Unit III: UNIVERSAL VALUES

Introduction
Human basics can be seen as a first universally designed and coherent philosophy of
most basic knowledge for any human, wherever on the world and regardless of culture,
religion, education or status.
It consists of generally recognized and established knowledge, generally verifiable
observation, and some basic theories and conclusions, and combined with a number of
basic theses it makes up a universal philosophy of human basics.
This philosophy of most basic knowledge is in the first place about an understanding
and awareness of our human nature, and our most basic universal human values. It
contains a concise basic information about social, psychological, cultural and moral
human qualities and basic universal human values in relation to political, economic,
ecological, religious, judicial and educational issues in all societies.
By its nature this basic knowledge tends to create a basic understanding and more
agreement between people and cultures. However, by its basic and realistic nature,
some of this information can also be experienced as confronting.
Qbjectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Explain why universal values are necessary for human survival;
2. Identity the different universal values
3. Discuss the different concepts of universal values;
4 Explain the relationship between individual acts and character; and 5. Explain and
articulate each stage of moral development.

LESSON 1
Basic Universal Values
Introduction
Human beings are endowed with spiritual capacities. This is a fact testified to by
the founders of all the world religions as well as by sages and philosophers throughout
history. An understanding of these positive virtues and values gives individuals and
societies the moral accountability that is the basis of human integrity. Mere knowledge
of ideals and principles is not enough. There is always the need to translate the ideals
into action.
 The development of civilization has occurred in a spiral pattern with seasons of
enlightenment and periods of darkness, but with constant advancement Confidence in
the advent of human maturity and global community provides the foundation for world
peace.
A. What is Universal Value?
A value is a quality that weans people, things, events or situations. The term is
used to designate the moral characteristics that are inherent in a subject piety:
responsibility, secularism, respect, etc.
Universal, however, is an adjective that is related to what belongs or which
relates to the universe. The concept refers to the set of all things created and what is
common to all its kind.
These definitions enable us to approach the notion of universal value: Universal
values are formed by implied behavioral standards that are necessary to live in a
harmonious and peaceful society.
It is a notion which is not obvious to define, because a value is associated with
morality and ethics, which is difficult to transpose, or refer to the level of the group. In
other words, all people have certain values that come from their - interior and guide
their actions. Because humans do not think all the same way, values can vary from one
person to the next. Universal values, however, have the particularity to be socially
shared (Didactic Encyclopedia, 2015).
In addition to cultural differences, we can say that the goodness, solidarity,
volunteerism and honesty are virtues you want in any country or region. So, these are
universal values.
Universal values are acquired with family education and school, because the
process of socialization involves that new generations internalize timeless concepts.
B. Schwartz Concept of Universal Values
S. H. Schwartz, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out
empirical research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those
values are. Schwartz defined ‘values’ as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the
way people select action and evaluate events (Sen, 1999).
Schwartz's results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than
25,000 people in forty four (44) countries with a wide range of different cultural types
suggest that there are fifty-six (56) specific universal values and ten (10) types of
universal value. Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values
alongside:
1. Power. Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources.
2. Achievement: Personal success through demonstrating competence according to
social standards.
3. Hedonism: Pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself.
4. Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life,
5. Self-Direction: Independent thought and action- choosing, creating, exploring.
6. Universalism: Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the Welfare
of all people and for nature.
7. Benevolence: Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom
one is in frequent personal contact.
8. Tradition: Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that
traditional culture or religion provide,
9. Conformity: Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset oy harm
others and violate social expectations or norms.
10. Security: Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.
Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, ‘spirituality’ or ‘the
goal of finding meaning in life’, but found that it does not seer to be recognized in all
cultures.

