Bank and Shore Protection in California Highway Practice., - Full - View

B 3 MSI 33S
SHORE
PROT-T;ON
in California Highway Practice
CALIFO1_A - DEPAR0M;NT O_ PUsLIC WORKS - DIVISION OF HIGHWAYS

LIBRARY
tmivtutnr or j
DOCUMENTS
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STATE OF CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
DIVISION OF HIGHWAYS '
BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION IN
' CALIFORNIA HIGHWAY PRACTICE
November 1960
1ENTS DEPARTMENT
NOV 27 1961
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
EDMUND G. BROWN
Governor
ROBERT B. BRADFORD
Director of Public Works
J. C. WOMACK
Statt Highway Engineer
FIGURE 1. Pt. Mugu VII-Ven-60-A
Wave attack on seawall.
TC153.
DOCUMENTS
DEPT.
FOREWORD
With recognition that bank and shore protection had become more
and more important in modern highway practice, that protective de-
vices and systems varied widely in character and cost, and that per-
formance of existing works should be an excellent guide to future
design, the State Highway Engineer in 1949 established two committees
charged with review of performance of bank and shore protection and
development of guides for future construction.
Of these, the General Committee acted in an executive capacityâ€”
appointing, directing and reviewing reports of a task group known as
the Joint Bank Protection Committee. Personnel of both committees,
including replacements parallel to departmental changes, are listed in
the introductory chapter.
This bulletin is essentially a summary of interim reports of the Joint
Bank Protection Committee to the General Committee, presenting with
explanation and clarification the findings and recommendations in ab-
stract form. These have been arranged in chapters for easier reference,
followed by appended definitions and supporting references.
665
iii
BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION IN CALIFORNIA
HIGHWAY PRACTICE
This publication may be ordered from:
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
PRINTING DIVISION
DOCUMENTS SECTION
North 7th Street and Richards Boulevard
Sacramento 14, California
Postpaid price $3.00 within the V. S.
Postpaid price $3.50 outside the V. 8.
California residents include V/t sales tax.
ERRATA
Page Change
ix Under Index of Design Charts assign :
" C ". page " 108 " to " Significant wave height''.
"D". page "112" to "Weight of stone for streanihank protection".
20 Figure 27. delete "distantly".
24 Caption. Figure 30, "Grantitic" to "Granitic".
31 Caption, Figure 37, "Cove" to "Cone".
71 Caption, Figure 90. delete t from Batehelor.
85 Caption, Figure 106, "cut-slop" to "cut-slope".
86 Caption, Figure 108, "intensive" to "intrinsic".
93 Figure 122, interchange location designation of photos "A" and "B".
93 Caption. Figure 125, "Humbolt" to "Humboldt".
104 Under heading "stone size", change "Chart A" to "Chart B".
(Correction is in second paragraph).
104 Formula should be :
... 0.003 du' sgr csc3 (p - a)
H=
106 Paragraph (b). change "Chart 1?" to "Chart A".
110 Formula should be :
- 0.00002 V< sg, csc' (g - a)
- I)3
104 Under, "stone size", "o = 70c for randomly placed rubble."
to "p = 70Â° for randomly placed rubble."
111 Under Specifications, "adopts" to "adapts".
113 Table 2 title, "Chart C" to "Chart D".
123 Figure 160, "1' mill, penetration if grouted" to "Penetration as in
Table 5 if grouted".
127 Ijast paragraph, reference figure "49" to "311".
129 Figure 165, change "Note" to read: "For mattress details see Figure
184".
130 Figure 166, change concrete slope paving reference. "Figure 14" to
"Figure 163".
132 Under specifications. 3rd paragraph, "0.1 in." to "0.1 ft."
136 Under Details, 2nd paragraph, "streeper" to "steeper".
153 Under Retards and Permeable Jetties, 6th paragraph, "envelop" to
"envelope".
156 Under "Notes", "Figure 197" to "Figure 198".
172 2nd paragraph, "Fig. 21B" to "Fig. 218".
228 Armor 1., line 2, insert Â« in reasonable.
262 Figure 317, " Little John Cr." to " Ijittlejohn Cr".
268 Figure 332, '' Guyama " to " Cuyaina''.
272 Figure 339, "Aqua" to "Agua".
386 Paragraph 1. "Charts A. P. and C" to "Charts A. B. and D".
Notification of additional errors would be appreciated.
Please direct correspondence to
BANK PROTECTION COMMITTEE
Division of Highways
Box 1499
Sacramento 7, California
)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pace
I Introduction 1
Authorization 1
Scope 2
Historical background 2
Procedure 8
Findings 10
Recommendations 21
Appended matter 24
Acknowledgments 25
II Hazards of Erosion 27
Erosive waters 27
Hydraulic action 35
Tangential flow 35
Curvilinear flow + 36
Restrictions 38
Varied flow 38
Unsteady flow .41 .
Wave erosion 44
Static erosion 50
Intrinsic erosion 52
Aeolian erosion 52
Summary 54
III Hazards of Location 55
Cross-channel location 55
Parallel location 61
Lakes and tidal basins 70
Ocean-front locations 72
Desert-wash locations 82
Dune locations 84
Location exposed to intrinsic erosion 84
Mechanics of hydraulic erosion 87
IV Classification of Protective Devices 89
Armor 89
Retard 92
Jetty 94
Groin 97
Bulkhead 97
Baffle 99
V Design Principles 101
Rock slope protection 101
Shore structures 104
Stone Size 104
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
V Design Principlesâ€”Continued Page
Rock slope protectionâ€”Continued
Shore structuresâ€”Continued
Dimensions 106
Backing 109
Stream-bank structures 110
Stone size 110
Dimensions 110
Summary factors 111
Specifications 111
Stone size 114
Specific gravity 114
Soundness 114
Absorption 114
Abrasion 114
Placing 116
Dimensional ratios 116
Definitions 117
Approximations 117
Maximum length 118
Revetment thickness 120
Quantities '. 122
Grouted-rock slope protection 122
Proportions 124
Specifications 124
Concrete paving slope protection 126
Adaptation to site 127
Reinforcement 131
Specifications 132
Sacked-concrete slope protection 133
Details 136
Specifications 138
Future modifications 138
Asphalt concrete slope paving 139
Details 141
Specifications 142
Rock-and-wire mattresses 143
PCC articulated blocks 145
Reticulated revetment 145
Retards and permeable jetties 153
Timber piling ._ _ 153
Specifications 155
Fence types 160
Jacks and tetrahedrons 164
Groins 169
Materials 169
Alignment 169
Grade 173
Permeability 174
Length and spacing 174
Section 174
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
Page
Bulkheads 178
Walls 180
Cribs 183
Piling 185
Seawalls 186
Miscellaneous types 189
Design high water 197
Plans and drawings 200
VI Construction Procedures 203
Construction supervision 203
Field review 203
Field control 204
Final inspection 204
Rock slope protection 204
Sacked-eoncrete slope protection 206
Grouted rock slope protection ._ 208
Concrete paving slope protection 209
Asphalt slope paving 211
Rock-and-wire mattress 212
Articulated blocks 213
Hand-placed dry-rubble facing; broken concrete 214
Reticulated revetment 215
Precast concrete cells, filled 216
Tetrapods and tribars 217
Tetrahedrons 218
Jacks 219
Timber pile structures 220
Fence-type structures 222
VII Planning of Protective Works 227
Reconnaissance 227
General concepts of planning 228
Armor 228
Retard 230
Jetty 234
Groin 234
Bulkhead 234
Baffle 237
Application 238
Cross channelâ€”young valley 238
Cross channelâ€”mature valley 241
Parallel locationâ€”young valley 242
Parallel locationâ€”mature valley 245
Lakes and tidal basins 248
Ocean front 248
Desert wash 249
Overflow and floods 249
Artificial channels and ditches 249
Special applications at bridges 251
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continutd
VII Planning of Protective Worksâ€”Continued PaB8
Reconnaissanceâ€”Continued
General concepts of planningâ€”Continued
Dune 253
Roadside and intercepting ditches 253
Costs 254
Records 254
Inflation 254
Reconnaissance estimates 255
VIII Maintenance of Bank Protection Devices 259
Inspection 259
Off-site procedure 259
Armor 260
Rigid 260
Flexible 264
Self-adjusting 267
Retard 268
Jetties 270
Groins 271
Bulkhead 271
Baffle 271
IX Coordination 277
Design and construction 277
District and bridge 277
Construction and maintenance 278
Maintenance and design 279
Other agencies 280
APPENDICES
A Reference bibliography 283
B Definitions 293
C Prior reports 299
Survey report by Withycombe, 1927 299
Supplemental report by Withycombe, 1927 303
Joint departmental report, 1938 305
Deterioration of riprap, Waddell Bluff, 1952 369
D Authorizations and correspondence 387
E Patents 415
F Index of photographs 421
INDEX OF TABLES
Page
1. Maximum and minimum discharge recorded for large streams in California 44
2. Application of Chart C to design of stream bank revetment 113
3. Standard classes of rock slope protection 115
4. Extreme shapes of revetment stones 118
5. Recommended grading of grouted-rock slope protection 124
6. Tidal elements for California coast 198
7. Tidal design factors for coastal districts 199
8. Guide to selection of protection class 228
9. Historical and current costs 255
10. Reconnaissance cost factors for rock slope protection 256
11. Reconnaissance cost factors for grouted-rock slope protection 256
12. Reconnaissance cost factors for dense revetment 257
13. Reconnaissance cost factors for retards 257
14. Riprap investigation, laboratory tests 376
15. Typical structures in District I in 1950 391
16. Typical installations in District IV prior to 1950 397
17. Bank and shore protection in District VII, 1913-1949 406
18. Bank-protection features in District VIII 410
19. Flood-control devices in District XI 413
INDEX OF DESIGN CHARTS
A. Weight of stone for shore protection in deep water 105
B. Weight of stone for shore protection in shoal water 107
C. Weight of stone for stream-bank protection 108
D. Significant wave height 112
INDEX OF DRAWINGS
FIGURE 41. Velocity distribution in tangential flow 35
FIGURE 42. Velocity distribution in curvilinear flow 35
FIGURE 44. Turbulence in restricted channel 37
FIGURE 46. Turbulence at reef in channel 37
FIGURE 47. Varied flow at change of section, roughness or shape 38
FIGURE 51. Unsteady flow along unstable bank 41
FIGURE 55. Elements of a simple wave 45
FIGURE 57. Refraction of skew waves 46
FIGURE 59. Seasonal change of beach between two headlands 48
FIGURE 67. Cross-channel highway location hazards â€” â€” 56
FIGURE 78. Hazard at alternative parallel highway locations . 63
FIGURE 84. Alternative cross-over highway locations 67
FIGURE 87. Advantage of low-grade parallel location 69
FIGURE 98. Effect of sand supply on shore protection 78
FIGURE 103. Alternative highway locations on debris cone 82
FIGURE 104. Formation of sand dune 83
FIGURE 108. Intrinsic erosion of highway section 86
FIGURE 109. Turbulent flow along rough channel boundary 87
FIGURE 153. Rock slope shore protection, typical section 103
FIGURE 154. Design wave for shore protection 106
FIGURE 157. Effect of geometric shape on size of stone I 119
FIGURE 158. Effect of stone size on revetment thickness 121
FIGURE 160. Rock and grouted-rock slope protection details 123
FIGURE 163. Heavy duty concrete slope paving details 127
FIGURE 164. Eight duty concrete slope paving details 128
FIGURE 165. Detailsâ€”mattress protecting revetment toe 129
FIGURE 166. Concrete slope paving with sheet-pile toe wall 130
FIGURE 170. Sacked concrete slope protectionâ€”1^:1 slope 134
iz
220.
222.
227.
FIGURE 171.
FIGURE 177.
FIGURE 183.
FIGURE 184.
FIGURE 185.
FIGURE 186.
FIGURE 188.
FIGURE 196.
FIGURE 197.
FIGURE 198.
FIGURE 206.
FIGURE 207.
FIGURE 210.
FIGURE 211.
FIGURE 217.
FIGURE 218.
FIGURE 219.
FIGURE
FIGURE
FIGURE
FIGURE 238.
FIGURE 248.
FIGURE 259.
FIGURE 260.
FIGURE 287.
FIGURE 288.
FIGURE 289.
FIGURE 290.
FIGURE 291.
FIGURE 292.
FIGURE 293.
FIGURE 296.
FIGURE 305.
FIGURE 351.
FIGURE 357.
FIGURE 365.
FIGURE 372.
FIGURE 380.
FIGURE 394.
FIGURE 407.
FIGURE 416.
FIGURE 425.
FIGURE 432.
FIGURE 443.
Page
Sacked concrete slope protectionâ€”1:1 and 2:1 slopes 135
Detailsâ€”asphaltic slope paving 141
Heavy duty rock-and-wire mattress as armor â€” 146
Heavy duty rock-and-wire mattress details 147
Light duty rock-and-wire mattress details 148
Articulated concrete block details 149
Reticulated (wire mesh) revetment 151
Timber pile retardâ€”details and layout 156
Timber pile jetty and retardâ€”alternative details 157
Timber pile jetty details . _ 158
Eight duty double fence details 162
Heavy duty double fence details 163
Steel tetrahedron details 165
Steel jack details .._ 167
Reach and shoreline formation between headlands 172
Reach detained by groins normal to shoreline 173
Alignment of groins to an oblique sea _ 173
Length and spacing of groins west of Santa Monica 175
Detailsâ€”stone groins 177
Typical forms of bulkhead walls 181
Effect of shape of seawall sections on wave impact 188
Rroken slab slope protectionâ€”details 192
Nomenclature of tidal elements 197
Variation of tide range with latitude 199
Tetrahedron retard layout 231
Jack retard layout 231
Double fence retard layout 232
Single pile fence retard details and layout 233
Tetrahedron jetty layout 235
Timber pile jetty layout 236
Typical groin layout 237
Slope protection using prestressed concrete sheet-piling 240
Tetrahedron jetties with jack retard 247
Clean graded rock riprap* 309
Sacked concrete* 314
Flexible rock-and-wire mattress* 320
Gunite facing* 326
Concrete slope paving* 332
Double rail fence * 342
Double pipe fence * 349
Timber pile and wire mesh * 355
Steel tetrahedrons* 360
Steel jacks* _ __ ._ 364
Percent loss of granitic rocks during wetting and drying tests ._ 380
* 1938 Report (Appendix C)
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FIGURE 2. VII-LA
Constructing concrete paving slope protection in Los Angeles County, circa 1921.
FIGURE 4. Rincon VII-Ven-2-F,G

