B.SC.

FORENSIC SCIENCE HONOURS

FORENSIC PHYSICS MODULE 2

Forensic Science Laboratories receive cement cases under different crime heads like Essential
Commodities Act., Indian Penal Code (IPC) and occasionally under Cement Orders Act. Cement is
one of the most important materials in building construction. In chemical examination, testing of
cement is done to check its purity and characterization. Hence only a few parameters like soluble
calcium oxide, silica etc. are determined as per Indian Standards specifications. Concrete and Mortar
are referred to Forensic Science Laboratories in cases of building collapse.
Cement:
Portland cement may be defined as a product obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous and
argillaceous, or other silica, alumina, and iron oxide-bearing materials, burning them at a clinkering
temperature and grinding the resulting clinker. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin gave the name portland cement
because this product resembled the colour of the stones from Portland, England. Cements are mainly
mono silicates of calcium, soluble in dilute acids and alkali.
COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT:

Lime CaO 60-67%

Silica SiO2 17-25%

Alumina Al2O3 03-08%

Iron Oxide Fe2O3 0.5-06%

Magnesia MgO 0.1-04%

Soda & Potash Na2O & K2O 0.2-01%

Sulfur Trioxide SO3 01-2.75%

Free Lime CaO 00-01%

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The Main Constituents of Cement are,

Dicalcium Silicate 2 CaOSiO2 30%

Tricalcium Silicate 3 CaOSiO2 40%

Tricalcium Aluminate 3 CaOAl2O3 11%

Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite 4 CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3 11%

Types of Cements: -

Function Of Cement:
- to bind the sand and coarse aggregate together
- to fill voids in between sand and coarse aggregate particle
- to form a compact mass
Types of Cement

2 types of cement normally used in building industry are as follows:

a) Hydraulic Cement
b) Nonhydraulic Cement
Hydraulic Cement:
Hydraulic Cement sets and hardens by action of water. Such as Portland Cement
In other words it means that hydraulic cement are:
“ Any cements that turns into a solid product in the presence of water (as well as air) resulting in a
material that does not disintegrate in water.”
Non-hydraulic Cement:
Any cement that does not require water to transform it into a solid product.
2 common Non-hydraulic Cement are:
a) Lime – derived from limestone / chalk
b) Gypsum
Portland Cement
Chemical composition of Portland Cement:
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a) Tricalcium Silicate (50%)

b) Dicalcium Silicate (25%)
c) Tricalcium Aluminate (10%)
d) Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (10%)
e) Gypsum (5%)
Functions of Tricalcium Silicate: Hardens rapidly and largely responsible for initial set & early
strength. The increase in percentage of this compound will cause the early strength of Portland
Cement to be higher. A higher percentage of this compound will produces higher heat of hydration
and accounts for faster gain in strength.
Functions of Dicalcium Silicate:
- Hardens slowly
- It effects on strength increases occurs at ages beyond one week .
- Responsible for long term strength
Functions of Tricalcium Aluminate:
- Contributes to strength development in the first few days because it is the first compound to
hydrate .
- It turns out higher heat of hydration and contributes to faster gain in strength.
- But it results in poor sulfate resitance and increases the volumetric shrinkage upon drying.
- Cements with low Tricalcium Aluminate contents usually generate less heat, develop higher
strengths and show greater resistance to sulfate attacks.
- It has high heat generation and reactive with soils and water containing moderate to high
sulfate concentrations so it’s least desirable.
Function of Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite:
- Assist in the manufacture of Portland Cement by allowing lower clinkering temperature.
- Also act as a filler contributes very little strength of concrete eventhough it hydrates very
rapidly.
- Also responsible for grey colour of Ordinary Portland Cement
Manufacturing Of Portland Cement:
The 3 primary constituents of the raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland Cement are:
a) Lime
b) Silica
c) Alumina
Lime is derived from limestone or chalk
Silica & Alumina from clay, shale or bauxite
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There are many types of cements available, but few of them are discussed here.
1. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement- is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement, but is
grounded finer and slightly altered in composition. Its setting time is similar, but it develops
its strength more rapidly.
2. Quick setting Portland Cement - it differs from normal Portland cement in its setting time,
which is less , compared to portland cement. Its rate of hardening may be similar to that of
ordinary or rapid hardening Portland Cement.
3. White Portland Cement - is an ordinary Portland cement containing a low proportion of iron
oxide, so that its colour is white instead of grey.
4. Water proof Portland Cement- is ordinary Portland Cement in which at grinding stage small
proportion of calcium stearate or non-saponifiable oil is added.
5. Hydrophobic Cement - is a material obtained by grinding Portland Cement clinker with a
water repellent film forming substance such as fatty acid in order to reduce the rate of
deterioration under favourable storage or transport conditions.
6. Low-heat Portland Cement - is a material in which chemical composition has been so
adjusted as to reduce the heat of hydration.
7. Portland Pozzolona Cement in ordinary Portland cement, a pozzolonic material like brick
powder, flyash etc. are added in the range of 20-40%. This cement is called Portland
Pozzolona Cement and is generally used in the preparation of plaster materials.