C. United Nation (UN) Charter on Universal Values

The values enshrined in the United Nations (UN) Charter, respect for
fundamental human rights, social justice and human dignity, and respect for
the equal rights of men and women, serves as overarching values to which
suppliers of goods and services to the UN are expected to adhere.
In a speech at Tubingen University in Germany, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan
emphasized that PROGRESS, EQUAL RIGHTS, HUMAN DIGNITY, are acutely needed in
this age of globalization. He further stated that three years ago, in the Millennium
Declaration, all states reaffirmed certain fundamental values as being “essential to
international relations in the twenty-first century”: freedom, equality, solidarity,
tolerance, respect for nature, and shared responsibility. They adopted practical,
achievable targets — the Millennium Development Goals — for relieving the blight of
extreme poverty and making such rights as education, basic health care and clean
water a reality for all.
 However, globalization has brought nations closer together in the sense that they
are all affected by each other’s actions, but not in the sense that they all share the
benefits and the burdens. Instead, some nations have allowed it to drive other nations
further apart, increasing the disparities in wealth and power both between. societies
and within them.

D. Basic Universal Human Values

The function of most of these basic values is to make it possible for every human
to realize or maintain the very highest or most basic universal core values of life, love
and happiness. Hereunder are some of the basic universal human values:
1. Happiness — In the ancient past the founders of the big religions in the world
have already taught about the reward for a religious life by an afterlife in
Paradise, Heaven, or Nirvana etc., to enjoy there an ultimate and eternal
happiness. And from this we can understand that in fact eternal happiness is the
ultimate value of all religious people. For nobody would like to go to any dull or
miserable Paradise or so.
2. Peace — Peace has to be seen as a basic condition for freedom and happiness,
for without peace there cannot be real freedom. Wherever there is fight, threat
or hostility, our freedom and happiness are inhibited or totally prevented.
3. Love — Love in a general sense can be best defined as feelings, or an experience
of deep connectedness or oneness with any other human being, any animal,
plant, tree, thing, or unnamable. Love can also be experienced as something far
beyond any comprehension, and totally indescribable.
Love may happen to us when we are able to be open to the beauty and
nature of other people, or to the beauty and mystery of nature in general, or
even beautiful things. Hence the importance of a human-friendly mentality,
which contains an attitude of openness to the basically loving nature of others,
and the state of openness out of human-friendliness imply an openness and
friendly attitude to the whole of existence.
4. Freedom — Freedom means the experience of unrestricted, and to be as much
as possible independent of the social pressure of others. A basic condition for
happiness is however the experience of an inner, or mental freedom; freedom
from all kinds of stress, worry, anxiety, problems, obligations and fears, often
directly or indirectly caused by the respectless egocentric or power-oriented
mentality of many others in our society.
For many people in the world it would be much easier to attain happiness
if others in their society would show a little more respect for the value of
freedom of all other people in that society. For basically an outer freedom from
 dominance, repression, burden, obligations and duties creates also an inner
freedom from problems of worry, stress, and fears.
And this shows also a huge responsibility for politicians and all other
people in power, and it asks for their integrity, empathy, and respect, for
freedom is for any human a basic condition for happiness, one of our very
highest human values.
5. Safety - means free of threat, fear and survival-stress. Without safety, people
tend to live out of their individual survival instinct, and long-term insecurity
creates an egocentric survival-mentality. Without safety, people in a society are
burdened by emotional fear, helplessness, and anxiety.
6. Intelligence - has been defined in many different ways to include the capacity for
logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning,
planning, creativity, and problem solving. It can be More generally described as
the ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be
applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.
A tremendous challenge to our human intelligence is our ability to
cooperate on @ global scale, to avoid catastrophic global developments, like
climate change, population growth, the ecology problem, and the nuclear (war)
problem. These problems of humanity show the urgent need for a “global
intelligence", and the very basic value of human intelligence on a global scale.
7. Human respect - The most basic principle of any social community is feelings of
connectedness which come out of our perception, empathy and awareness that
the other human is basically as we are ourselves. This creates trust and a
friendly attitude towards the other. Out of this empathy and the awareness that
the other is basically as we are ourselves and the resulting feelings of
connectedness, we feel a natural and spontaneous respect for the other.
Natural and spontaneous human respect can only be earned by integrity,
veracity and truly social behavior. Not by just some impressing or over acting
behavior. True respect is a spontaneous phenomenon, which comes basically out
of the understanding that deep down the other person is the same as ourselves.