Early seawall to protect highway along
Ventura coast, circa 1926.
XII
INTRODUCTION
AUTHORIZATION
Initiation of a critical review of bank protection was recommended
in a memorandum from Assistant State Highway Engineer, F. W.
Panhorst to State Highway Engineer George T. McCoy on February
15, 1949, in which it was proposed that a joint departmental committee
on bank protection performance and practice be appointed with repre-
sentatives from Bridge, Construction, Design and Maintenance Depart-
ments of the Division of Highways.
The recommendation was approved on March 19, with appointment
of Assistant State Highway Engineers Gillis, Panhorst and Vickrey as
a general committee to select and direct a Joint Bank Protection Com-
mittee from their respective staffs. They appointed Messrs. Rowe and
Tilton to the joint committee, representing Bridge and Construction
Departments, and directed them to meet with Mr. A. M. Nash, Design
Engineer, to determine the scope of the review and complete the selec-
tion of personnel. Mr. Nash appointed Mr. Long to represent the Design
Department and Mr. T. H. Dennis, Maintenance Engineer, appointed
Mr. Woodin to represent the Maintenance Department.
This completed the initial appointments. Supplemental appointments
were made as vacancies occurred in both committees, resulting in the
following roster during the 10-year review:
GENERAL COMMITTEE
ASSISTANT STATE HIGHWAY ENGINEERS
Gillis, R. M March 19, 1949-July 31, 1950 1
Panhorst, F. W March 19, 1949-
Trask, J. W March 1, 1957-
Vickrey, J. W March 19, 1949-November 2, 1955 1
Withycombe, E. August 1, 1950-February 28, 1957 2
Womack, J. C. November 3, 1955-
JOINT BANK PROTECTION COMMITTEE
Bangert, Nelson R., Supervising Highway Engineer â€”December 3,1953-
Carmany, Robert M., Senior Highway Engineer March 6, 1951-
Long, Gordon L., Senior Highway Engineer,
April 11, 1949-February 28, 19513
Rowe, R. Robinson, Principal Bridge Engineer March 19, 1949-
Tilton, Jr., George A., Supervising Highway Engineer,
March 19,1949-July 31,1950 "
Watson, Jr., P. R., Supervising Highway Engineer September 1,1950-
Woodin, Clarence F., Supervising Highway Engineer,
April 13, 1949-November 30, 1953 2
1 Appointed Deputy State Highway Engineer.
' Retired.
Â» Resigned.
4 Deceased.
(1)
2 BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION
SCOPE
Scope of the undertaking, which had been formulated by informal
discussion among members of both committees, was adopted at the or-
ganization meeting of the full committee on October 10, 1949. As con-
firmed in a memorandum (Appendix D) from the State Highway En-
gineer to all District Engineers on November 15, 1949, it read:
"The scope of the study will include primarily the special treat-
ment of banks of streams, lakes or tidewater and secondarily the
treatment of highway embankments to prevent erosion by surface
waters. The review will include classification of hazards and protec-
tive methods, appraisal of success or failure, comparison of costs
as related to benefits and consideration of standard designs. A re-
port with recommendations will be made (and) conclusions
having reference value will be published."
Subsequently, to avoid duplication of an independent study, the
treatment of highway embankments by planting of vegetal covers was
restricted to comparison with non-vegetal covers. Results of the inde-
pendent review have been published [19].*
Although not included initially in the scope, the committee was di-
rected to assist the Districts in appraising the need for emergency re-
pairs after the 1950-51, 1952, 1955-56 and 1958 floods and in subsequent
planning. Its function in such matters was advisory rather than design,
usually by advance release of tentative conclusions of the primary re-
view.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Prior to 1920 there was little need or application of bank protection.
Alignment of roads and location of bridges avoided hazardous situa-
tions. Even after great floods like that of 1916, highway economies for
narrow low-speed roads and bridges was best served by rebuilding
bridges longer and higher and relocating roads on higher safer ground.
Bank protection was limited to incidental work around bridge abut-
ments and emergency repairs by maintenance forces.
Floods of 1921-22 pointed the need for bank protection in many loca-
tions but particularly along roads being built to higher standards.
Work was undertakenx along the Los Angeles, San Gabriel, San
Joaquin and Santa Clara Rivers and large creeks like Calleguas and
Stony. Types of protection were slope paving (Fig. 2), wirebound rock
revetment (Fig. 3), rock-and-brush-filled double fences and rubble
revetment.
Shore protection became a necessary part of heavy construction in
1925 near Sea Cliff,2 using RC throw-back seawalls (Fig. 4). Lesser ex-
posure in San Diego County was protected by stone revetment3 (Fig.
5). Also started in 1925 and continuing for many years with a resident
crew was the development of long segments of heavy armor 4 to resist
the pounding of waves on the Ventura Coast near Point Mugu, using
* Bibliographical reference (Appendix A).
"Third Biennial Report of The California Highway Commission [35] (1921-22),
Plates XIII, XV, XVI and pp. 36, 203-212.
= Fifth Biennial Report [36] (1925-26), Plates VII, IX, LII, LIII, XCVIII, XCIX.
'Ibid., Plate LXXXIX.
< Sixth Biennial Report [37] (1927-28), page 26.
INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 5. XI-SD-2
Rock shore protection, circa 1926, protecting coast highway in San Diego County.
FIGURE 6. Pt. Mugu VII-ven-oO-A

