Measurement: The process of applying numbers to objects according to a set of rules.

1. Nominal – assign numbers to objects where different numbers indicate different objects. The numbers have no
real meaning other than differentiating between objects.
a. Example: Sex; 1=Male/2=Female; Whatever number you will assign as long males have the same yung
designated number. It doesn’t mean that na mas mataas yung female ay better na. the higher the
number are better.
b. Volleyball uniform numbers – the number provides no insight into the player’s position.
2. Ordinal – assign numbers to objects (like nominal), but here the numbers also have meaningful order.
a. Placed finished; 1st, 2nd. 3rd malalaman kung sinong better. Nara-rank
b. Grades
3. Interval – number have order (like ordinal), but there are also equal intervals between adjacent categories.
a. Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit: the difference between 78 degrees and 79 degrees (1 degree) is the
same as 45 and 46 degrees.
b. May value kasi yung 0 sa temperature
4. Ratio – differences are meaningful (like interval), plus ratios are meaningful and there are true zero point.
a. Weight in pounds – 10lbs is twice as much as 5 lbs. (ratios are meaningful: 10/5 = 2)
b. Zero pounds means no weight or an absence of weight (true zero point)
c. Height

I will help you choose the appropriate data analysis that you can use for your research using descriptive statistics.

This video will discuss frequency and percentage, measures of central tendency or location and measures of variability
or spread. These do not actually test any hypotheses.

Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set which can be either a
representation of the entire population or a sample of it. Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply
presented our raw data, it would be hard to visualize what the data is showing especially if there is a lot of it. Descriptive
statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful way which allows simpler interpretation of the
data.

We will be discussing some of the most commonly used descriptive statistics in quantitative research: frequency and
percentage table, measure of central tendency and measure of variability.

Let's start with frequency and percentage tables. This display counts and percentages for each distinct value found in a
variable normally a categorical variable. Frequencies are the number of times each score occurs in the respective data
set whereas percentage is a number or ratio that represents a fraction of 100. Frequency and percentage table is
normally used to describe nominal variable such as sex, religion, place of birth, etc. In creating frequency and percentage
table, all you need to do is to identify the possible data associated with your variable. For example, sex which data are
either male or female and count how many times these data occurred in your data set for frequency then divide these
numbers by the sample size and multiply by 100 for percentage.

Here are some examples wherein you can use frequency and percentage table to answer research questions or achieve
research objectives:
 A researcher would like to know what religion his respondents belong to
 A high school teacher would like to know how many of her students find her subject difficult or not
  a research student would like to describe the grade level of his respondents
 a reporter would like to know whether people agree or disagree with anti-terror bill

The next is measure of central tendency. A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set
of data by identifying the central position within that set of data. As such measures of central tendency are sometimes
called measure of central location. They are also classed as summary statistics while there are three measures of central
tendencies in this video, we will discuss only the two the arithmetic mean and median.

The first measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean. This is a mathematical representation of the typical value
of a series of numbers computed as the sum of all the numbers in the series divided by the count of all numbers in the
series. The arithmetic mean is sometimes referred to as the average or simply as the mean there are several
assumptions that you need to satisfy before you can use the arithmetic mean. If at least one of the assumptions are not
satisfied then you cannot use it listed below are the assumptions:
 the measurement scale of the variable is at least interval
 the data should be approximately normally distributed
 the data should not contain significant outliers

the first assumption can be satisfied if your research instrument gives an interval or ratio data
the second assumption can be checked using normal qq plot histogram or other statistical tools
finally, the third assumption can be checked using box plots

You cannot use arithmetic mean for nominal or ordinal values because adding the data associated with this kind of
variables does not make sense. For example, consider the educational attainment of a certain sample group. This
variable is considered as an ordinal level variable. If we try to describe them using arithmetic mean the value is 2.4.
What does a 2.4 educational attainment mean? A second-year college student? Basically, it is not clear to us what 2.4
educational attainment mean also adding college graduate, college level, college level, college level, and college
graduate does not make sense at all. In addition, arithmetic mean is quite sensitive to outliers. If there exists at least one
outlier in the data the arithmetic mean does not describe the entire data well. For example, consider the wages of 10
staffs at a factory below notice that staff 9 and 10 have significantly large salary compared to the other eight we
may consider them as outliers. If we try to compute the mean salary of the sample, we get 30 700 pesos. Clearly, this
value does not represent the sample effectively since eight of the samples are below it. Whereas, two of them are above
the average.

