Microcontroller

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The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128

bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip

Two ATmega microcontrollers

A microcontroller (MCU for microcontroller unit, often also MC, UC, or μC) is a

small computer on a single VLSI integrated circuit (IC) chip. A microcontroller contains
one or more CPUs (processor cores) along with memory and
programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of ferroelectric
RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a small amount
of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to
the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications
consisting of various discrete chips.
In modern terminology, a microcontroller is similar to, but less sophisticated than,
a system on a chip (SoC). An SoC may connect the external microcontroller chips as
the motherboard components, but an SoC usually integrates the advanced peripherals
like graphics processing unit (GPU) and Wi-Fi interface controller as its internal
microcontroller unit circuits.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the
size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and
input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more
devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog
components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. In the context of
the internet of things, microcontrollers are an economical and popular means of data
collection, sensing and actuating the physical world as edge devices.
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4
kHz for low power consumption (single-digit milliwatts or microwatts). They generally
have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press
or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals
off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery
applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they
may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds
and power consumption.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Background
o 1.2Development
o 1.3Volume and cost
o 1.4Smallest computer
 2Embedded design
o 2.1Interrupts
o 2.2Programs
o 2.3Other microcontroller features
 3Higher integration
 4Programming environments
 5Types
 6Interrupt latency
 7Memory technology
o 7.1Data
o 7.2Firmware
 8See also
 9References
 10External links

History[edit]
Background[edit]
Further information: MOS integrated circuit and Microprocessor chronology
The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and
the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips.
The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released on a single MOS LSI
chip in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS
technology, along with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor,
and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima.[1] It was followed by the 4-bit Intel 4040, the 8-
bit Intel 8008, and the 8-bit Intel 8080. All of these processors required several external
chips to implement a working system, including memory and peripheral interface chips.
As a result, the total system cost was several hundred (1970s US) dollars, making it
impossible to economically computerize small appliances.
MOS Technology introduced its sub-$100 microprocessors in 1975, the 6501 and 6502.
Their chief aim was to reduce this cost barrier but these microprocessors still required
external support, memory, and peripheral chips which kept the total system cost in the
hundreds of dollars.
Development[edit]
One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the successful
creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000,
which became commercially available in 1974. It combined read-only memory,
read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded
systems.[2]
During the early-to-mid-1970s, Japanese electronics manufacturers began producing
microcontrollers for automobiles, including 4-bit MCUs for in-car entertainment,
automatic wipers, electronic locks, and dashboard, and 8-bit MCUs for engine control. [3]
Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000, [4] Intel developed a
computer system on a chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with
commercial parts first shipping in 1977. [4] It combined RAM and ROM on the same chip
with a microprocessor. Among numerous applications, this chip would eventually find its
way into over one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intel's President, Luke J. Valenter,
stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful products in the
company's history, and he expanded the microcontroller division's budget by over 25%.
Most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had EPROM program
memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be
erased by exposure to ultraviolet light. These erasable chips were often used for
prototyping. The other variant was either a mask programmed ROM or a PROM variant
which was only programmable once. For the latter, sometimes the designation OTP was
used, standing for "one-time programmable". In an OTP microcontroller, the PROM was
usually of identical type as the EPROM, but the chip package had no quartz window;
because there was no way to expose the EPROM to ultraviolet light, it could not be
erased. Because the erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz
windows, they were significantly more expensive than the OTP versions, which could be
made in lower-cost opaque plastic packages. For the erasable variants, quartz was
required, instead of less expensive glass, for its transparency to ultraviolet light—to
which glass is largely opaque—but the main cost differentiator was the ceramic
package itself.
In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with
the Microchip PIC16C84)[5] to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive
package as required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and in-system
programming. (EEPROM technology had been available prior to this time, [6] but the
earlier EEPROM was more expensive and less durable, making it unsuitable for low-
cost mass-produced microcontrollers.) The same year, Atmel introduced the first
microcontroller using Flash memory, a special type of EEPROM.[7] Other companies
rapidly followed suit, with both memory types.
Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large
online communities around certain processors.
Volume and cost[edit]
In 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and
microprocessors.[8]
Over two billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 1997, [9] and according to Semico,
over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006. [10] More recently, Semico has
claimed the MCU market grew 36.5% in 2010 and 12% in 2011. [11]
A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose
microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range
automobile has about 30 microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical
devices such as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.
Historically, the 8-bit segment has dominated the MCU market [..] 16-bit
microcontrollers became the largest volume MCU category in 2011, overtaking 8-bit
devices for the first time that year [..] IC Insights believes the makeup of the MCU
market will undergo substantial changes in the next five years with 32-bit devices
steadily grabbing a greater share of sales and unit volumes. By 2017, 32-bit MCUs are
expected to account for 55% of microcontroller sales [..] In terms of unit volumes, 32-bit
MCUs are expected account for 38% of microcontroller shipments in 2017, while 16-bit
devices will represent 34% of the total, and 4-/8-bit designs are forecast to be 28% of
units sold that year. The 32-bit MCU market is expected to grow rapidly due to
increasing demand for higher levels of precision in embedded-processing systems and
the growth in connectivity using the Internet. [..] In the next few years, complex 32-bit
MCUs are expected to account for over 25% of the processing power in vehicles.