Precast concrete cells under construction, circa 1925, for shore protection along
Pacific Coast Highway.
precast RC prismatic cells in stepped arrangement, ballasted with con-
crete and backed with concrete fill and slope paving (Fig. 6).
The flood of February 16, 1927 caused such extensive damage to high-
ways in southern California that Mr. C. S. Pope, then Construction En-
gineer, initiated an investigation of bank-protection devices by Mr.
Withycombe. The latter's memorandum reports [249] of March 15 and
March 30, the first of their kind, are reproduced in Appendix C, not
merely for their historical significance but because of conclusions which
established design guides still recognized as basic principles.
BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION
FIGURE 7. Santa Ana R. VII-Ora-43-B

Brush-filled double fence in use in 1928.
The reports record his observations on performance of the following
devices:
1. Concrete slope paving,
2. Stone riprap,
3. Rock-filled wire mattress,
4. Timber-piling double fence,
5. Pipe-post double fence,
6. Wire-fence revetment,
7. Gunite slope paving,
8. Gunite ditch lining.
Of these he preferred the rock-filled mattress, stone riprap and slope
paving in that order and expressed limits of application of the other
types. Plis recommendations spurred the experimental use and improve-
ment of these devices and invention or adaptation of others.
A woven-wire and brush fence x was adapted to block a new embay -
ment on Santa Ana River north of Chapman Ave. (Fig. 7). A flexible
rock-and-wire mattress 2 was built on the sloping bank of Big Tujunga
Wash (Fig. 8). Steel-rail tetrahedrons in San Felipe Wash (Fig. 9),
and RC tetrahedrons in Santa Clara River (Fig. 10), were designed
as deflecting retards 3 at bends of the streams. A double-pile retard
was driven at the foot of an undercut bank of the Eel River near
Pepperwood and sacked-concrete revetment [243] was used to armor
a sloping bank nearby.4
ilbid., page 77.
'Ibid., pages 47, 48.
â€¢ Ibid., page 76.
â€¢ Ibid., pages 97, 98.
INTRODUCTION
5
6
A study of cost and performance of various types of protection

then in use was reported in 1930 [195, 196] by Construction Engineer
Pope. In addition to types already mentioned he described intercepting
dikes used on debris cones and desert washes, and groins designed
to build or restore beaches [72]. Discussion contributed to evaluation
of the several types and listing of a few others, such as fascines and
gabions. His closure in 1932 [195] added the windowed groin and
some opinion on proper section for a throw-back sea wall.
The next 6 years was a period of rapid expansion, both in mileage
of roads in the State highway system and in rate of construction of
standard roadways. Bank protection became an important part of
highway design, using types favored by the 1930 report. New types were
exploited experimentally, especially where dictated by local availability
of materials.
Preferentially, stone revetments (Fig. 11) were selected where large
stones were cheap, and fence or mattress types when available stones
were small. Where limited to sand and gravels, sacked-concrete revet-
ments (Fig. 12), proved economical. Where stone was not available,
foundation was usually not suitable for revetments. Both of these fac-
tors favored open-metal types such as plain fences, tetrahedrons and
jacks [40, 192]. The latter became more popular after expiration of
patents in 1935.
The great floods of December, 1937 in the north and March, 1938
in the south were severe tests of nearly all installations. Their per-
formance was appraised by a joint departmental committee consist-
ing of:
C. F. Woodin, Maintenance Department
R. L. Thomas, Department of Surveys and Plans
R. A. Wagner, Bridge Department
Gr. A. Tilton, Jr., Construction Department
INTRODUCTION
7
The committee reported * on classification, construction, cost and