OTHER BUILDING MATERIALS

1. Stone powder, is poly silicates of calcium, magnesium and iron etc. and is practically insoluble in
dilute acids.
2. Concrete, is the hard mass obtained by solidification of the inert material like sand, coarse stone,
water and cement.
3.Mortar, is the mixture of sand and cement for plastering the brickwork.
4. Sand , is mostly silica in defined form and insoluble in dilute mineral acids, should be clean, strong,
durable uncoated well-graded particles. The particles should be free from alkali, organic matter, loam
or other deterious substances. The diameter of the sand particles should not be above 6 mm.
5.Aggregate, The aggregate should consist of crushed rock, gravel or other inert material. The
particles should be clean, though, hard and durable. It should not contain soft, flat and elongated
material. The maximum length of aggregate should not be more than 112 mm.
6.Brick : Brick is an important building material. Varieties of bricks are available in the market.
Their qualities are determined on the basis of physical parameters. There is no much chemical
examination involved in deciding their fitness etc.
SAMPLING
Cement:
When the sample is drawn from a cement bag, the details printed on the bag and another marking
thereon should be carefully noted and incorporated in the forwarding letter. 1 kg sample of cement
should be sent in an airtight plastic jar if available or it should be securely packed in polythene bag
and then in brown paper to avoid exposure to moisture. Sampling is done as per the procedure as laid
down in the Indian Standard Procedures of random sampling.
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Sampling of Small Quantities (Less than 12 bags or packages): When number of bags or other
packages containing the cement bears the same label on all the packages and are appearing to be
similar, in such cases about 1kg sample of cement (in an air tight plastic jar) shall be drawn from each
bag and sent for analysis.
Sampling of large Quantities (More than 12 bags or packages): When number of bags containing the
cement bear the same labels on the packages and are appearing to be similar, in such cases the
grouping must be done. Each group should contain about equal no. of bags and 20 percent of sample
weighing 1 kg (in an air tight plastic jar) from each group shall be drawn into air tight plastic jar and
sent for analysis.
MORTAR:
1-2 Kg of mortar sample accompanied by 1 kg each of cement and / or lime and sand if available from
the field shall be sent for analysis. Every article should be independently packed.
CONCRETE:
Concrete lumps, about 3-5kg accompanied by 1 kg each of cement, sand and aggregate if available
from the field shall be sent for analysis. Every article should be independently packed.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Cement:
1. ThymolphthaleinTest: (Thymolphthalein Indicator 0.1% in ethyl alcohol)
Take 100-150 mg of cement sample in a test tube, add 1-2 ml water and 2 drops of indicator,
development of blue colour indicates the presence of cement, No colour indicates that the sample is
stone powder.
2.Heating test:
Take 0.5 gm of sample, heat it for about 20 min. on a steel plate.
a). Change in colour adulterated cement.
b). No change in colour unadulterated cement.
3.Performance Test:
Make thick slurry of cement with about 1 part of cement with one part of water and put in an empty
matchbox. The cement gets hardened. The performance is tested after 24 hrs. just by removing
matchbox and checking approx. strength of the cement by fingers, if the block breaks easily, the
setting property is said to be poor. If the block does not break by fingers. The performance is said to
be good.
4.Acid insoluble:
Take 0.5 -1.0 gm cement in a 100 ml beaker add 20 ml water to make a paste followed by 5 ml conc.
hydrochloric acid, add 20 ml water, stir, digest on water bath for five minutes, no lumps should be
formed. Digest further for another 10 minutes, filter through ashless filter paper till chloride free.
Residue dried in oven and further incinerated in furnace at 800°C-900°C for 1 hr. weigh the residue,
till constant weight. Calculate percent acid insoluble.
5.Silica:
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Concentrate filtrate from 2.6.4.1.4 on hot plate to dryness, further dry completely without charring,
then add 20 ml 1:1 Hydrochloric acid and digest on water bath for 10 minutes stir well, and filter on
ashless filter paper till chloride free. Dry the residue (Precipitated silica) in oven for 1hr and then
incinerate in furnace at 800°C-900°C for 1hr.weigh the residue, till constant weight. Weight of silica
obtained is noted. (20% Silica = 100% cement).
6.Combined Ferric Oxide and Alumina:
Concentrate the filtrate from 2.6.4.1.5 to about 200-ml by boiling then add 2-3 drops of nitric acid to
oxidise any ferrous iron to ferric condition. Add 1-2 grams of ammonium chloride, stir, and then treat
the filtrate with conc. ammonia solution till smell of ammonia persists then boil the solution
containing the ppts. of Fe and Al hydroxides for few minute. Filter and wash the ppt. with hot water.
Dry the ppt. in oven and ignite in platinum crucible till constant weight at 1050°C to 1100°C. Weigh
as alumina and ferric oxide.
7.Determination of `Calcium`by EDTA Titration: - (By Patton Reeder`s indicator)
Take filtrate from ferric oxide and alumina determination in 250 ml Vol. flask adjust Vol. to 250 ml.
Take out 25ml soln. in titration flask add 50 ml water, 5ml (1:1) glycerol with constant stirring then
add 5ml diethylamine, further add 5-6 pellets of NaOH (pH should be more than 12) shake well,