8. Equality — originates from aequalis, aequus, and aequalitas. These are all old
French or Latin words. These French/Latin words mean even, level and equal.
Thus, the meaning of the word ‘equality’ used in political science corresponds to
the meaning from which it originates.
Every person has certain claims to equality. There are two very important
forms of legal or formal equality. One is equality before law and equal protection
of law. What is to be noted here is that the legal member of the legal association
can legitimately claim that all the citizens must be treated equally by law and no
discrimination is to be allowed.
 Every individual has the right to claim equal liberties with others and when
the state authority can ensure this, it will be assumed that justice will no longer
be far away. The state must see that in regard to the allotment of rights and
liberties the principle of equality has been most scrupulously observed. If
equality is violated, justice will not be achieved. Justice is always hand in glove
with equality. In a state, all the opportunities and position shall be opened to alL
There shall be no place of discrimination.
9. Justice — It is the proper administration of the law; the fair and equitable
treatment of all individuals under the law. In general justice is needed to realize
and maintain our highest human values of freedom, peace, life, love and
happiness; and injustice can prevent or inhibit these highest human values.
10. Nature - Understanding our physical dependence of nature, and our awareness
of being part of it are needed to see the basic value of nature. Man is part of nature,
and our very human existence is dependent of nature and its ecology. And hence our
highest human values of life itself and freedom, safety, peace, love and happiness can
only be realized in harmony with nature.
11. Health - World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as being “a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity”. In 1986 WHO also said that health is “a resource for everyday life, not the
objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal
resources, as well as physical capacities.” Also there is a term known as mental health
and it describes either a level of cognitive or emotional well-being or an absence of a
mental disorder.

E. The Human Dignity

The English word dignity comes from the Latin word, dignitas, which means
“worthiness.” Dignity implies that each person is worthy of honor and respect for who
they are, not just for what they can do. In other words, human dignity cannot be
earned and cannot be taken away. It’s an inalienable gift given to us by God, and every
other good thing in life depends on the safeguarding of our fundamental dignity. As the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights puts it, “recognition of the inherent dignity of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world.” Dignity is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake,
and to be treated ethically.
Human dignity originates from God and is of God because we are made in God’s
own image and likeness. Human life is sacred because the human person is the most
central and clearest reflection of God among us. Human beings have transcendent
worth and value that comes from God; this dignity is not based on any human quality,
legal mandate, or individual merit or accomplishment. Human dignity is inalienable -
that means it is an essential part of every human being and ‘an intrinsic quality that can
never be separated from other essential aspects of the human person.
Human beings are qualitatively different from any other living being in the World
because they are capable of knowing and loving God, unlike any other ‘creature. Belief
in the dignity of the human person is the foundation of morality.
Activity 1
Identify five (5) universal human values and explain each. Why are these values
are necessary for human survival.
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Activity 2
What is human dignity? Discuss why human dignity is important. How do you
preserve and promote you own human dignity and to others?
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Activity 3
It is said that human existence is dependent of nature and its ecology. Why?

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REFERENCES:
Leano, R.D., Gubia-on, A.B. (2018), Ethics for college students
 LESSON 2
Development of a Moral Character
Introduction
Aristotle tells us that there are good people in the world. These are those who
exhibit excellences — excellences of thought and excellences of character. His phrase
for excellences of character — éthikai aretai - we usually translate as moral virtue or
moral excellence. When we speak of a moral virtue or an excellence of character, the
emphasis is on the combination of qualities that make an individual the sort of ethically
admirable person that he is. Aristotle defines virtuous character at the beginning of
Book II in Nicomachean Ethics: “Excellence of character, then, is a state concerned with
choice, lying in a mean relative to us, this being determined by reason and in the way
in which the man of practical wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between
two vices, that which depends on excess and that which depends on defect”.
In Aristotle's view, good character is based on two naturally occurring
psychological responses that most people experience without difficulty: our tendency to
take pleasure from self-realizing activity and our tendency to form friendly feelings
toward others under specific circumstances. Based on his view, virtually everyone is
capable of becoming better and they are the ones responsible for actions that express
(or could express) their character (Stanford Encyclopedia).