performance of bank protection with a summary of hydrology of the
floods. This report has been a valuable reference for many years and
most of its findings have been adopted for the current study.
* Joint Departmental Report on performance of Revetment and Bank Protection
(mimeo), Division of Highways, June 9, 1938. See Appendix C.
After 1938 the trend of highway practice favored stone structures.
Cost of steel was increasing more rapidly than cement and much more
rapidly than quarried materials. Field labor cost was advancing faster
than any materials. Stone could be handled and placed by machine.
Even if large stone was not available, smaller stone could be bonded
with cement grout or laid on natter slopes.
As an exception, there was a renewed interest in permeable jetties
of steel frames for control of erosion along banks of major streams
where suitable rock was not available. Because of the wide variety
of frames for jetty units and the active promotion of patented designs,
legal opinions were sought, in 1938 on jacks, and in 1941 on tetra-
hedrons and similar devices.
The 1941 study was comprehensive and included review of 266
letters patent in Class 61, subclasses 3, 4 and 5 granted in the period
1836 to June, 1941. All have expired now (1960), but a summary of
types which may suggest modern application is included as Appendix
E. It may be of interest to note the development of two common types;
viz, (1) the tetrahedron was conceived as a "triform" log frame by
Harrelson in 1890 (No. 426807) and developed as a disjoined concrete
frame (Fig. 13) by Everett and Sheldon in 1914, and (2) the jack
was invented by Kellner in 1918 (No. 1281022) in essentially its
present form (Fig. 14).
The trend in cost encouraged development of new types of protec-
tion by experimental installations. Several patented types became
public. New materials were promoted. Annual investment in bank pro-
tection ran into millions. Practice varied widely from district to dis-
trict, and between contract plans and emergency work. Warrant was
strong for co-ordination of practice and exchange of information when
the current study was authorized in 1949.
PROCEDURE
As planned and adopted October 10, 1949, the committee defined its
task by the following steps:
Bibliographical Research
List and briefly abstract reference material for committee use. Items
will include texts, professional papers, final reports of construction,
letters of patent and unpublished reports of other agencies.
Joint Field Review
Extensive reconnaissance of protective works, planned to cover a
wide variety of types exposed to different degrees of hazard. The
itinerary should cover the 11 highway districts, in each of which a
district representative should be invited to participate. Typical work
by other enterprising agencies should be examined. Particular notes
should be made on causes of success and failure.
Individual Reviews
Each member of the committee will add to this information from
personal observations made incident to other field assignments.
INTRODUCTION
9
FIGURE 14. Tule R. VI-Tul-129-B

Example of steel jack fabricated from railroad rail based on an early patent by Kellner.
Standard Designs
Analysis will be made of general plans and details of standard
designs in order to eliminate ineffective or uneconomical practice. Par-
ticular attention will be given to expensive details of short-life con-
struction.
Project Development
Consideration will be given to cooperative action of Design, Construc-
tion, Bridge and Maintenance Departments in initiating, laying out,
building and maintaining protective works, particularly as to responsi-
bility for functional and economic design and the need for specialists
in district or headquarters office.
Report
A progress report will be prepared and submitted to the General
Committee. Discussion and recommendations will be illustrated with
photographs and diagrams.
Publication
To the extent that this progress report is approved and released, the
same material will be reviewed and edited for publication in the depart-
mental magazine and possible reprint in collected form.
In general, this procedure has been followed. Field reviews were
started March 6, 1950, in District XI and had extended into Districts
VII and VIII when the floods of October-November, 1950 diverted at-
tention to emergency protection. Thereafter, field reviews of prior
practice were combined, where possible, with flood studies and were
not completed until 1956. The "progress report" became a series of
interim reports [29] covering each areal flood study. The bulk of refer-
ence material not being adaptable to a series of articles in the depart-
mental magazine, publication was deferred until all analyses were
completed.
FINDINGS
The text of this report will record the committee's particular findings
on use, location, design, construction and performance for each type
of protection. More general findings with respect to past practice and
performance are summarized below. Incorporated therein are the '' Gen-
eral Observations" of the 1938 Report, most of which were adopted by
the committee, identified numerically with the prefix "1938 GO No."
1. Annual investment in bank protection has been increasing until
it now ranges between 1.5 and 3 percent of the investment in highways.
Flood seasons and longshore developments induce the maximum rate.
Bridge approaches and high-standard highways in streamside locations
maintain the minimum rate. Warrant for continued study of bank and
shore protection should be premised on a substantial annual expendi-
ture of funds for such facilities.
2. The earlier policy of adding bank protection after hazard was
demonstrated by flood damage, has largely been supplanted by a policy
of foresighted inclusion of high-standard protective works in new
projects. This shifted the burden from maintenance to design and
construction.
INTRODUCTION
11
3. As a maintenance operation, bank protection was guided by flood
damage and often forced by the emergency to concentrate work at
points of maximum exposure and use local or readily available mate-
rials. As a design-construction operation, the points of maximum expo-
sure are not predetermined. Speculation as to location of hazard leads to
distribution of work over longer reaches, and to greater freedom in
choice of type and materials.
4. The shift of responsibility induced centralization of design, with
a trend toward standardization and a tendency to use comparatively
few types. Although development of the favored types has improved
their design and partial standardization has effected notable economies,
there has been less attention to (a) light-duty short-lived but cheap
facilities as protection against temporary hazards, or (b) optimum
incorporation of local materials into durable protective works.
5. The committee was impressed by the ingenuity of field personnel
in devising remedial protection during and following floods. Forced to
use local materials by the urgency of repairs, they contrived note-
worthy new types (Fig. 15), and combinations of revetment and de-
flecting fences and jetties. These devices succeeded in the purpose
and usually lasted through a series of following floods. The most pro-
lific period of invention was 1930 to 1945. Thereafter the trend toward
letting formal contracts for flood-damage repairs removed the incentive
and opportunity.
6. No one type of protection is suitable for all situations, nor will
the best type for a particular situation withstand the greatest floods
(1938.GO-2).
7. Protective works destroyed in floods usually have repaid their cost
in preventing or minimizing damage to highways (1938,GO-3).
FIGURE 15. Coyote Cr. VII-LA-174-B

Revetment of pipe-and-wire fence backed with bamboo cuttings and broken concrete.
12
(A)
(B)
FIGURE 16. Smith R. I-DN-1-C
(A) 1,900 ft. of sacked concrete protection replacing a rough natural bank.
(B) Washout at downstream end caused by accelerated riparian current.
INTRODUCTION
13
8. Whether designed by ingenuity in the field or analysis in the
office, much of the bank-protection practice has been experimental, lead-
ing to improvement by trial and error. The rest of the findings sum-
marize the significant faults found by this process.
9. Kevetments invariably were too smooth. When a rough natural
bank under active attack is replaced by a smooth revetment, the ri-
parian current is accelerated, increasing its power to erode, especially
along the toe of the revetment and at the downstream terminus
(Fig. 16).
10. Revetments were not consistently secure against undercutting,
not only because of the accelerated current along smoothed banks but
because of underestimate of the depth of scour (1938,GO-l), or failure
to reach the specified depth because of construction difficulties (Fig. 17).
11. Revetments were frequently built higher than necessary, provid-
ing freeboard above design high water. However it was often recognized
that current and duration were much reduced at the top of bank. Re-
vetment was not needed where this current could be resisted by an
unprotected bank (Fig. 18).
12. Revetments seldom terminated in transitions to stable banks.
Eddies at the termini eroded embayments in the bank requiring revet-
ments to be extended, particularly at the downstream end (Fig. 19).
13. Extra strength and foundation was not regularly provided at
points of unusual hazard (such as the point of impingement on the
outer bank of a bend, 1938,60-4, and at natural or artificial constric-
tions in the channel, 1938,GO-5).
FIGURE 17. Santa Ana R. VIII-SBd-26-E