— IC Insights, MCU Market on Migration Path to 32-bit and ARM-based Devices [12]
Cost to manufacture can be under US$0.10 per unit.
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available
for under US$0.03 in 2018,[13] and some 32-bit microcontrollers around US$1 for similar
quantities.
In 2012, following a global crisis—a worst ever annual sales decline and recovery and
average sales price year-over-year plunging 17%—the biggest reduction since the
1980s—the average price for a microcontroller was US$0.88 (US$0.69 for 4-/8-
bit, US$0.59 for 16-bit, US$1.76 for 32-bit).[12]
In 2012, worldwide sales of 8-bit microcontrollers were around US$4 billion, while 4-
bit microcontrollers also saw significant sales.[14]
In 2015, 8-bit microcontrollers could be bought for US$0.311 (1,000 units),[15] 16-bit
for US$0.385 (1,000 units),[16] and 32-bit for US$0.378 (1,000 units, but at US$0.35 for
5,000).[17]
In 2018, 8-bit microcontrollers could be bought for US$0.03,[13] 16-bit
for US$0.393 (1,000 units, but at US$0.563 for 100 or US$0.349 for full reel of 2,000),
[18]
 and 32-bit for US$0.503 (1,000 units, but at US$0.466 for 5,000).[19]
In 2018, the low-priced microcontrollers above from 2015 were all more expensive (with
inflation calculated between 2018 and 2015 prices for those specific units) at: the 8-bit
microcontroller could be bought for US$0.319 (1,000 units) or 2.6% higher,[15] the 16-bit
one for US$0.464 (1,000 units) or 21% higher,[16] and the 32-bit one for US$0.503 (1,000
units, but at US$0.466 for 5,000) or 33% higher.[17]

A PIC 18F8720 microcontroller in an 80-pin TQFP package

Smallest computer[edit]
On 21 June 2018, the "world's smallest computer" was announced by the University of
Michigan. The device is a "0.04 mm3 16 nW wireless and batteryless sensor system with
integrated Cortex-M0+ processor and optical communication for cellular temperature
measurement." It "measures just 0.3 mm to a side—dwarfed by a grain of rice. [...] In
addition to the RAM and photovoltaics, the new computing devices have processors
and wireless transmitters and receivers. Because they are too small to have
conventional radio antennae, they receive and transmit data with visible light. A base
station provides light for power and programming, and it receives the data." [20] The
device is 1⁄10th the size of IBM's previously claimed world-record-sized computer from
months back in March 2018,[21] which is "smaller than a grain of salt",[22] has a million
transistors, costs less than $0.10 to manufacture, and, combined
with blockchain technology, is intended for logistics and "crypto-anchors"—digital
fingerprint applications.[23]