further add 50mg of Patton Reeder`s indicator, shake well and titrate against 0.01M EDTA soln.
colour change violet to blue.
1ml 0.01 M EDTA = 0.5608 mg of CaO.
(60 % CaO = 100% Cement) and CaO% = 3 Silica %
Patton Reeder`s Indicator: Grind 10mg of the indicator with 10gm of sodium sulphate (A.R.) and
store in an airtight bottle.
8. Direct Cement % by acid titration:
Take 0.5 gm cement in a conical flask add 50ml of 0.5 N HCl, digest on water bath for 30 minutes,
add 50 ml water and titrate against 0.5 N NaOH using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Also perform a
blank titration. Colour change is colourless to pink.
Cement % = 28 ´ N ´ Diff. in Reading (N= Normality of NaOH).
Mortar:
Mortar is the blend of cement and sand in various proportions used for various purposes. The mortar
used for brickwork in house walls is generally 1:4 in proportions. For testing of mortar and brick good
piece of mortar adhering to brick from debris should be collected.
Testing of Mortar:
Heat good piece of mortar approx. 200 gms is heated in oven at 110°C for 15 min. cool and then
weigh. Separate the cement portion from sand by slowly grinding the lump in iron mortar. (to separate
sand from cement lumps.) Sieve the material and make three fractions. Powder, fine sand and coarse
sand. Weigh individually and record. Take about 5-10 gm of each fraction in beaker, add 5-10 ml 3.3
N HCl till all the material is wet with HCl, if required, add further 5-10 ml HCl, to dissolve the
material. The cement portion gets dissolved and sand portion gets separated from cement, digest on
water bath for 10 minutes & filter the liquid through filter paper, wash with water till chloride free.
The filtrate is evaporated and silica determined as in earlier part, from silica cement portion in each
fraction is determined, from total weight, weight of sand obtained by subtracting wt. Of cement and
hence the ratio of cement to sand is calculated. Also % of cement in the sample is calculated.
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EDTA Titrations: For filtrate same as cement normally the ratio of cement: sand used in plastering
work is 1:4 (The ratio used for compound walls and such other work is 1:6 to 1:8).
Concrete:
Concrete is a blend of cement, sand and aggregate in different proportions used for different purposes.
Normally samples from debris selected are pieces of beams and slabs taken for analysis. About
1/2kg sample is required for analysis dry the piece from slab/beam in oven at 110°C for 15 minutes.,
cool, and weigh. Then grind the sample so that cement particle gets separated from sand and
aggregate. Sieve the bulk with different mesh size sieves, to separate powder, fine sand, coarse sand
and aggregate. Weigh the fractions so separated individually. Take about 5-6gm from powder fraction
and fine sand fraction, about 50-60 gm from coarse sand and about 100-150 gms of aggregate fraction
for actual silica and calcium oxide determination. Take all the four fractions as above in 250 ml
beakers, add sufficient quantity of 3.3 N HCl to dissolve the adhering cement particles. Then digest on
water bath for 10-15 minutes and filter. The filtrate so obtained is used for silica determination.
Silica:
Filtrate evaporate the filtrate to dryness on hot plate, dry silica remains in the beaker alongwith
calcium and aluminium salts. Then add 3.3 N HCl and digest on water bath for 5 mins. Filter the silica
through ashless filter paper, wash with water until chloride free. Dry the silica in oven and further in
furnace at 800°C-1000°C for 2 hrs, Wash the silica so obtained. From silica calculate the weight of
cement obtained in different fractions (20% silica = 100% cement). Each fraction contains some
cement portion and rest being fine sand, sand and aggregate respectively. Take sand and fine sand
fractions together. Thus calculate the total cement, total sand and total aggregates present in the
sample, and hence calculate the ratio of cement: sand: aggregate also calculate the cement percentage.
From filtrate of silica, calculate CaO % as detailed in cement, from CaO% also calculate the %
cement in each fraction, and hence get the ratio of cement: sand: aggregate, and also % of cement in
the sample. Compare the results obtained by silica and CaO.
ALTERNATIVE METHOD:
Keep the sample in the oven for 15 minutes and then keep them in desiccator for cooling. Weigh 10
gms of sample. Add distilled water and shake well. Add 20% HCl and boil the solution. Distilled
water and dilute HCl (i.e, 20%) should be added upto 15ml, if required. Add a few drops of conc.
HCl, warm-water/distilled water over the dissolved residue so that complete CaO dissolves in the
filtrate. Make the solution upto 500 ml after adding distilled water in the flask. Transfer the solution
after shaking well in the beaker. Pipette out 10ml of the solution each in 3 beakers in separately. Add
10-15 ml dilute nitric acid (20%) in each beaker. Add 20ml distilled water in each and boil, add
ammonium chloride (nearly 1 ½ - 2 tea spoon) and boil, cool the solution and then add ammonium
hydroxide and boil the solution for the precipitation to be formed in the III rd group. Remove the
beaker and allow precipitates to settle down. Filter the solution, make saturated solution of
ammonium oxalate in a beaker and distilled water nearly 300ml of solution is formed. Nearly 100ml
each of ammonium oxalate solution are added in each beaker after filtering the precipitates.
Precipitates as of interfering radical are being removed in the IIIrd group. After adding ammonium
oxalate solution, boil the solution for the precipitates to be formed of CaO. Filter CaO precipitate.