Concrete slope paving undercut and damaged because of insufficient toe protection.
14
INTRODUCTION
15
14. Solid jetties were located so as to deflect the riparian current
sharply away from the bank. Eddies were entrained between or down-
stream from the jetties, attacking and scalloping the bank (Fig. 20).
15. Permeable jetties, devised to pass enough water to prevent eddies,
were generally too tight for the purpose, or became too tight when drift
accumulated. In fact some, sealed by drift, acted like dams and failed
from the extra pressure (Fig. 21).
16. Riprap stone "selected" from roadway excavation seldom met
expectations for size and quality, often leading to substitution of in-
ferior materials with an excess of fines (Fig. 22) to avoid premium cost
of quarry stone (1938.GO-6).
17. Specifications and tests for many materials, notably stone and
timber piling, were transplanted from qualifications for permanent
construction, ignoring the limited life or lesser objective of many bank-
protection works (Fig. 23). In particular, the rattler tests are not
significant for stream-bank riprap and practically any drivable pile
will serve in retards and jetties.
18. Overdesign observed in many locations was ascribed to transplant
of a successful design to a less hazardous situation. In other locations,
design appeared to ignore the principle of expendability, that is, that
bank protection may be damaged while serving its primary purpose
most economically (Fig. 24).
FIGURE 20.
Eel R. I-Hum-1-E
Solid triangular log jetties caused damaging eddies downstream.
16
INTRODUCTION
17
18
19. For "permanent" installations, design had been directed more
toward hydraulic hazards than others which were less obvious. Piling
has been damaged by fire, the hazard being greater for treated timber.
Galvanizing has been corraded from the mesh which then corroded
rapidly to permit bursting of gabions and mattresses. Steel groins
failed by a similar combination of corrasion by beach sand and corrosion
in salt water, the first stage being loss of sheet-pile webs (Fig. 25).
20. Protective works were usually overlooked during periodic in-
spections for maintenance of highway facilities, so that deterioration
was evident only when failure occurred during flood. In many cases the
facilities were hidden by vegetation or buried in widened embankments.
Damage to toes of revetment would be concealed by water and silt, even
at low-river stages (Fig. 26).
21. Easement or right of entry was seldom acquired for maintenance
of works outside the right of way. Expensive facilities have been
expropriated and removed (Fig. 27). Others were overlooked or
abandoned.
FIGURE 25. Santa Monica VII-LA-60

Steel sheet-pile groins are subject to deterioration by action of sand and sea water.
INTRODUCTION
19
20
FIGURE 27. Colorado R. XI-Riv-64-F

(A) Tetrahendrons in 1932 distantly located upstream from Ehrenberg Bridge. (B) Same site
in 1950. Note growth of brush and change in channel.
INTRODUCTION
21
RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings of the committee have led to proposals of three kinds
which will be referred to as suggestions, design guides and recommenda-
tions. All have appeared in interim reports and many have been
adopted. The recommendations are summarized in this section, and the
other proposals will appear in the text where applicable to specified
situations or types of protection.
1. Hazards and exposures vary so widely from one location to an-
other that it has been, and should continue to be, good engineering
practice to solve each problem independently.
2. Although maps, pictures and reports are valuable aids, a field
review by design engineers is essential in the selection of type of pro-
tection and determination of the basic layout of protective elements.
3. Standardization is proper for elements and connections of protec-
tive structures, provided of course, that a range of sizes, weights or
strengths is scheduled. However, the layout or combination of elements
should be restricted only by guiding principles and never by standard
patterns.
4. Design should be governed by the principle of expandability; that
is, that the primary objective is security of the highway, not security
of the protective structure. Cheap replaceable facilities may be more
economical than expensive permanent structures (Fig. 28).
5. Design should be governed by the importance of dependability.
Expensive structure is warranted mainly for highways carrying heavy
traffic or for which no detour is available.
6. Design should conform to the principle of longevity. Short-lived
structures or materials may be economical for resistance to temporary
hazards. Expensive revetment should not be placed on banks likely to
be buried in widened embankments, nor on banks attacked by transient
meander of mature streams.
7. Optimum use should be made of local materials, but with due
regard for cost of special handling. For example the usual high cost
of harvesting brush and willow by hand labor limits their use to favor-
able locations. Field stone cannot compete with a quarry product unless
machines can be adapted to the gathering and grading of stone.
8. Opportunity and warrant for strategic retreat to higher ground
or solid support should never be overlooked. Even when the retreat
requires excavation of solid rock, the excavated rock may serve as a
valuable material for protection at other points of attack (Fig. 29).
9. Selection of type of protection should be guided by a specific
function such as: (a) resist the force of attack, (b) divert the attack
away from the damaged or imperiled site, or (c) reduce the force of
attack; requiring respectively (a) armor, (b) jetty, or (c) retard.
10. Limits of protection both horizontal and vertical, should be de-
signed with prudence and judgment. The bottom limit should be secure
against scour. The top limit should not arbitrarily be at high-water
mark, but above it if over-topping would cause damage and below it if
floods move slowly along the upper bank. The end limits should reach
and conform to durable natural features.
11. Except' in narrowed channels, protective elements should ap-
proximate natural roughness. Revetments should be as coarse in texture
as natural banks. Retards, baffles and jetties should simulate the effect
of trees and boulders along natural banks and in overflow channels.
12. Maintenance should distinguish between temporary or expend-
able facilities which need not be serviced, and permanent or indis-
pensable facilities which must be kept intact.
13. Specifications and tests for materials used in bank and shore
protection should be reconciled with the actual physical requirements,
and not copied from demands made on similar materials for much
different purposes. In particular, it should be recognized that:
a. Abrasion from repetitive dynamic loading is not significant for
stone used in slope protection on stream banks, because exposure
to high water is infrequent.
b. Even in shore protection, hazard of abrasion at rock-on-rock con-
tacts is minor in comparison to weathering from alternate
wetting and drying (Fig. 30), cavitation from dynamic attack of
waves, and exfoliation from thermal strain.
c. Specific gravity of stone is a paramount factor in shore protection
and the specified minimum should not be lowered without compen-
sation in weight of stones. For example, 10% underrun in specific
gravity should require a 55'/' increase in weight, say from a 9-ton
stone to a 14-ton stone.
d. Lumber and piling carry very little load except during construc-
tion. Specifications and grading should be realistic.
INTRODUCTION
23
FIGURE 29.
(A) Highway relocated around the river bend as a result of the washout. (B) Retreat into
bluff from attack at toe by the ocean.
24
14. There should be in eaeh district a designer or advisor trained