Embedded design[edit]
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory
and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[24] The majority of
microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles,
telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems.
While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal
requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low
software complexity. Typical input and output devices include
switches, relays, solenoids, LED's, small or custom liquid-crystal displays, radio
frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc.
Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other
recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction
devices of any kind.
Interrupts[edit]
Microcontrollers must provide real-time (predictable, though not necessarily fast)
response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current
instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt
handler") which will perform any processing required based on the source of the
interrupt, before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt
sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer
overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input
such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link.
Where power consumption is important as in battery devices, interrupts may also wake
a microcontroller from a low-power sleep state where the processor is halted until
required to do something by a peripheral event.
Programs[edit]
Typically micro-controller programs must fit in the available on-chip memory, since it
would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable memory. Compilers and
assemblers are used to convert both high-level and assembly language code into a
compact machine code for storage in the micro-controller's memory. Depending on the
device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be
programmed at the factory, or it may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only
memory.
Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their micro-controllers in order to
help the hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these
included EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which
program memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a
programming ("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have
been replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased
electronically) and cheaper to manufacture.
Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external device
rather than as internal memory, however these are becoming rare due to the
widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers.
The use of field-programmable devices on a micro controller may allow field update of
the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but
not yet shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for
deployment of a new product.
Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts
programmed at the time of manufacture can be economical. These "mask programmed"
parts have the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same
time.
A customized micro-controller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be
personalized for additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are
adapted to the requirements of the application. One example is
the AT91CAP from Atmel.
Other microcontroller features[edit]
Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output
pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state.
When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors
or external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices
such as LEDs or motors, often indirectly, through external power electronics.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the
purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret
and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog
signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to
convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common
feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the
processor to output analog signals or voltage levels.
In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of
timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the programmable interval
timer (PIT). A PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity
of the count register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to
the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as
thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to
turn the air conditioner on/off, the heater on/off, etc.
A dedicated pulse-width modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to
control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using many CPU
resources in tight timer loops.
A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to
receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated
on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices
(chips) in digital formats such as Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C), Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI), Universal Serial Bus (USB), and Ethernet.[25]

Higher integration[edit]
Die of a PIC12C508 8-bit, fully static, EEPROM/EPROM/ROM-based CMOS microcontroller manufactured
by Microchip Technology using a 1200 nanometer process

Die of a STM32F100C4T6B ARM Cortex-M3 microcontroller with 16 kilobytes flash memory, 24 MHz central

processing unit (CPU), motor control and Consumer Electronics Control (CEC) functions. Manufactured
by STMicroelectronics.

Micro-controllers may not implement an external address or data bus as they integrate
RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip
can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.
Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit
increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded
system as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly
more than the cost of a CPU and external peripherals, having fewer chips typically
allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble
and test the circuit board, in addition to tending to decrease the defect rate for the
finished assembly.
A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:
  central processing unit – ranging from small and
simple 4-bit processors to complex 32-bit or 64-
bit processors
 volatile memory (RAM) for data storage
 ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash
memory for program and operating parameter
storage
 discrete input and output bits, allowing control or
detection of the logic state of an individual package
pin
 serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs)
 other serial
communications interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral
Interface and Controller Area Network for system
interconnect
 peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM
generators, and watchdog
 clock generator – often an oscillator for a quartz
timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit
 many include analog-to-digital converters, some
include digital-to-analog converters
 in-circuit programming and in-circuit
debugging support
This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring
and circuit board space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using
separate chips. Furthermore, on low pin count devices in particular, each pin may
interface to several internal peripherals, with the pin function selected by software. This
allows a part to be used in a wider variety of applications than if pins had dedicated
functions.
Micro-controllers have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their
introduction in the 1970s.
Some microcontrollers use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for
instructions and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently. Where a Harvard
architecture is used, instruction words for the processor may be a different bit size than
the length of internal memory and registers; for example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-
bit data registers.
The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The microcontroller
vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-
market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers
have to balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality.
Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs include general-purpose
microprocessor cores, with one or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto the
package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A micro-controller
instruction set usually has many instructions intended for bit manipulation (bit-wise
operations) to make control programs more compact. [26] For example, a general purpose
processor might require several instructions to test a bit in a register and branch if the
bit is set, where a micro-controller could have a single instruction to provide that
commonly required function.
Microcontrollers traditionally do not have a math coprocessor, so floating-point
arithmetic is performed by software. However, some recent designs do include an FPU
and DSP optimized features. An example would be Microchip's PIC32 MIPS based line.

