicate immaturity. The first signs of
black feathers replacing buff feathers are indicative of a bird

ALL PHOTOS: D. J. JAMES

in transition from second to third year. The rounded whitish
flanks wrapping around the black belly-point in a broad
saddle shape is typical of female plumages of Great from the
third year on. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
Plate 19. Fourth-year female Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel.
Note how the broad bases to the triangular axillary spurs
originate off the flanks, and create a much larger area of white
on the sides of the underbody, compared with female Great
(compare with Plates 12, 17 and 18). Note the diagnostic black Plate 24
ring around the neck at the base of the hood. The black belly- rounded rear edge to the white flanks almost certainly
point is fully developed, eliminating female Christmas. Herald identify this bird as a Great. Compare the flank pattern with
Cays, Coral Sea, June 1997. Plate 20. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
Plate 20. Second-year Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata Plate 22. Fresh juvenile Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata
andrewsi. In the early part of their second year, some andrewsi. Note that the narrow, parallel-edged axillary spurs
Christmas Island lack axillary spurs, but typically show broad angle slightly forwards from near the front of the white belly-
black breast-tabs, angling forwards toward the centre of the patch. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, September 2002.
breast. Note the patches of fresh buff feathers on the head,
typical of all species moulting from juvenile to second-year Plate 23. Fresh juvenile Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata
plumage. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002. andrewsi. Note the absence of axillary spurs, a feature of a small
proportion of juvenile Christmas Island. The angular, rather than
Plate 21. Second-year presumed Great Frigatebird Fregata rounded, front and squarish sides of the white belly-patch
minor. The combination of buff head and no dark breast-band eliminate juvenile Great Frigatebird F. minor (compare Plate 27).
is diagnostic of second-year plumages. In the absence of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, September 2002.
axillary spurs and breast-tabs, second-year Christmas Island
and Great are extremely difficult to separate on present Plate 24. Worn juvenile Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata
knowledge. The presence of black mottling on the belly andrewsi. Note the broad and whitish alar bars. Christmas
(outlining an incipient black belly-point), and the consequent Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002.
34 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