in the application of bank-protection principles and well-informed on
performance of existing works.
APPENDED MATTER
The committee collected for its use a 700-page abstract bibliography
comprised of texts, reports, and technical papers on bank and shore
protection. Selected for reference as Appendix A is a topical bibliog-
raphy listing the more important and informative items likely to be
available to users of this report.
Appendix B is a glossary of definitions of terms used in the report,
with some additions pertinent to the field of bank protection. These
are significant because of divergent use of many words and expressions
by different authors and agencies. The committee resolved ambiguities
by selection of rational or prevalent usage and adopted these definitions
for consistency within the report.
Reference has already been made to earlier departmental reports of
1927 and 1938 and justification for reproduction. These appear in Ap-
pendix C.
Memoranda authorizing the joint departmental study, defining its
scope and proposing publication of its findings and recommendations
is attached as Appendix D.
Although the concern over infringement of patents has been dissi-
pated, the listing of landmark patents in Appendix E is still a valuable
reference list of ideas, many of which may find future application to
particular problems.
INTRODUCTION 25
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
By implication, acknowledgment has already been made to authors
of the referenced bibliography. Their works were consulted during the
review, but it is not practical to give specific credit to each for ideas
which have influenced the findings and recommendations herein.
Several agencies were interviewed and some participated in field
reviews. We acknowledge particularly the cooperation of the following:
State of California:
Department of Water Resources,
State Lands Division,
Division of Beaches and Parks,
Division of Soil Conservation,
State Reclamation Board,
University of California at La Jolla.
United States:
Soil Conservation Service,
Corps of Engineers.
The District Engineers appointed representatives to accompany the
committee in the field review. The following from the respective dis-
tricts are cited as being most helpful.
I: R. A. Miller, A. M. Nash, L. R. Redden, C. P. Sweet; II: W. Z.
Hegy; III: G. H. Brummund; IV: R. D. Kinsev; V: John Witte;
VI: Don G. Evans, Frank Baxter, Philip B. Stearns; VII: Glenn II.
Cheeseman, Hobart R. Kriegh, W. C. Sedgwick; VIII: Almon Coonrod,
Archie A. Smith, Jr.; IX: John H. Creed, Merle E. Fischer; X: W. F.
Fleharty, M. C. Fosgate, Charles G. Moffatt, J. F. O'Neill; and XI: F.
B. Stewart.
Assembly of report and preparation of illustrative material was done
in the Special Studies Section of the Bridge Department by W. F.
Johnson, assisted by Messrs. C. J. Schneider, J. M. Blubaugh, J. W.
Adams, E. S. Isaacson and F. II. Eakes.
Final draft of the report was reviewed by J. A. Legarra and J. E.
McMahon, Assistant State Highway Engineers.
1*
<***.
; *L-*!#
FIGURE 31.
Santa Ana R. VII-Ora-43-B
Highway in stream channel washed out during high water despite fence type protection.
II
HAZARDS OF EROSION
Hazards requiring bank protection incident to highways are con-
sequences of the location of the highway with respect to natural or in-
duced erosion (Fip:. 31). Natural erosion is a continual physiographic
process antecedent to the highway location. Induced erosion is an un-
natural or modified natural erosion consequent to the highway location.
This chapter will describe the processes of erosion, by the motion of
water and air in contact with earth and earth cover and relate them to
a wide variety of highway locations. For this purpose it will be con-
venient to identify and classify erosive waters, forms of erosion, the
mechanics of erosion and pertinent aspects of highway locations.
EROSIVE WATERS
The following check list summarizes the classification of erosive
waters and the characteristic erosion associated with each:
Erosive Wulers Typical Erosion
Rain Pelting
Overland flow Sheet and rill
Concentrating Ditch and gully
Stream, young Gorge: eorrasion
Stream, mature Meander
Overflow Retrogression
Flood Abortive
Estuary and delta Reciprocative
Outwash Avulsion
Lakes and reservoirs Wave
Tide channel Slough
Tidal bay Wave and slough
Ocean Surf and drift
Precipitation in the form of rain displaces soil particles by pelting.
On level ground the erosion may be trivial, but on sloping ground the
particles are transported by overland flow. On mild slopes the flow of
water and soil is a shallow sheet, but steeper slopes, such as faces of
highway cuts and fills, accelerate the flow until it carves parallel and
closely spaced rills (Fig. 32).
Enroute to definite channels, overland flow is obstructed or deflected
by irregularities of the land surface, concentrating the flow along lines
of least resistance. Rills grow into ditches and ditches into gullies
(Fig. 33).
The transition from surface waters (overland flow) to stream waters
(in a natural water course) may be abrupt and definite or gradual and
indefinite, depending in part on resistance to erosion, natural protective
cover, or defensive regrading by owners of the land. In humid areas the
transition may be marked by interception of ground water or snow
melt, beyond which the stream is perennial.
(27)
I'S
FIGURE 32. VIII-SBd-207-A

Example of rill erosion on cut slope.
FIGURE 33 (Right). Typical gully formation.
Arroyo Hondo VI-Fre-238-B
Normally, the upper reach of a natural watercourse discharges a
young stream, marked by relatively high velocity on a steep gradient.
It tends to scour its bed and erode its banks by corrosion. If hard par-
ticles (sand, gravel, cobble or boulder) are transported along the bed,
scour is more rapid than erosion and the stream develops a gorge
(Fig. 34).
The limit of degradation is a stable gradient discharging a mature
stream. Banks are still vulnerable to erosion, however, and the stream
widens its channel. Irregularities in resistance lead to erratic align-
ment. Inertia of the stream at bends accelerates erosion on outside of
bends, developing a meander (Fig. 35). Progressive meander is outward
and downstream on the bends, working and reworking the entire flood
plain without achieving horizontal stability unless restrained artificially.
During periods of high water, regular channels may be overtaxed,
diverting excessive flow over the banks of the stream. Overflow may
follow the stream on marginal lands or former locations of the channel,
possibly with sufficient velocity to deepen old channels by retrogression.
Flood waters are overbank flows which escape from the channel system
and run wild over land not indurated to such forces. Erosion and scour
are irregular and non-continuous, hence abortive, in the sense that no
permanent channel is generated. (On rare occasions either overflow or
flood waters may carve a new main channel by avulsion.)
The end of a stream is (1) confluence with an equal or larger stream,
(2) discharge into deep water called an estuary, (3) discharge into a
silted mouth, called a delta, (4) discharge into a silted pervious plain,
called an outwash, or (5) discharge into a lake (including dry lakes like
sinks and playas).
HAZARDS OF EROSION
29
FIGURE 34.
Feather R. II-Plu-21
Typical gorge developed by young mountain stream.
FIGURE 35. Mad. R. l-Hum-1-J

Example of meander of a mature stream attempting to widen its channel outward
around the bend.
30
The estuary may be quite unstable because of reciprocative conditions.
Direction of flow may reverse. Variation of salinity affects aquatic and
riparian vegetation. Density currents shift the attack of the stream.
Silt deposited at the head during flood season is gradually degraded
at low water. Bars often form at the mouth of an estuary, raising stage
in the channel and location of the head (Fig. 36). Delta channels are
often transient, particularly if the tributary streams carry heavy loads
of silt.
An outwash is the spreading flow of water and debris on a slackening
gradient. Debris is deposited as the flow decelerates. Ordinary flows
carry light loads and establish temporary channels in older alluvium,
but floods choke the channels and run in broad sweeps to a terminal
terrace deposit. Over the years outflows along lines of least resistance
develop a debris "cone",â€”really a half conoid, steep near its vertex at
the mouth of the tributary and gradually flattening toward its base
(Fig. 37). Except at the vertex where the stream is confined and at
the perimeter where flows are dissipated or distributed, the outwash
channels are unstable and transient, often appearing elevated above the
rest of the cone. The next flood may block the current channel and cre-
ate a new one by avulsion.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
31
FIGURE 37. Garnet VIII-Riv-26-D