Programming environments[edit]
Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but
various high-level programming languages, such as C, Python and JavaScript, are now
also in common use to target microcontrollers and embedded systems.[27] Compilers for
general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as
enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some
microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of applications.
Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt their
hardware.
Microcontrollers with specialty hardware may require their own non-standard dialects of
C, such as SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such as code
libraries or static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware
features. Interpreters may also contain nonstandard features, such as MicroPython,
although a fork, CircuitPython, has looked to move hardware dependencies to libraries
and have the language adhere to a more CPython standard.
Interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example, BASIC on
the early microcontrollers Intel 8052;[28] BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8[29] as well as
some modern devices. Typically these interpreters support interactive programming.
Simulators are available for some microcontrollers. These allow a developer to analyze
what the behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if they were using
the actual part. A simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the
outputs, as well as allowing input signals to be generated. While on the one hand most
simulators will be limited from being unable to simulate much other hardware in a
system, they can exercise conditions that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in
the physical implementation, and can be the quickest way to debug and analyze
problems.
Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when
accessed by an in-circuit emulator (ICE) via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with
a debugger. A real-time ICE may allow viewing and/or manipulating of internal states
while running. A tracing ICE can record executed program and MCU states before/after
a trigger point.

Types[edit]
See also: List of common microcontrollers
As of 2008, there are several dozen microcontroller architectures and vendors including:

 ARM core processors (many vendors)

o ARM Cortex-M cores are specifically
targeted toward microcontroller
applications
 Microchip Technology Atmel AVR (8-
bit), AVR32 (32-bit), and AT91SAM (32-bit)
 Cypress Semiconductor's M8C core used in
their PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip)
 Freescale ColdFire (32-bit) and S08 (8-bit)
 Freescale 68HC11 (8-bit), and others based on the
Motorola 6800 family
 Intel 8051, also manufactured by NXP
Semiconductors, Infineon and many others
 Infineon: 8-bit XC800, 16-bit XE166, 32-bit
XMC4000 (ARM based Cortex M4F), 32-bit
TriCore and, 32-bit Aurix Tricore Bit
microcontrollers[30]
 Maxim Integrated MAX32600, MAX32620,
MAX32625, MAX32630, MAX32650, MAX32640
 MIPS
 Microchip Technology PIC, (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-
bit dsPIC33 / PIC24), (32-bit PIC32)
 NXP Semiconductors LPC1000, LPC2000,
LPC3000, LPC4000 (32-bit), LPC900, LPC700 (8-
bit)
 Parallax Propeller
 PowerPC ISE
 Rabbit 2000 (8-bit)
 Renesas Electronics: RL78 16-bit MCU; RX 32-bit
MCU; SuperH; V850 32-bit MCU; H8; R8C 16-bit
MCU
 Silicon Laboratories Pipelined 8-bit 8051
microcontrollers and mixed-signal ARM-based 32-bit
microcontrollers
 STMicroelectronics STM8 (8-bit), ST10 (16-bit), ST
M32 (32-bit), SPC5 (automotive 32-bit)
 Texas Instruments TI MSP430 (16-
bit), MSP432 (32-bit), C2000 (32-bit)
 Toshiba TLCS-870 (8-bit/16-bit)
Many others exist, some of which are used in very narrow range of applications or are
more like applications processors than microcontrollers. The microcontroller market is
extremely fragmented, with numerous vendors, technologies, and markets. Note that
many vendors sell or have sold multiple architectures.

Interrupt latency[edit]
In contrast to general-purpose computers, microcontrollers used in embedded systems
often seek to optimize interrupt latency over instruction throughput. Issues include both
reducing the latency, and making it be more predictable (to support real-time control).
When an electronic device causes an interrupt, during the context switch the
intermediate results (registers) have to be saved before the software responsible for
handling the interrupt can run. They must also be restored after that interrupt handler is
finished. If there are more processor registers, this saving and restoring process may
take more time, increasing the latency. (If an ISR does not require the use of some
registers, it may simply leave them alone rather than saving and restoring them, so in
that case those registers are not involved with the latency.) Ways to reduce such
context/restore latency include having relatively few registers in their central processing
units (undesirable because it slows down most non-interrupt processing substantially),
or at least having the hardware not save them all (this fails if the software then needs to
compensate by saving the rest "manually"). Another technique involves spending silicon
gates on "shadow registers": One or more duplicate registers used only by the interrupt
software, perhaps supporting a dedicated stack.
Other factors affecting interrupt latency include:

 Cycles needed to complete current CPU activities.