A. What is Moral Character?

Moral character or character is an evaluation of an individual's stable moral
qualities. The concept of character can imply a variety of attributes including the
existence or lack of virtues such as empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty,
or of good behaviors or habits. Moral character primarily refers to the assemblage of
qualities that distinguish one individual from another—although on a cultural level, the
set of moral behaviors to which a social group adheres can be said to unite and define
it culturally as distinct from others. Psychologist Lawrence Pervin defines moral
character as "a disposition to express behavior in consistent patterns of functions across
a range of situations” (Timpe, 2008).
A moral character is defined as an idea in which one is unique and can be
distinguished from others. Perhaps it can assemble qualities and traits that are different
from various individuals. It implies to how individuals act, or how they express
themselves. In another words, it is “human excellence,” or unique thoughts of a
character. When the concept of virtue is spoken, this would emphasize the
distinctiveness or specialty, but it all involves the combination of qualities that make an
individual the way he or she is. Based on this definition, the insight of a moral character
can be viewed differently. Although these philosophers diverge, with their arguments,
they in some sense have similarities. These similarities will show how the matter of a
character is important and crucial to the human nature.
B. Importance of Having a Strong Moral Character
When you have strong moral character, you’ll be judged by who you are rather
than who you pretend to be. Below are some of the consequences of having a strong
moral character (Sonnenberg, 2016):
1. Achieve peace of mind. People with character sleep well at night. They take
great pride in knowing that their intentions and actions are honorable. People
with character also stay true to their beliefs, do right by others, and always take
the high ground.
2. Strengthen trust. People with character enjoy meaningful relationships based
on openness, honesty, and mutual respect. When you have good moral
character, people know that your behavior is reliable, your heart is in the right
place, and your word is good as gold.
3. Build a solid reputation. People with character command a rock-solid
reputation. This helps them attract exciting opportunities “like a magnet.”
4. Reduce anxiety. People with character carry less baggage. They’re comfortable
within their own skin, and they accept responsibility for their actions. They never
have to play games, waste precious time keeping their stories straight, or invent
excuses to cover their behind.
5. Increase leadership effectiveness. Leaders with character are highly
effective. They have no need to pull rank or resort to command and control to
get results. Instead, they’re effective because they’re knowledgeable, admired,
trusted, and respected. This helps them secure buy-in automatically, without
requiring egregious rules or strong oversight designed to force compliance.
6. Build confidence. People with character don’t worry about embarrassment if
their actions are publicly disclosed. This alleviates the need for damage control
or the fear of potential disgrace as a result of indiscretions.
7. Become a positive role model. People with character set the standard for
excellence. They live their life as an open book, teaching others important life
lessons through their words and their deeds.
8. Live a purpose-driven life. People with character live a life they can be proud
of. They’re driven to make a difference and to do right by others rather than
trying to impress others with extravagance.
9. Build a strong business. Doing the right thing is good business. Everything
else being equal, talented people would rather work for — and customers would
rather buy from — companies that do right by their people, customers, and
 communities. While unprincipled business tactics may provide shortterm results,
it’s NOT a long-term strategy.

Although you may not be able to quantify the benefits of being a good person,
there’s great truth in the saying, “good people finish first.” Strong moral character is
like a boomerang that causes good things to find their way back to you. So, promise
yourself to be true to yourself and do what's right, even when nobody is looking —
Character matters.