slightly forward. Great have an elliptical to egg- of Christmas Island (Plate 29). Considerable
shaped belly-patch with the narrower end towards variability within species in the prominence of the
the rear (Plate 27). Most importantly, the front edge bar, perhaps related to sexual differences, makes
of the patch is distinctly rounded. Care should be it a difficult feature to judge without experience.
taken with side views, when the rear of the patch Some Christmas Island have a small spot of pure
can look narrower and more pointed than it does white feathers on the inner upperwing-coverts,
when it is overhead (and thus more like Lesser). inside the alar bar, which is diagnostic.
About a third of juvenile Greats have small axillary Bill, orbital ring and foot colours vary from very
spurs, but these always come off the widest part pale blue to very pale pink. Owing to the poorly
of the patch, distinctly behind both the front edge known influences of geographical variation, it is
of the belly-patch and breast-band (Plate 28). When not possible to define any consistent differences
spurs are present, they are near the midline of the between species at this time.
wing and point directly out. Most often they are When perched, the extremely long bill of
blunt-ended, but rarely they are pointed or have Christmas Island is often, but not always, very
an ‘island’ off the end of a ‘peninsula’. They rarely, obvious (Plates 25–26). However, all frigatebirds
if ever, extend onto the underside of the wing, have long bills and this is another feature difficult
although it can be difficult to judge where they to judge in isolation.
end. Most Christmas Island show prominent
axillary spurs, which are long, narrow and parallel- Second-year birds
sided, noticeably closer to the leading edge than Second-year birds may be the hardest age group to
the trailing edge of the wing, and angled distinctly identify on present knowledge, and more
forwards (Plate 22). Often the spurs are mottled information is needed about this age-class in all
with black and sometimes they are ragged, broken species. Generally, they are quite similar to
up or represented only by an isolated spot on the juveniles of their respective species, but they
inner underwing-coverts (the subhumerals). gradually lose the dark juvenile breast-band. During
Rarely, Christmas Island lacks axillary spurs (Plate the first moult, the breast-band gradually retreats
23), and such birds are very difficult to distinguish from the centre outwards, and in intermediate
from Great. In the absence of spurs, the belly stages many birds show incomplete dark tabs on
pattern of Christmas Island tends to be almost the sides of the breast, while others show scattered
hexagonal in shape, with rather squarish sides and blotches of black and faded buff. The tawny
a slightly angular front edge. The white patch of feathers of the head are renewed at least once, but
Great is evenly rounded at the front, so the rear this is gradual. Before the last head feathers have
margin of the breast-band is concave. Conversely, been replaced the first ones have already bleached,
on Christmas Island, the white patch tends to so they never regain the bright tawny, almost
narrow in a way that makes the rear edge of the orange, head that fresh juveniles display.
breast-band look like two convex arcs meeting at Apparently all species can temporarily show a
a shallow angle in the centre of the breast. These poorly defined buff throat, extending as a pointed
differences are subtle, but usually combine to bib towards the upper breast. Meanwhile, few other
provide quite different overall patterns, although changes take place and the features which best
they are difficult to describe and subject to separate species and sexes are not well developed.
misinterpretation if assessed from other than As Great (Plate 21) lose the breast-band those
directly below. On both species the white belly 30% or so that had axillary spurs as juveniles
extends back to about the base of the legs, and the quickly lose them, never to be regained. Thus any
feet tend to obscure the boundary between black frigatebird with a pale head and axillary spurs, but
and white. In both species, the black may extend without a complete breast-band, is not a Great. The
slightly forward of the feet or the white may extend lower belly becomes a little mottled with black,
slightly behind the feet. On average, the white showing a sketchy outline of a black belly-point
extends slightly further rearwards on Christmas reminiscent of adult female Great. Lesser tends to
Island, but the variation and overlap render this lose the breast-band more rapidly and tends not to
an unreliable field character. show lingering tabs on the side of the breast. The
On the upperparts, juveniles are blackish-brown axillary spurs remain as prominent triangles. The
and lack the metallic gloss of adults. The alar bars head often shows a peppery pattern hinting at the
are conspicuous on all three species. Christmas hood of adult females, and a black belly-point
Island always has extremely prominent alar bars reminiscent of adult females becomes apparent.
that often look dazzlingly white (Plates 24–25). Christmas Island (Plate 20) loses the breast-band
Great and Lesser have quite prominent alar bars most gradually, and almost always retains
but they tend to be buffy and not as white as those prominent, very broad black tabs on the side of
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 35