To minimize those costs, microcontrollers tend to
have short pipelines (often three instructions or
less), small write buffers, and ensure that longer
instructions are continuable or
restartable. RISC design principles ensure that most
instructions take the same number of cycles, helping
avoid the need for most such continuation/restart
logic.
 The length of any critical section that needs to be
interrupted. Entry to a critical section restricts
concurrent data structure access. When a data
structure must be accessed by an interrupt handler,
the critical section must block that interrupt.
Accordingly, interrupt latency is increased by
however long that interrupt is blocked. When there
are hard external constraints on system latency,
developers often need tools to measure interrupt
latencies and track down which critical sections
cause slowdowns.
o One common technique just blocks all
interrupts for the duration of the critical
section. This is easy to implement, but
 sometimes critical sections get
uncomfortably long.
o A more complex technique just blocks the
interrupts that may trigger access to that
data structure. This is often based on
interrupt priorities, which tend to not
correspond well to the relevant system
data structures. Accordingly, this
technique is used mostly in very
constrained environments.
o Processors may have hardware support
for some critical sections. Examples
include supporting atomic access to bits
or bytes within a word, or other atomic
access primitives like
the LDREX/STREX exclusive access
primitives introduced in
the ARMv6 architecture.
 Interrupt nesting. Some microcontrollers allow higher
priority interrupts to interrupt lower priority ones. This
allows software to manage latency by giving time-
critical interrupts higher priority (and thus lower and
more predictable latency) than less-critical ones.
 Trigger rate. When interrupts occur back-to-back,
microcontrollers may avoid an extra context
save/restore cycle by a form of tail call optimization.
Lower end microcontrollers tend to support fewer interrupt latency controls than higher
end ones.

Memory technology[edit]
Two different kinds of memory are commonly used with microcontrollers, a non-volatile
memory for storing firmware and a read-write memory for temporary data.
Data[edit]
From the earliest microcontrollers to today, six-transistor SRAM is almost always used
as the read/write working memory, with a few more transistors per bit used in
the register file.
In addition to the SRAM, some microcontrollers also have internal EEPROM for data
storage; and even ones that do not have any (or not enough) are often connected to
external EEPROM chip (such as the BASIC Stamp) or external flash memory chip.
A few microcontrollers beginning in 2003 have "self-programmable" flash memory. [7]
Firmware[edit]
The earliest microcontrollers used mask ROM to store firmware. Later microcontrollers
(such as the early versions of the Freescale 68HC11 and early PIC microcontrollers)
had EPROM memory, which used a translucent window to allow erasure via UV light,
while production versions had no such window, being OTP (one-time-programmable).
Firmware updates were equivalent to replacing the microcontroller itself, thus many
products were not upgradeable.
Motorola MC68HC805[6] was the first microcontroller to use EEPROM to store the
firmware. EEPROM microcontrollers became more popular in 1993 when Microchip
introduced PIC16C84[5] and Atmel introduced an 8051-core microcontroller that was first
one to use NOR Flash memory to store the firmware.[7] Today's microcontrollers almost
all use flash memory, with a few models using FRAM and some ultra-low-cost parts still
using OTP or Mask ROM.