Here are some examples wherein you can use mean to answer research questions or achieve research objectives.
 You want to describe the weight of your family and you found out that the data is normally distributed.
 You want to describe the daily allowance of your classmates and you assume that it is normally distributed.
 You want to summarize your grades in all subject for the first quarter and you found out that your grades are
normally distributed.

The next central tendency that we will discuss is the median. This is the middle score for a set of data that has been
arranged in order of magnitude. The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data. The only assumption that you
need to satisfy before you can use median is that the variable should be at least ordinal. In fact, if your data is either not
normally distributed or contain significant outliers, you must use median instead of mean. Definitely, you cannot use
median for nominal variables because they do not carry any magnitude.

Here are some examples wherein you can use median to answer research questions or achieve research objectives:
  A doctor wants to describe the pain experience by his patient as measured as not painful, slightly painful,
painful, and very painful.
 A researcher would like to summarize the weight of his respondents but the data is not normally distributed.
 A manager would like to summarize the monthly salary of his employees but she found out that it contains
significant outliers.

Finally, the measure of variability. A measure of variability sometimes also called a measure of dispersion or measure of
spread is used to describe the variability in a sample or population. It is usually used in conjunction with a measure of
central tendency such as the mean or median to provide an overall description of a set of data. A measure of variability
gives us an idea of how well the mean. For example, represents the data, if the spread of values in the data set is large,
the mean is not as representative of the data as if the spread of the data is small. This is because a large spread indicates
that there are probably large differences between individual scores. Additionally, in research, it is often seen as positive
if there is little variation in each data group as it indicates that the respondents are similar

In this video we will discuss the standard deviation and the interquartile range. The first measure of variability is the
standard deviation. The standard deviation is a statistic that measures the dispersion of a data set relative to its mean
and is calculated as the square root of the variance. Standard deviation is used when the arithmetic mean is used to
calculate central tendency. If the data points are further from the mean, there is a higher deviation within the data set
thus the more spread out the data the higher the standard deviation

Another measure of variability is the interquartile range. The interquartile range describes the difference between the
third quartile and the first quartile telling us about the range of the middle half of the scores in the distribution. The
interquartile range is often reported along with the median as the best choice of measure of spread and central
tendency respectively when dealing with skewed and or data with outliers. Similar to standard deviation, the variation is
high if the interquartile range is high

In summary the table below summarize what statistical tool should you use to describe your data set. If you have a
nominal variable, you may use frequency and percentage table to describe your data. If you have ordinal variable, you
may use median and interquartile range or frequency and percentage table. If you have interval or ratio variable but not
normally distributed and contains outliers or both you may use median and interquartile range. Finally, if you have
interval or ratio variable and is normally distributed you may use mean and standard deviation. While there are other
descriptive statistics that you can use to describe your data. These are enough to give you an idea about your
respondents or your unit of analysis.

What Is a Likert Scale? | Guide & Examples

Published on July 3, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari and Kassiani Nikolopoulou. Revised on January 16, 2023.

A Likert scale is a rating scale used to measure opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.

It consists of a statement or a question, followed by a series of five or seven answer statements. Respondents choose
the option that best corresponds with how they feel about the statement or question.

Because respondents are presented with a range of possible answers, Likert scales are great for capturing the level of
agreement or their feelings regarding the topic in a more nuanced way. However, Likert scales are prone to response
bias, where respondents either agree or disagree with all the statements due to fatigue or social desirability or have a
tendency toward extreme responding or other demand characteristics.
Likert scales are common in survey research, as well as in fields like marketing, psychology, or other social sciences.
In 1932, Rensis Likert, a psychologist interested in measuring people’s opinions or attitudes on a variety of items,
developed the original Likert scale. Today, Likert scales are widely used in social and educational research.