Note: - Three separate solutions in beaker are taken as mean of the titration reading is taken as single
reading gives error.
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Now, wash the precipitates with warm water till it is fee from oxalate. Take few drops of filtrate in a
test tube, and CaCl2 solution few drops, if precipitate forms then solution is not free from Oxalate.
Wash till the residue is free from Oxalate. Keeping the filter paper carrying the precipitate in the
beaker, wash the filter paper with distilled water so that, complete precipitates are transferred in a
beaker. Add dilute sulphuric acid as CaO is soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. Add few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid if precipitates are not dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid completely, warm
the solution. Put N/10 KMnO4 in a burette and titrate it against warm solution at nearly 50-60°C i.e.,
till pink colour appears. No the initial and final reading and mean amount of KMnO4 used.
% Calcium Oxide (CaO) = Mean ´ 1.4
% Cement = CaO % ´ (100/62)
Assume the pure Cement CaO % = 62.
1.9.2.Insoluble Residues:
Transfer the residue of the previous test in a beaker. Add 30 ml hot water and 30 ml 2N Na2CO3
solution. Heat the solution below boiling point for 10 minutes. Filter it, wash the residue on the filter
paper with dil.HCl (1:9) and finally with hot water till the residue is free from chlorides. Ignite the
residue in a tarred crucible at 900 - 1000°C, cool in a descicator and weigh.
1.9.3. Check for Chlorides:
Take few drops of filtrate and add 2-3 drops of AgNO3 solution, white precipitates formed indicates
the presence of Chlorides, wash the residue with hot water till it is free from chlorides.