See also[edit]

 Electronics portal

 List of common microcontrollers

 List of Wi-Fi microcontrollers
 List of open-source hardware projects
 Microbotics
 Programmable logic controller
 Single-board microcontroller

References[edit]
1. ^ "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a
Single Chip".  The Silicon Engine.  Computer History Museum.
Retrieved 22 July  2019.
2. ^ Augarten, Stan (1983). The Most Widely Used Computer
on a Chip: The TMS 1000. State of the Art: A Photographic
History of the Integrated Circuit. New Haven and New York:
Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 978-0-89919-195-9. Retrieved  2009-
12-23.
3. ^ "Trends in the Semiconductor Industry".  Semiconductor
History Museum of Japan. Archived from  the original on
2019-06-27. Retrieved 2019-06-27.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b "Oral History Panel on the Development and
Promotion of the Intel 8048 Microcontroller"  (PDF).  Computer
History Museum Oral History, 2008. p. 4. Retrieved 2016-04-
04.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b "Chip Hall of Fame: Microchip Technology
PIC 16C84 Microcontroller". IEEE. 2017-06-30.
Retrieved September 16, 2018.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Motorola.  Advance Information, 8-Bit
Microcomputers MC68HC05B6, MC68HC05B4,
MC68HC805B6, Motorola Document EADI0054RI. Motorola
Ltd., 1988.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Atmel's Self-Programming Flash
Microcontrollers"  (PDF). 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2008-10-
25. by Odd Jostein Svendsli 2003
8. ^ Turley, Jim (2002).  "The Two Percent
Solution". Embedded. Retrieved  2018-07-11.
9. ^ Cantrell, Tom (1998). "Microchip on the March". Circuit
Cellar. Archived from  the original on 2007-09-27.
Retrieved 2018-07-11.
10. ^ "Semico Research".
11. ^ "Momentum Carries MCUs Into 2011 | Semico
Research".  semico.com. Retrieved  2018-07-11.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b "MCU Market on Migration Path to 32-bit and
ARM-based Devices". April 25, 2013.  It typically takes a
global economic recession to upset the diverse MCU
marketplace, and that's exactly what occurred in 2009, when
the microcontroller business suffered its worst-ever annual
sales decline of 22% to $11.1 billion.
13. ^ Jump up to:a b "The really low cost
MCUs".  www.additude.se. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
14. ^ Bill Giovino. "Zilog Buys Microcontroller Product Lines from
Samsung". 2013.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b "EFM8BB10F2G-A-QFN20 Silicon Labs |
Mouser".
16. ^ Jump up to:a b "MSP430G2001IPW14R Texas Instruments |
Mouser".
17. ^ Jump up to:a b "CY8C4013SXI-400 Cypress Semiconductor |
Mouser".  Mouser Electronics. Archived from the original  on
2015-02-18.
18. ^ "MSP430FR2000IPW16R Texas Instruments | Mouser".
19. ^ "CY8C4013SXI-400 Cypress Semiconductor |
Mouser".  Mouser Electronics. Retrieved  2018-07-11.
20. ^ U-M researchers create world's smallest
'computer',  University of Michigan, 2018-06-21
21. ^ University of Michigan outdoes IBM with world's smallest
'computer',  CNET, 2018-06-22
22. ^ IBM fighting counterfeiters with world's smallest
computer, CNET, 2018-03-19
23. ^ IBM Built a Computer the Size of a Grain of Salt. Here's
What It's For., Fortune, 2018-03-19
24. ^ Heath, Steve (2003).  Embedded systems design. EDN
series for design engineers (2 ed.). Newnes. pp. 11–
12.  ISBN  9780750655460.
25. ^ David Harris & Sarah Harris (2012). Digital Design and
Computer Architecture, Second Edition, p. 515. Morgan
Kaufmann. ISBN 0123944244.
26. ^ Easy Way to build a microcontroller project
27. ^ Mazzei, Daniele; Montelisciani, Gabriele; Baldi, Giacomo;
Fantoni, Gualtiero (2015). "Changing the programming
paradigm for the embedded in the IoT domain".  2015 IEEE
2nd World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT). Internet of
Things (WF-IoT), 2015 IEEE 2nd World Forum on. Milan:
IEEE. pp. 239–244. doi:10.1109/WF-
IoT.2015.7389059.  ISBN  978-1-5090-0366-2.
28. ^ "8052-Basic Microcontrollers" by Jan Axelson 1994
29. ^ Edwards, Robert (1987).  "Optimizing the Zilog Z8 Forth
Microcontroller for Rapid Prototyping"  (PDF). Martin Marietta:
3. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
 30. ^ www.infineon.com/mcu

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