the breast. Many seem to lose their axillary spurs flank-patches narrow. By their fourth year, Great
temporarily, making separation from Great are all dark like adult males except for a mostly
extremely difficult. However, they never develop black lower breast (and sometimes flanks),
any hint of a black belly-point. distinctly mottled with white or grey (Plate 6).
The alar bars of Christmas Island remain more Third-year Lesser (Plate 7) initially resemble
prominent on average than on the other two. adult female Lesser, but the belly-point is broader
Female Greats from populations with red orbital and less neatly defined than a female’s, and black
rings can show a pale red orbital ring at this age, mottling sullies the mostly white breast. The
and it is unlikely that any change would be evident axillary spurs remain obvious and large. They have
in Greats from populations where females have blue a dark hood but it is not sharply defined. White
orbital rings. It is likely that Lesser do the same, mottling may be present on the head and the black
but Christmas Island apparently do not show any belly-point. Black gradually encroaches outwards
red in the orbital ring until the third year. from the centre of the belly and forwards from the
breast to the head. By their fourth year they
Third- and fourth-year males resemble adult males with only a little white
With the second moult, young frigatebirds start mottling on the upper breast and, occasionally,
showing a hint of the pattern of adults, by gaining white mottling on the flanks at the base of the spurs.
more black feathering on the head and underparts.
As a rule, a mottled shadow of the adult female Third- and fourth-year females
plumage can be discerned, but males develop black Like males, third-year females develop the outline
plumage in places where females remain white. of the plumage patterns seen in adults, but remain
By the fourth year, young males closely resemble mottled in places where they will eventually be
their respective adult plumages, and the uniformly black. Unlike third-year males, they show
distinguishing features of adults are well virtually no black mottling outside the places where
established. Telltale signs of immaturity persist in adult females are black, and tend to have a sharper
the form of white mottling on the head or demarcation between black and white on the
underparts. Many birds breed in subadult plumage, underparts. By their fourth year they resemble adult
and it may be that it lingers for more than one females but for traces of mottling. In the third year,
year. Alar bars are like adults’. Gular pouches are faded versions of adult bare-part colours are
formed and inflatable, but tend to be a little smaller evident, and by the fourth year these are nearly as
and less vividly coloured than those of adults. Bills bright as adults. In populations where bills are pink
and orbital rings are black or grey like adult males’, and/or orbital rings are red the development of
except that Christmas Island have red orbital rings adult coloration is more apparent than in
like their adult females. Both these age-classes are populations where they are blue-grey.
seen comparatively rarely, so while the sequences Third-year Christmas Island (Plate 16) show a
described below may be typical, it is not yet certain white belly, a patchy black and white breast and a
how much variation occurs. mostly black head. Black tabs on the side of the
In third-year Christmas Island (Plate 5), the breast are usually ragged, and sandwiched between
head becomes mottled with black (in a pattern like the lightly mottled axillary spur and the side of
the hood of adult females), the white belly sharply neck. Often, the top of the head is paler, forming a
defined, and the breast lightly mottled with black. ‘skullcap’. The bill is already obviously pink, a
Clear black tabs (without any mottling) on the sides useful character for separating them from third-
of the breast become sandwiched between heavy year male Christmas Island. By the fourth year they
black mottling on the remnants of the axillary spur resemble adult females, but with some white
and the formerly white sides of neck. At this point flecking on the head and some remnant black
they are most easily sexed from female Christmas blotching around the edges of the breast-tabs
Island of the same age by a dark rather than pink (Plate 15).
bill, and the already red gular skin. By the fourth Third-year Great (Plate 16) show a white to pale
year, they differ from adult males only by sparse buff top of the head, with sparse black flecking,
white mottling on the black breast. and a broad black belly-point with some white
In their third year, male Great appear similar mottling. An adult female-like pattern of white
to adult female Great, with an evident outline of breast and flanks surrounding the belly-point is
adult female plumage. However, white mottling fully developed, but usually there is a little black
persists on the head and belly-point, and black mottling on the flanks. The breast is messily
mottling begins to sully the breast and flanks. The washed with dirty buff. Unlike males, the
throat becomes much darker than on females of demarcation of the belly-point is clear, and black
any age. As the belly-point broadens the mottled mottling is not prominent on the upper breast. By
 36 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds
M. J. CARTER

D. J. JAMES
Plate 25 Plate 28

D. J. JAMES
D. J. JAMES

Plate 26 Plate 29

F. KRISTO, COURTESY ENVIRONMENT AUSTRALIA

D. J. JAMES

Plate 27 Plate 30

Plate 25. Worn juvenile Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata Plate 28. Juvenile Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. This individual
andrewsi. Note the relatively long bill and the broad white shows “‘well developed “axillary spurs. Note that they originate
fringes to the upperwing-coverts forming an extremely from well behind the front of the belly-patch, and do not extend
prominent whitish alar bar (compare with Plate 29). The onto the underwing. The breast-band appears entirely black,
mantle is brownish and lacks extensive gloss. Christmas although it is partly tawny. Compare with Plate 22 and Plate 27.
Island, Indian Ocean, March 2002. Herald Cays, Coral Sea, June 1997.
Plate 26. Worn juvenile Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata Plate 29. Worn juvenile Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. Note
andrewsi. Note the long axillary spur, the relatively long bill, the relatively short bill, and narrower and browner alar bars
and the new (second-year) buff feathers on the upper breast. compared with Christmas Island (Plate 25). Although this bird is
Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, May 2002. more worn than the one in Plate 25, wear only accounts for a
little of the difference between their alar bars. This is probably a
Plate 27. Juvenile Great Frigatebird Fregata minor. This bird
male. Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, September 2002.
shows the most typical pattern of an egg-shaped white belly-
patch and no axillary spurs (compare with Plate 23 and Plate Plate 30. Juvenile Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel. Note the
28). The breast-band is composed of both black and tawny prominent axillary spurs originating from the front corners of
feathers, but it will usually appear black in the field. Christmas an almost triangular white belly-patch (the belly-patch
Island, Indian Ocean, February 2002. appears more triangular when viewed from directly below).
Compare with Plate 28. Herald Cays, Coral Sea, February 1993.
BirdingASIA 1 (2004) 37