C. Development of Moral Character

If you believe developing your character is an endeavor you want to pursue,

here are some steps to show you how:
1. Define your core values —Know what is most important to you by
determining your values for your professional and personal life. These are the
principles that are the foundation for your priorities, choices, actions, and
behaviors.
2. Practice the habits — Pick one or two of the traits of good character to
practice for several weeks. Write down the actions you want to take or the
behaviors you define that reflect this trait, and implement them in your daily
life and interactions. Wear a rubber band on your wrist or create other
reminders to help you practice.
3. Find people with character - Surround yourself with people who reflect the
character traits you want to embrace. They will inspire and motivate you to
build these traits in yourself. Try to avoid people who have a weak character
and make bad decisions.
4. Take some risks — Start taking small actions toward a goal or value that
involve some level of risk. When you face the possibility of failure and
challenge yourself toward success, you become mentally and emotionally
stronger and more committed to your principles.
5. Stretch yourself — Create high standards and big goals for yourself. Expect
the best of yourself and constantly work toward that, even though you will
have setbacks. and occasional failures. Every stretch builds your confidence
and knowledge that your character is getting stronger.
6. Commit to self-improvement - Realize that building your character is a
lifelong endeavor. It is something that is practiced both in the minutiae and
the defining moments of your life. There will be times you step up to the
character traits you embrace and other times you falter. By remaining
committed ty, personal growth and learning about yourself, your character
will naturally improve, even though the failures.
D. Some Good Character Traits to Practice
1. Attract the trust and respect of other people.
2. Allows you to influence others.
3. Changes your perspective about failure.
4. Sustains you through difficult times or opposition.
5. Improves your self-esteem, self-respect, and confidence.
6. Creates a foundation for happy, healthy relationship.
7. Helps you stay committed to your values and goals. 8. Improves your chance of
success in work and other endeavors.

E. Character Traits that Impact One’s Happiness (liveboldanbloom.com)

Good character consists of defining your values and integrity based on time-
tested principles and self-reflection and having the courage to live your life accordingly.
1. Integrity — Integrity is having strong moral principles and core values and
then conducting your life with those as your guide. When you have integrity, you main
your adherence to it whether or not other people are watching.
2. Honesty — Honesty is more than telling the truth. It's living the truth. It is
being straightforward and trustworthy in all of your interactions, relationships, and
thoughts. Being honest requires self-honesty and authenticity.
3. Loyalty —Loyalty is faithfulness and devotion to your loved ones, your friends,
and anyone with whom you have a trusted relationship. Loyalty can also extend to your
employer, the organizations you belong to, your community, and your country.
4. Respectfulness - You treat yourself and others with courtesy, kindness,
deference, dignity, and civility. You offer basic respect as a sign of your value for the
worth of all people and your ability to accept the inherent flaws we all possess.
5. Responsibility ~ You accept personal, relational, career, community, and
societal obligations even when they are difficult or uncomfortable. You follow through
on commitments and proactively create or accept accountability for your behavior and
choices.
6. Humility - You have a confident yet modest opinion of your own self-
importance. You don't see yourself as “too good” for other people or situations. You
have a learning and growth mindset and the desire to express and experience gratitude
for what you have, rather than expecting you deserve more.
7. Compassion — You feel deep sympathy and pity for the suffering and
misfortune of others, and you have a desire to do something to alleviate their suffering.
 8. Fairness — Using discernment, compassion, and integrity, you strive to make
decisions and take actions based on what you consider the ultimate best course or
outcome for all involved.
9. Forgiveness—You make conscious, intentional decisions to let go of
resentment and anger toward someone for an offense — whether or not forgiveness is
sought by the offender. Forgiveness may or may not include pardoning, restoration, or
reconciliation. It extends both to others and to one's self.
10. Authenticity — You are able to be your real and true self, without pretension,
posturing, or insincerity. You are capable of showing appropriate vulnerability and self-
awareness.
11. Courageousness — In spite of fear of danger, discomfort, or pain, you have
the mental fortitude to carry on with a commitment, plan, or decision, knowing it is the
right or best course of action.
12. Generosity - You are willing to offer your time, energy, efforts, emotions,
words, or assets without the expectation of something in return. You offer these freely
and often joyously.
13. Perseverance - Perseverance is the steadfast persistence and determination
to continue on with a course of action, belief, or purpose, even if it's difficult or
uncomfortable in order to reach a higher goal or outcome.
14. Politeness — You are knowledgeable of basic good manners, common.
courtesies, and etiquette, and are willing to apply those to all people you encounter.
You desire to learn the skills of politeness in order to enhance your relationships and
self-esteem.
15, Kindness ~ Kindness is an attitude of being considerate, helpful, and
benevolent to others. It is motivated by a positive disposition and the desire for warm
and pleasant interactions.
16. Lovingness - The ability to be loving toward those you love means showing
them through your words, actions, and expressions how deeply you care about them. It
includes the willingness to be open and vulnerable.
17. Optimism — Optimism is a sense of hopefulness and confidence about the
future. It involves a positive mental attitude in which you interpret life events, people,
and situations in a promising light.
18. Reliability —You can be consistently depended upon to follow through on
your commitments, actions, and decisions. You do what you say you will do.
 19. Conscientiousness — You have the desire to do things well or to the best of
your ability. You are thorough, careful, efficient, organized, and vigilant in your efforts,
based on your own principles or sense of what is right."
20. Self-discipline — You are able, through good habits or willpower, to
overcome your desires or feelings in order to follow the best course of action or to rise
to your commitments or principles. You have a strong sense of self-control in order to
reach a desired goal.
Activity 1
Recall some of your defining moments in the formation of your moral character.
Did it change your personality as well as your outlook in life? How?
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Activity 2
In sone-whole sheet of paper, assess the negative character traits of one of your
classmates based on your observation. After making an assessment, interview | him/her
if he/she was able to change or develop his/her character traits. How did he/she
change his/her negative character into a positive one?
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Activity 3
What do you think will happen to our society, nation, and world if most of the
youths will be lacking the necessary moral ascendancy? Can we still rely on them as the
hope of our motherland. Explain?