Cement is complex mixture and testing of cement is a difficult task. In Forensic Context one has to
certify whether the sample is cement or not, and if so, the percentage of cement in the sample. The
initial tests like Thymolphthalein test, Heat test, Performance test along with percentage of acid
insoluble, calcium oxide and silica data can allow one to frame a report regarding the cement
percentage with acid insoluble and cement with non cementitious material. If stone powder is used for
adulteration the acid insoluble amount for adulteration percentage but if lime or other material is used
for adulteration then acid insoluble will be less and calcium oxide will be more, the correct cement
percentage can be assayed from silica content. The relative standard deviations of 0.44 % and
recovery of 99 % was obtained for EDTA titration. The relative standard deviations of 0.88 and
recovery of 94 % was obtained for silica determination. Hence the results of the analysis of cement by
the above methods are quite accurate and reproducible. In case of Mortar and Concrete the ratio of
Cement: Sand and Cement: Sand: Aggregate is very important, hence selection of the sample plays an
important role, finally the cement content determined by above method assures accuracy and
reproducibility.
Other instrumental techniques for the cement analysis
1. ICP
2. XRD
These technqiues can be used for the analysis of contents/elements of the cement, as per the literature
available in the laboratory.
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BITUMEN:
Bitumen is a naturally occurring mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The mixture takes the
form of a viscous, black, sticky tar-like substance. It can be refined from crude oil by fractional
distillation.
Examples: Asphalt is a mixture of an aggregate and bitumen and is commonly used as a road surface.
Asphalt, also known as bitumen, is a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch.
Before the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used.
The primary use (70%) of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed
with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous
waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.[3]
The terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and
manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, "asphalt" (or "asphalt cement") is
commonly used for a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside the
United States, the product is often called "bitumen", and geologists worldwide often prefer the term
for the naturally occurring variety. Common colloquial usage often refers to various forms of asphalt
as "tar", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits.
Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its viscosity is
similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil
boiling at 525 °C (977 °F) is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen".
The importance of bitumen and heavy crudes is steadily increasing as reserves of conventional crudes
diminish around the world producing an increased emphasis upon the development of methods of
recovery for bitumen and heavy crudes. Because of the extremely high viscosities encountered, a
variety of novel in-situ recovery methods using combinations of steam, solvents, surfactants, and
combustion are being investigated. Conventional and heavy petroleum crudes consist of a large
variety of organic molecules generally classified into four major groups identified as saturates,
aromatics, resins and asphaltenes. Each of these classes have individual uses and their relative ratios
determine the upgrading processes employed. Bitumen and heavy crudes tend to have larger
proportions of resins and asphaltenes that are less economically converted to usable products.
Precipitation of asphaltenes in the formation or production of asphaltenes from other compounds can
occur during the recovery process necessitating some monitoring of process streams for changes in
the relative ratios of these classes of compounds. Numerous methods are used to separate petroleum
hydrocarbons into their type and classes. The most common method utilizes pentane precipitation of
the asphaltenes in a procedure similar to ASTM D 893-69. Many of the procedures for the separation
of the aromatics and saturates using silica and/or alumina columns are modifications of ASTM D
2549-75. Some of the methods achieve separations into subgroupings such as monoaromatics,
diaromatics, polyaromatics and polar compounds. Each of the procedures however has the
disadvantage that a total class analysis requires several steps and to obtain the data regarding the
distribution of the fractions requires several days. The procedure discussed here enables the separation
of the bitumen or heavy petroleum crude into three groupings namely asphaltenes, resins and a
mixture of aromatics and saturates with no prior separation of the polar constituents or of
backflushing of the columns. Using a 254 nm UV detect it is possible to quantify each of the fractions
in the bitumen.
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Bitumen components
The bitumen components are classified into four classes of compounds:
• saturates, saturated hydrocarbons, the % saturates correlates with a softening point of the material