Example of debris cove with traveled way skirting the base.
FIGURE 38.
Wave erosion on lake shore.
Clear Lake l-Lak-89
32
HAZARDS OF EROSION
33
(G)
(H)
(I)
(J)
(K)
(L)
u
Lakes erode by wave action, the height and force being a function of
fetch, the length of water surface to windward (Fig. 38). Variable
stage of the lake distributes the force and decelerates the process of
erosion, but large variations, as in reservoirs, may kill littoral vegeta-
tion and expose the soil to destruction. Typical result is a double ter-
race (a beach and a shoal), below a steeply tut bank or cliff, lined with
undercut vegetation.
Rapidly changing stages are regular events in tide channels and tidal
bays. On the falling stage, water which has penetrated the banks must
return to the channel. Soluble and granular particles may be entrained
in slow erosion. Poor drainage may cause slough erosion of the banks
(Fig. 39). In channels the sloughed material may support the residual
bank, but wave erosion usually removes the talus in tidal bays so that
erosion progresses to a more durable formation.
Finally the ocean and open bays attack the shore with a combination
of surf generated by wind waves and swell, and littoral drift transport-
ing granular particles of beach and bed along shore in the direction of
littoral currents (Fig. 40). Height of attack varies with the tide;
direction of attack and degree of exposure vary widely with the season.
The typical shore becomes a narrow unstable beach at the foot of a
steep recessive bluff or cliff. Waves carve the foot of the bluff, under-
cutting its upper face which falls as talus. Waves wash out the talus to
deep water or littoral currents, completing the cycle.
FIGURE 40. Near Edgemar IV-SM-56

Wave attack on a steep bluff. Note talus at base of bluff.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
35
HYDRAULIC ACTION
The specific hydraulic action responsible for erosion in particular
locations can usually be described by reference to the following classifi-
cations :
a. Frictional erosion by tangential flow.
b. Impingement erosion by curvilinear flow.
c. Eddy erosion below restrictions.
d. Kolk scour below reef.
e. Erosion in varied flow.
f. Erosion in unsteady flow.
g. Wave erosion.
h. Static erosion.
Frictional erosion by tangential flow is a slow but steady process.
The rough channel of a natural stream impedes the flow of the stream
largely by dissipation of energy in the boundary layer along the perim-
eter. Figure 41 shows velocity distribution in such a channel by
vectors of surface velocity and isovels depicting lines of equal velocity
in the channel section. Velocity is high in midstream near the surface,
but low along the boundary layer. The distribution is ideal for stability.
Obviously, however, velocity would be uniform across the section if
there were not some drag at the perimeter tending to restrain the water
and dislodge the bed and banks. In addition to drag, turbulence in the
boundary layer is a complex pattern of deflected currents and pulsating
pressures which attack boundary soils by bombardment and cavitation.
Unless soil resistance exceeds the combination of these three forces, .the
stream will erode.
TANGENTIAL FLOW
FIGURE 41.
FIGURE 42.
Velocity distribution in tangential flow.
Velocity distribution in curvilinear flow,
36
BANK AND S1IOKE PROTECTION
The effect will not be constant around the perimeter. On the banks
the force of gravity adds to the instability of a particle when a lower
particle is dislodged. On the bed, detritus is transported so as to scour
by corrasion at some times and protect by alluviation at other times.
CURVILINEAR FLOW
In curvilinear flow, the high midstream velocity approaches and
attacks the outer bank by impingement. Figure 4'2 shows the velocity
shift and the ordinary consequence. The outer bank is eroded and
steepened. The stream surface is superclevated. Water, seeking its own
level, tends to rotate in the section, downward along the outer bank and
transversely along the bed toward the inner bank (dotted vector). This
current carries soil so as to deepen the channel at the outer bank and
shoal it with a bar along the inner bank (Fig. 43). The rotation super-
imposed on the regular translation can be visualized as helical or
"corkscrew flow".
Water cannot act like a rigid body in a turning movement. Threads
of the stream which have made the turn converge on other threads fol-
lowing the tangent. The interference is marked by standing waves at
the surface and rip currents below. On wide streams this turbulence is
soon dissipated with little effect on the channel, but on narrow streams
the energy is reflected to the far bank where it may be very erosive.
FIGURE 43. lll-Yol-7-C

Effect of flow around bends. Note channel deepening on the outside and deposit on the
inside of bend.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
37
FIGURE 44.
Turbulence in restricted channel.
B-B
FIGURE 46.
Turbulence at reef in channel.
FIGURE 45.
;* "â– tmmBmM
E. of Desert Center XI-Riv-64-C
Effect of destructive eddies downstream from a constriction.
38
RESTRICTIONS
Restrictions are very common on natural streams. Figure 44 shows
an example which could be a bridge abutment, a fallen tree, a rock
ledge or a solid jeLty. Flow approaching the restriction will be de-
flected. That which turns toward the bank may rotate in a small eddy.
That which turns toward midstream increases the velocity past the end
of the restriction. Downstream the flow will diverge, bypassing a tri-
angular pool below the restriction. The passing flow entrains and rotates
the pool in a large eddy. Either of these eddies may attack the bank
destructively, possibly joining to outflank the restriction (Fig. 45).
Reef-like projections from the stream bed are also common in nature,
with analogous effects shown in Figure 46. At Section A through the
reef, velocity is high around the reef to compensate for loss of water-
way. Currents are deflected upward and toward each side. The upward
current wells to a boil on the surface at Section B. Near the bed at
Section B the water downstream from the reef is rotated by the strong
current over the r*eef. This rotation, like an eddy except that its axis
is horizontal, is called a kolk. It tends to scour the bed and may under-
cut the reef so as to dislodge it.
VARIED FLOW
Varied flow is steady in discharge but nonuniform in velocity due
to changes in section and slope. Figure 47 illustrates common varia-
tions. Uniform approach AB converges in CD, causing backwater in
BD and accelerated flow in the narrower section DE. The divergence
EG decelerates the flow through a drawdown and standing wave or
ee
ABCD EFG HI JK
FIGURE 47.
Varied flow (steady-nonuniform) at change of section, roughness or shape.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
39
jump in EF to slower flow in the wider section G1. The rougher section
IJ reduces riparian and increases midstream velocity, with some combi-
nation of greater depth and slope, probably accompanied by backwater
in HI and drawdown in JK. The abruptness and amplitude of varia-
tions have been exaggerated for illustration.
Small letters e and s mark erosion and scour hazards respectively.
The convergence CD causes erosion by acceleration of riparian velocity.
The narrower channel BE deepens by scour. The divergence EG re-
duces riparian velocity, causing some shoaling, but if divergence is too
rapid for water to follow the bank, an eddy will develop and erode the
downstream end. Still farther downstream the divergent current will
impinge on the bank and erode it. At I the riparian velocity decelerates,
expending some of its energy on the upstream end of the rougher bank
IJ; erosion may be quite severe, especially if Section GI is unnaturally
smooth.
Natural breaks in grade are common on young streams wearing chan-
nels through geological formations of differing resistance. On a large
scale a stream develops an alternation of gorges on steep gradients with
high velocity, and vaHeys on mild gradients with low velocity. Since
the transporting power of a stream is very sensitive to velocity (vari-
ously estimated at the 6th or 7th power), the transition from valley to
gorge is erosive as the accelerating stream scours its bed to satisfy the
increase in transporting power.
On the decelerating transition from gorge to valley, alluvium is de-
posited in the channel, forcing the stream to overrun its banks and
erode older alluvium. Hence as a rule for varied flow, an accelerating
stream scours its bed and a decelerating stream erodes its banks.
On a small scale, in either gor<>e or valley channels, local irregularities
of resistance lead to an alternating series of riffles and pools (Fig. 48).
The rule applies to the longer reaches, but for short reaches the inertia
of the water prevents full development of transitional changes.
FIGURE 48. Kern R. VI-Ker-57-H