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REFERENCES:
Leano, R.D., Gubia-on, A.B. (2018), Ethics for college students
 LESSON 3
Stages of Moral Development
Introduction
A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is _
discerning right from wrong. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) . extended
upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg
believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages.
To develop this theory, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then
he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral
development.
Kohiberg’s Stages of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of
moral development, a comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on
Jean Piaget's theory of moral judgment for children (1932) and developed by Kohlberg
in 1958. Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg’s theory focuses on the thinking process that
occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong. Thus, the theoretical
emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides
or what one actually does.
The framework of Kohlberg’ s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially
in successive tiers of complexity. He organized his six stdges into three general levels of
moral development (Encyclopedia Britannica).

Level 1: Pre-conventional level

At the pre-conventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
This perspective involves the idea that what is right is what ane can get away with or
what is personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation — Behavior is determined by consequences.
the individual will obey in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation - Behavior is determined again by

consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs.
Level 2: Conventional level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the

individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other
people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by
others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to
maintain social order.

Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation - Behavior is determined by social approval. The
individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others by
being a “good person.”

Stage 4: Law and order orientation - Social rules and laws determine behavior. The
individual now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of societal
laws. Moral decision making becomes more than consideration of close ties to
others. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is
worth preserving.

Level 3: Post-conventional or principled level

At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his
or her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that
apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of
all individuals.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation — Individual rights determine behavior. The

individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human purposes.
That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to rules. When laws are
not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, it does
not bring about good for people and alternatives should be considered.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation - According to Kohlberg, this is the

highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals will
never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is determined by
one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are abstract
and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the
perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected by the
decision.
B. Arguments Against Kohiberg’s Theory

How does this theory apply to males and females? Kohlberg (1969) felt that
more males than females move past stage four in their moral development He went on
to note that women seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities. These ideas
were not well received by Carol Gilligan, a research assistant of Kohlberg, who
consequently developed her own ideas of moral development. In her groundbreaking
book, in a “Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development”, Gilligan
(1982) criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based only on upper class
white men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning
she proposed that males and females’ reason differently. Girls and women focus more
on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships.

Moral development plays an important role in our social interactions.

Understanding how and why individuals make decisions regarding moral dilemmas can
be very useful in many settings. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development provides a
framework in which to investigate and begin to comprehend how moral reasoning
develops within individuals.

 Figure 1. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,

conventional, and post-conventional: Each level is associated with increasingly
complex stages of moral development.
Activity 1
How does moral development play an important role in our daily interactions?
How does it help it to solve moral dilemma?
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Activity 2
What are the salient points of Gilligan’s argument against Kohlberg’s Theory?
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Activity 3
Why did Kohlberg choose all male respondents in his theory of moral
development? If he included female in his study, will it affect the results of his theory?
Explain?

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REFERENCES:
Leano, R.D., Gubia-on, A.B. (2018), Ethics for college students
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/adolescent/chapter/theories-moral-development/

*****End of Unit 3*****