Table 2. Summary of important identification characters of frigatebirds

Sex and age Christmas Island Frigatebird Great Frigatebird Lesser Frigatebird

Male, adult and 4th year. Belly with oval white patch. Underparts all dark. No Underparts black, except:
Black head and upperparts. Axillary spurs in some. Alar axillary spurs. Alar bars Axillary spurs white. Alar
Some spp have clean white bars moderately prominent. slight to absent. Crest bars slight to absent.
marks on underparts. Large Crest shaggy (when perched). absent. 4th year has Crest absent. 4th year
red inflatable gular sacs 4th year has white mottling white mottling on has white mottling on
when breeding on throat/ breast. breast. breast.

Male, 3rd year. Underparts Belly extensively white. Belly with black point. Belly with black point.
resemble adult female of Axillary spurs mottled. Axillary spurs absent. Axillary spurs clear.
respective species, but white Breast tabs evident, mottled. Breast tabs absent. Breast tabs absent.
mottling where females black, Orbital ring red. Orbital ring dark. Orbital ring dark.
black mottling where females
white. Bills, blackish.

2nd year. Buff or white head. Breast tabs black. Belly white, Breast tabs absent. Belly Breast tabs absent. Belly
Mostly white underparts. without outline of black belly with mottled outline of with mottled black point.
Breast band absent or point. Axillary spurs present black belly point. Axillary spurs present
remnant. (parallel-sided, angled slightly Axillary spurs absent. (triangular, angled
forwards) or absent. Alar bars Alar bars moderate, buff. outwards. Alar bars
prominent, whitish. Bill very long. Bill moderately long. moderate, buff. Bill shorter.

Juvenile. Buff or white heads. White belly patch hexagonal. White belly patch White belly patch triangular.
Mostly white underparts. Axillary spurs usually present elliptical. Axillary spurs Axillary spurs present
Breast band dark, prominent. (parallel-sided, angled slightly present in 30 % (short, (parallel-sided, or triangular,
forwards), rarely absent. Spurs angled outwards). Spurs angled outwards). Spurs
originate behind line of breast originate well behind originate near line of breast
band. Alar bars very prominent, line of breast band. Alar band. Alar bars moderate,
whitish. Bill very long. bars moderate, buff. buff. Bill shorter.
Bill moderately long.

Female, 3rd year. Underparts Throat black.Lower belly white. Throat pale, sullied. Black ring round neck.
resemble adult female of Axillary spurs mottled. Breast Lower belly with Lower belly with mottled
respective species, but white tabs evident, mottled. mottled black point. black point. Axillary spurs
mottling where females black. Bill bright pink. Axillary spurs absent. prominent, triangular.
Lack black mottling where Breast tabs absent. Breast tabs absent.
females white and 3rd year Bill pale. Bill pale.
males mottled.

Female, adult and 4th year. Throat black. Hind-collar Throat pale, sullied. Throat black. Hind-collar
Mostly dark upperparts and white, distinct. Demarcation Hind-collar brown, white, distinct. Demarcation
heads. Extensively white of hood vertical. Belly white. indistinct. Demarcation of hood vertical. Belly
underparts. Brightly coloured Axillary spurs, white, of hood diagonal. Belly with black point. Axillary
bills and orbital rings. parallel-sided, angled forwards. with black point. Axillary spurs, white, triangular,
Breast tabs black. Alar bars broad, spurs absent. Breast tabs angled outwards. Breast
whitish. Crest shaggy (when absent. Alar bars narrow, tabs absent. Alar bars
perched). Pink bill. 4th year has brown. Crest absent. moderate, whitish. Crest
white mottling on head. Pink or blue bill. 4th absent. Pink or blue bill.
year has white 4th year has white
mottling on head. mottling on head.
38 Identification of Christmas Island, Great and Lesser Frigatebirds

the fourth year they are very similar to adult females References
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David J. James, Parks Australia North, P.O. Box 867,
Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, WA, 6798, Australia.
E-mail: [email protected]