Here are the 3 most popular Likert Scale Points;

4 Point Likert Scale

4 point Likert scale is basically a forced Likert scale. The reason it is named as such is that the user is forced to form an
opinion. There is no safe ‘neutral’ option. Ideally a good scale for market researchers, they make use of the 4 point scale
to get specific responses.

Pros of a 4 Point scale

 In certain cases in which a specific user opinion is essential, the 4-point scale is most ideal.
 Best for recording opinions on services/products which the user has used/experienced.
 Usually, Likert scales are odd-numbered scales. It provides an exception to the rule

Cons of a 4 point scale

 A 4 point Likert scale is observed to distort the results.
 A 4 point Likert scale forces a choice when a respondent has no opinion
 A 5 point Likert scale data is more accurate than the 4 point data.
 Respondents might not answer at all. In many cases, it is preferable to know that they were neutral rather than
having them not answer the question at all.

Four Point Likert Scale Examples

4 point Likert scale examples include a 4 point scale for the frequency with options; never, rarely, often, and every time.
A four-point scale example for Agreement with options ranging from strongly disagree & agree, a four-point Likert scale
example for satisfaction, whose option ranges between strongly satisfied and dissatisfied.

1. 4 Point Likert Scale Example for Frequency

To measure frequency, customer care surveys can make use of an even Likert scale question.

2. 4 Point Likert Scale Example for Agreement

This question goes, either way and is linked with intermediate agreement answer options. These questions are used to
measure customer satisfaction.

3. 4 Point Likert Scale Example for Satisfaction: The two sides to satisfaction which is satisfied and dissatisfied will be
interlinked with other answer options without a neutral answer option.

Interpretation of a 4 Point Likert Scale

To interpret a 4 point scale, assign each response a point value, from 1 to 4, based on the number of responses.
Common values for the options start with “strongly disagree” at 1 point and “strongly agree” at 4.
Create a table for your results and find the Mode (number of times something occurs) and the average response (Mean).
The mode will tell you the most common response to each statement while the mean will give you the overall average
response.
5 Point Likert Scale
5 point Likert scale consists of 5 answer options which will contain two extreme poles and a neutral option connected
with intermediate answer options. A commonly used 5 point Likert scale example to measure satisfaction is: Very
satisfied, Satisfied, Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, and Very dissatisfied.

Over time, Likert’s original 5-point scale has taken new forms. It offers 5 different answer options related to an
agreement that would be distinct enough for the respondents.

Pros of a 5 Point scale

 It is relatively easier for respondents to understand.
 A 5 point scale is ideal for a larger study.
 5 point Likert scales tend to produce better distributions of data
Cons of a 5 point Likert scale
 It is sometimes inaccurate.
 5-point scales can’t measure all attitudes towards an issue.
 The results of a 5-point scale might not be objective.
Examples of Five Point Likert Scale Questionnaires
1. 5 Point Likert Scale Example for Agreement

This scale would consist of 5 answer options which will contain polls and a neutral option connected with intermediate
answer options. These scales can be used in a similar manner for measuring likelihood, importance, frequency, and
many other factors.

2. 5 Point Likert Scale Example for Satisfaction

This scale of measuring satisfaction will offer 5 answer options such as satisfied and dissatisfied with a neutral option at
the midpoint. These options are interlinked with other options that would provide respondents the variations they look
for.

3. 5 Point Likert Scale Example for Frequency

To measure the frequency of an occurrence with other options that would provide respondents the variations they look
for.

7 Point Likert Scale

7 point Likert scales are an upgrade to the 5-point scale. A 7-point Likert scale ranges from one extreme to another, like
“extremely likely” to “not at all likely.”

What is a 7 point Likert Scale?

