Science  An electron is imagined to be a

Electronic Structure of Matter cloud of negative charge having a

(Summary) geometrical shape. The electrons
 Rutherford’s nuclear atomic are arranged in principal or main
model describes the atoms as energy levels that consist of one
mostly empty space . However, it or more sublevels .
could not explain the chemical  The way in which electrons are
properties of elements. distributed in the different orbitals
 Bohr’s atomic model describes around the nucleus of an atom is
the atom like the solar system , called the electron configuration .
where the electron is found only in Filling the electrons start from
specific circular paths, or orbits lower energy level to highest
around the nucleus . energy level.
 In the Bohr model, each electron
carries a fixed amount of energy
as long as it stays in its given
orbit. The fixed energies that the Chemical Bonding
electrons have are called energy
levels. An electron that has Valence Electrons – electrons that are
received enough energy can jump directly involved in forming bonds to form
to a higher energy level . When the compounds. Its important to know that
electron returns to a lower energy metals have low electronegativity and
level, energy is emitted in the form non-metals have high electronegativity
of light. because his property plays an important
role in forming compounds.
 The Bohr model was later
replaced by a model of atom that
Electronegativity – it is the measure of
showed that electrons are not
the tendency of an atom to attract
limited to fixed orbits around the
electrons, the higher its value, the higher
nucleus.
its tendency to attract electrons; What is
 Through mathematical Ionization energy? It is the energy that is
calculations, scientists explained needed to pull or remove one or more
that there is only a probability that electrons/s from a neutral atom, the lower
the electron can be found in a the ionization energy the easier it is to
certain volume in space around remove its valence electrons.
the nucleus. This volume or region
of space around the nucleus Electron Distribution
where the electron is most likely to
be found is called an atomic
orbital.
 Schrodinger formulated a
mathematical equation that
describes the behavior of the
electron. The solution to the
equation is used to calculate the
probability of finding the electron
at a particular region in space
around the nucleus.
 The quantum mechanical model
of an atom describes the atom as Transfer of Electrons
having a nucleus at the center
around which the electrons move .
This model describes a region in
space where the electron is most
likely to be found .
 Ionic Bonds
 Electronegativity Difference:
Above 1.9
 An ionic bond involves complete
transfer of electrons; thus, ions
are formed. It involves metal with
low electronegativity and non-
metals with high electronegativity.
 Ionic compounds conduct
electricity when in solution but not
If electronegativity difference is greater in solid phase.
than 1.9, complete transfer electron/s is  Ionic compounds are generally
possible. (use arrow to transfer) soluble in water and in polar
solvents.
Sharing of Electrons
Covalent Bonds
 Electronegativity Difference: 1.9
and Below
 A covalent bonds involves the
sharing of electrons that results in
the formation of covalent
compound whose representative
particle is a molecule. As a whole,
a molecule does not carry a
If electronegativity is 1.9 and below,
charge.
sharing of electrons will be possible.
 Covalent compounds are non-
Identification of Total Valence Electrons conductors of electricity in the
(e.g. CO2) solid phase and in solution. They
have a lower melting temperature
Step 1: (Sum of Valence Electrons of The than compounds formed by ionic
Elements) bonds.
C Valence Electrons: 4 (Group IV)  Covalent bonds may be polar or
O Valence Electrons: 6 (Group VI) nonpolar.
=4+12 - Polar Covalent Bond – Non-
=16 identical atoms with less than 1.9
but more than 0.4
Step 2: (Octet Rule) electronegativity difference.
Multiply Each Element’s Atom By 8 - Nonpolar Covalent Bond – Two
=(1 C atom × 8) + (2 O atoms × 8) identical non-metallic atoms with
= 8+16 0.4 or less electronegativity
=24 difference.

Step 3: (Find The Number Of Bonds) Notes:

(24−16)  The valence electrons are the
¿ outermost electrons which are
2
=4 directly involved in chemical
bonding.
There will be 4 bonds surrounding a  Lewis’ symbol is composed of
carbon atom as shown in the Lewis the symbol of the element and
Structure: dots which represent the number
of valence electrons of an atom
that can easily be determined
through family/group number in
the Periodic Table of Elements.
  Atoms form with one another to and Alkynes are the three basic
become stable and attain the groups of hydrocarbon
electron configuration of the noble compounds. Alkanes are
gas nearest it. hydrocarbons that have single
 Metallic bonding exists in metals bonds between carbon atoms.
through the attraction between the Alkenes are hydrocarbons that
freely-moving valence electrons have double bonds between
and the positively charged metal carbon atoms and Alkynes have
atom. The valence electrons of triple bonds between carbon
these metal atoms are usually atoms.
called “sea of electrons”.  Ethyne or commonly known as
 Thermal and electrical acetylene is an alkyne
conductivity in metals is due to hydrocarbon with a chemical
the free flow of electrons in the formula C2H2. This organic
solid phase. Aside from these compound is commonly used as
properties, metals are lustrous, fuel in an oxi-acetylene welding
malleable and ductile . These torch. Ethyne (acetylene) is also
properties are related to the kind produced when Calcium carbide,
of bonding metals have. CaC2 reacts with water in the air.
It has the ability to hasten the
Carbon Compounds ripening of fruits. That is why fruit
(Summary) vendors use calcium carbide in
ripening their fruits in just a few
 Carbon atoms have special days.
abilities . Carbon atoms can form  Ethene is a gaseous organic
chemical bonds with other carbon compound with a chemical
atoms and other nonmetal atoms formula CH2CH2. It is a plant’s
in many ways. They can form compound that is responsible for
single, double, and triple bonds . the ripening of fruits.
These abilities of carbon atoms  Alcohols are a group of organic
are the reasons why there are so compounds that contain a
many kinds of organic hydroxyl group, -OH, that is
compounds. chemically bonded to a carbon
 Organic compounds are atom in the compound. They have
compounds that are primarily special uses such as a
composed of carbon atoms, which disinfectant, fuel, and as main
are chemically bonded with component (ethyl alcohol) of liquor
hydrogen and other elements and other alcoholic drinks.
such as oxygen, sulfur, and  Carbonyl compounds like
nitrogen. Organic compounds are acetone and formaldehyde have a
naturally produced by living carbonyl functional group, C=O,
organisms, but can also be which is chemically bonded to a
produced artificially . carbon atom in the compound.
 Organic compounds such as This common carbonyl
gasoline, kerosene, ethyl alcohol, compounds also have important
isopropyl alcohol, formaldehyde, uses: acetone is used as a
acetic acid, acetone, and cleaning agent like a nail polish
lubricating oil have important remover, and formaldehyde is
uses. These uses are based on used in preserving organic
their specific chemical properties. materials like an animal specimen.
 Hydrocarbons are a specific This is also the compound used in
group of organic compounds embalming human cadavers.
which contain carbon and
hydrogen only. Alkanes, Alkenes, Mole Concept
Avogadro’s number presents the amount Step 3: Reduce the mole ratio to
of particles in one mole of a compound. It simple whole numbers by dividing
23
is presented as 6.02 ×10 , the each by the smallest value.
representative particles can be atoms, 5.26 8.77 1.75
molecules or formula units. C, H, O
1.75 1.75 1.75
The results will be the empirical
1 mole = 6.02 ×1023 formula: C3H5O
Formula in Getting the Number of
Particles:
Step 4: Find the Empirical Mass
23 C3H5O = 3(12g) + 5(1g) + 1(16g)
6.02 ×10
no . of moles × =no . of particles = 57g
1mole
Step 5: Divide the molecular mass by
Percentage Composition the empirical mass to get a number
which is:
mass of element∈the compound Molecular Mass 228 g
¿ ×100 % = =4
mass of the compund Empirical Mass 57 g

Step 6: Multiply the subscripts of the

empirical formula by the number found
Finding the Empirical Formula and in step 5 to get the molecular formula.
Molecular Formula

Sample Problem: An insect repellant (C3H5O)4 = C12H20O4

(dibutyl succinate) is found to contain
63.16% C, 8.77 % H and 28.07% O. It is Organic Compounds
experimentally found to be 288g. What is - The word “Organic” describes
its empirical formula? Molecular formula? compounds that has carbon bonds.

Solution:(Step-by-Step)  Carbohydrates (C,H,O); energy

Step 1: Change the percent to mass in g source
of each element in a 100g sample.  Lipids (C,H,O) (H:O = 2:1);
storing energy, components of
C – 63.16% = 63.16g
H – 8.77% = 8.77g cell membrane
O – 28.07% = 28.07g  Proteins (C, H, O, N); cellular
structures, control substances
Step 2: Convert the mass (in g) of  Nucleic Acids (C,H,O,N,P);
each element into number of moles by molecules in our cell
dividing it by its atomic mass
1 mole
(mass × =no . of moles)
amu of each element
. With the results, the mole ratio of all
the elements in the compound is
taken.

C = 5.26 moles, H = 8.77 moles, O =

1.75 moles

Mole Ratio = C:H:O = 5.26:8.77:1.75