• Naphthenic aromatics, consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds.
• Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids
• Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds
The naphthenic aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Additionally,
most natural bitumen contains organosulfur compounds, resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to
4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the < 10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum.
The substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modeled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as
the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase. and “it is almost impossible to separate and
identify all the different molecules of asphalt because the number of molecules with different
chemical structure is extremely large”.
Physical properties and chemical composition of bitumen
The manufacturing processes for bitumen involve the removal of lighter components to leave behind
relatively high molecular weight, low volatility compounds. The resulting products all are generally
solid or semi-solid materials at ambient temperature and they soften as the temperature increases.
The vapor pressure of in-situ bitumen is below the limit of detection for normal instrumentation.
Bitumen is normally heated to >140°C (284°F) to become liquid to facilitate transportation and
handling. Some of the performance-related physical properties are regulated by national or
international specifications, while other properties, like specific gravity or vapor pressure, result from
the manufacturing processes used to meet the performance specification.
Physical properties
Bitumen is thermoplastic solids or semi-solids at ambient temperature, i.e. they soften as the
temperature increases and harden as the temperature decreases. At elevated temperature they behave
as Newtonian liquids, the viscosity reducing with increasing temperature. This is the reason that
bitumen must be heated for handling and application in their intended use. Bitumen is also visco-
elastic materials, i.e. they behave as elastic solids at short loading times and as viscous liquids at
longer loading times. Polar molecules in bitumen lead to bitumen having an affinity to aggregates,
providing a material that is adhesive and also waterproof.
Bitumen is engineering products and therefore the product specifications focus on defining physical
properties, rather than being based upon chemical composition. The properties of the substances
manufactured in the refinery can also be modified for specific end-uses by modifiers. The physical
properties of the bitumen not only determine the suitability for a given application but also define the
conditions under which the product must be handled in order to enable the product to be placed in the
structure in which it is to be used.
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Temperature susceptibility:
In order to perform over a wide range of ambient temperatures, it is desirable that some products
exhibit reduced temperature susceptibility. A number of methods exist to determine the change in
properties with the temperature of a given bitumen which relate to a change of physical properties,
such as stiffness, or penetration value with temperature. One such method, used in Europe, is the
Penetration Index (PI).
Bitumen oxidation modifies the penetration-softening point relationship, reducing the temperature
susceptibility of the material, resulting in a systematic increase of the PI of the oxidized substance.
Therefore PI is considered to be a good indicator of the level of oxidation.
Other methods can be used to determine the temperature susceptibility of bitumens.
Chemical composition of bitumen:
The chemical bitumen components are generally similar, but with some variation depending upon the
original crude oil and on the processes used during refining and blending. Bitumens can generally be
described as complex mixtures of hydrocarbons containing a large number of different chemical
compounds of relatively high molecular weight. There is considerable uncertainty as to the molecular
weight distribution of bitumen. The smallest size, approximately 300 Dalton, is determined by the
distillation ‘cut point’ during the manufacture of the bitumen. The largest size has not been finally
concluded; earlier research suggested that molecular weights up to 10000 Dalton are present, while
some research indicates that there are probably very few if any, molecules larger than 1500 in
bitumen.
The molecules present in bitumens are combinations of alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics and hetero
molecules containing sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and metals.
Bitumen functionality relates to how molecules interact with each other and/or with other materials,
e.g. aggregate surfaces and water. The content of sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and metals in some
molecules makes them slightly polar. The significance of molecules containing heteroatoms in
bitumen chemistry is the ability to form molecular associations, which strongly influence the physical
properties and performance of bitumens. The components containing the heteroatomic compounds
can vary in content and characteristics in bitumens obtained from different crude sources.