A 7 point Likert scale offers 7 different answer options related to an agreement that would be distinct enough for the
respondents, without throwing them into confusion. Typically, it includes a moderate or neutral midpoint, and 7 point
likert scales are known to be the most accurate of the Likert scales

Pros of a 7 Point scale

 It is the most accurate of the Likert scales
 It is easier to use
 It gives a better reflection of a respondent’s true evaluation.
 The best solution for questionnaires such as those used in usability evaluations.
Con of a 7 point scale
  Respondents’ answers will be influenced by previous questions
Examples of a 7 Point Likert Scale
A 7 point Likert scale example for an agreement will include options such as; strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat
disagree, either agree or disagree, somewhat agree, and agree while 7 point Likert examples for frequency and
satisfaction follow the same manner.

1. 7 Point Likert Scale Example for Agreement:

This scale offers 7 different answer options related to an agreement that would be distinct enough for the respondents
to answer without getting confused. These scales can be used in a similar manner for measuring likelihood, importance,
frequency, and many other factors.

2. 7 Point Likert Scale Example for Satisfaction

This scale of measuring satisfaction will offer 7 answer options such as satisfied and dissatisfied with a neutral option at
the midpoint. The other options must be distinct and should add value to the scale in such a way that respondents can
provide precise feedback without any hindrances.

3. 7 Point Likert Scale Example of Frequency

To measure the frequency of occurrence in such a way that respondents can provide precise feedback without any
hindrances.

Other Likert Scale Points Includes;

2 Point Likert Scale
The 2 points Likert scale is the simplest Likert scale question example where there’ll be just two Likert options, such as
agree and disagree as two poles of the scale. It is typically used to measure Agreement.

3 Points Likert Scale

3 Point Likert scale is a scale that offers agree and disagree as to the polar points along with a neutral option. Like the 2-
point scale, the 3 point scale is also used to measure Agreement. Options will include: Agree, Disagree, and Neutral.

6 Points Likert Scale

A 6 point Likert scale forces choice and gives better data. And, if at any point a neutral is desired, the “slightly agree” and
“slightly disagree” can be averaged together. The 6 points Likert scale offers options for Extremely satisfied Very
satisfied, Somewhat satisfied, Somewhat dissatisfied, Very dissatisfied, and Extremely dissatisfied.

How to write strong Likert scale questions

Each Likert scale–style question should assess a single attitude or trait. In order to get accurate results, it is important to
word your questions precisely. As a rule of thumb, make sure each question only measures one aspect of your topic.

For example, if you want to assess attitudes towards environmentally friendly behaviors, you can design a Likert scale
with a variety of questions that measure different aspects of this topic.

Here are a few pointers:

 Include both questions and statements

 Use both positive and negative framing
 Avoid double negatives
  Ask about only one thing at a time
 Be crystal clear
Include both questions and statements
A good rule of thumb is to use a mix of both to keep your participants engaged during the survey. When deciding how to
phrase questions and statements, it’s important that they are easily understood and do not bias your respondents in
one way or another.

Use both positive and negative framing

If all of your questions only ask about things in socially desirable ways, your participants may be biased towards agreeing
with all of them to show themselves in a positive light.

Respondents who agree with the first statement should also disagree with the second. By including both of these
statements in a long survey, you can also check whether the participants’ responses are reliable and consistent.

Avoid double negatives

Double negatives can lead to confusion and misinterpretations, as respondents may be unsure of what they are agreeing
or disagreeing with.

Ask about only one thing at a time

Avoid double-barreled questions (asking about two different topics within the same question). When faced with such
questions, your respondents may selectively answer about one topic and ignore the other. Questions like this may also
confuse respondents, leading them to choose a neutral but inaccurate answer in an attempt to answer both questions
simultaneously.

Be crystal clear
The accuracy of your data also relies heavily on word choice:

 Pose your questions clearly, leaving no room for misunderstanding.

 Make language and stylistic choices that resonate with your target demographic.
 Stay away from jargon that could discourage or confuse your respondents.

Cronbach’s Alpha Internal Consistency

a ≥ 0.9 Excellent
0.9 ≥ a ≥ 0.8 Good
0.8 ≥ a ≥ 0.7 Acceptable
0.7 ≥ a ≥ 0.6 Questionable
0.6 ≥ a ≥ 0.5 Poor
0.5> a Unacceptable