Typical mountain stream with pools and riffles.
40
Analogously, changes in roughness of the channel perimeter are ac-
companied by corresponding acceleration and deceleration, with conse-
quent scour and erosion. The longer the reaches of alternating rough-
ness, the more serious the hazard. Erosion is especially hazardous at
the downstream end of a very smooth reach, whether natural or arti-
ficial.
Artificial smoothness is frequently caused by construction of a high-
way along a stream (Fig. 49). The natural vegetation may be destroyed,
or a regular highway embankment placed over an irregular natural
bank, and/or the slope faced with a smooth revetment. The effect is
aggravated if the far bank remains rough.
One other type of varied flow is encountered on swifter streams. If
flood flow is supercritical, there is a lesser stage just above critical such
that small irregularities of the bed or wind on the surface may force
the stream into a subcritical condition. The faster supercritical flow
overtakes and overrides the subcritical, stepping it up to an even higher
supercritical stage. The phenomenon of bores or slugs is progressive,
generating a parade of translatory waves at high velocity separated by
troughs at low velocity (Fig. 50).
Celerity of the waves is not constant, so that the faster ones overtake
and combine with the slower ones. The longer the reach, the bigger and
faster the slugs, greatly increasing the erosive power of the stream.
Natural channels seldom have critical reaches, but the phenomenon is
fairly common in trained channels, lined ditches and long culverts.
FIGURE 49. Cache Cr.

Relatively smooth sacked-concrete protection along bank. Note loss of protection at point
of impingement.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
41
FIGURE 50.
San Gabriel R. VII-LA-170-l
7-ff. high standing waves caused by slug flow.
UNSTEADY FLOW
Unsteady flow introduces several contingencies which contribute to
erosion hazard. One is the saturation of banks on a rising stage, peel-
ing off soil fragments at shrinkage cracks before capillary tension
is restored. On the falling stage (Fig. 51) free ground water springs
from the bank, AB, transporting small particles, and differential hydro-
static pressure triggers slipouts of weak or unprotected banks, CD.
Transporting power of a stream is very sensitive to velocity, being
expressed by some observers as proportional to the 6th power for size
of particle and to the 7th power for volume of solids moved in unit
time. On the rising stage the stream's increasing transport power en-
FIGURE 51.
Unsteady flow along an unstable bank.
42
trains loose bed materials of progressively larger size and uses them
to corrade underlying harder materials in a pattern of general scour.
Scour near a bank undercuts or steepens the bank, exposing it to
erosion. Later, on the falling stage, the stream redeposits the bed ma-
terials, progressively by smaller sizes, in layers and bars along the
channel (Fig. 52). Choking of channels or abnormal alignment of
bars may lead to erosion in the next rise of the stream.
(B) San Benito R. V-SBt-2-B

FIGURE 52.
Deposition of detritus in channel with consequent low clearance under bridge.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
43
Much the same can be said for drift. Great floods undercut riparian
trees and entrain floating debris from many sources. Jamming or
stranding of drift deflects the stream in cross currents and eddies of
great erosive power, jamming usually occurring on rising or peak
stage and stranding on the falling stage (Fig. 53). Drift stranded
after a great flood may be refloated to cause damage in a moderate
rise.
The range of unsteadiness in California streams is remarkable. Eel
River at Scotia has recorded extremes of 10 and 541,000 sec.-ft. Yolo
Bypass, usually dry, has discharged 452,000 sec.-ft. Natural streams
which range from 0 to more than 100,000 sec.-ft. include the Feather,
Yuba, Santa Maria and Santa Clara Rivers (Table 1). Uncounted
desert washes are dry for several years on end, then erupt with cata-
strophic floods lasting only hours, many known to have exceeded 30,000
sec.-ft. Range in stage is correspondingly great, exceeding 100 ft. on
Klamath River.
Of special significance is reversal of flow in tidal sloughs and sea-
ward ends of fresh water streams. Frecpjency of reversal has eliminated
unstable elements, but relatively minor encroachments on channels may
upset equilibrium and initiate erosion. Once started, the process may
advance progressively through a long reach.
FIGURE 53. Eel R. Overflow l-Hum-56-A

Drift jammed on bridge leading to washout of approaches.
44
TABLE 1
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DISCHARGE RECORDED FOR LARGE
STREAMS IN CALIFORNIA
Stream
Eel
Sacramento - -
Klamath
Feather
Sacramento
Colorado
Trinity
American
South Eel
Smith
Yuba
Santa Ana â€”
Santa Maria.
Los Angeles. .
San Luis Rey
Merced
San Joaquin..
Kings
Mattole
Russian
Salmon
Putah
Kaweah
Mad
Salinas
San Dieguito.
Mojave
San Diego
Gage
Scotia .
Rio Vista...
Klamath
Nicolaus. , ,
Red Bluff
Yuma
Hoopa
Fair Oaks..
Miranda
Crescent City
Narrows
Prado
Guadalupe.
Long Beach, ,
Oneanside
Bagby
Kerchoff
Piedra
Petrolia
Guerneville.
Somesbar
Winters
Three Rivers.
Areata
Spreckels
Bernardo
Victorville
San tee
Basin
Year of
Discharge in see-ft
8(i mi
maximum
Maximum
Minimum
3,113
1956
541,000
10
26,548
1907
500,000
12,100
1956
425,000
1,340
5,500
1956
357.000
0
9,258
1940
291,000
2,000
258,230
1916
250,000
18
2,846
1956
190,000
162
1,921
1951
180,000
3
537
1956
173,000
9
613
1956
165,000
168
1,104
1956
148,000
0
2,253
1938
100,000
25
1,718
1909
100,000
0
800
1938
99,000
0
557
1916
95,600
0
912
1956
92,500
13
1,480
1956
92,200
71
1,694
1951
91,000
10
242
1956
90,400
20
1,342
1945
90,100
61
746
1956
84,000
70
577
1940
81,000
0
520
1956
80,700
8
485
1956
77,800
16
4,231
1938
75,000
0
299
1916
72,100
0
531
1938
70,600
0
380
1916
70,200
0
NOTE: Unmeasured peaks of similar magnitude have been observed in Kern and Santa Clara Rivers.
WAVE EROSION
Unless otherwise qualified, a wave is an oscillatory motion on and
near the surface of a standing body of water, usually as part of a
system of oscillations appearing to move along the surface. The simplest
system is an unlimited set of parallel crests and troughs moving over
deep water in a normal direction (Fig. 54). Along the section through
this system, each particle of water moves cyclically along a circular
path so as to return to the starting position at the end of each cycle.
The motion affects particles to a considerable depth.
Figure 55 is a schematic diagram of the action in a wave of length
L (crest to crest) and height H (trough to crest) advancing from left
to right. Circle A shows the motion of a surface particle, forward on
the crest and backward in the trough. Subsurface particles move in
smaller circles like A' and A", the motion becoming negligible at a
depth equal to half of the wave length. Depth of water, D, is measured
to the mean or still water level. The timing of waves is expressed by the
HAZARDS OF EROSION
45
FIGURE 54. Pacific Coast N. of Seal Cliff VII-Ven-2-F

Example of waves in parallel array reaching shore.
FIGURE 55.
Elements of a simple wave.
celerity C by which crests advance and the period T between passage
of crests at a particular point. These are reciprocal, being related to
length by the equation L = CT.
Now if this free wave advances toward a shore until D is less than
i L, the lower particles of the wave are in contact and allison with
the bed. The interference retards the foot of the wave while the head
rushes on, in a stumbling motion which sharpens the crest until it
breaks. If the bed is steep these breakers will be within the zone of
attack on the shore. If the bed is mild or undulating, the broken waves
will have enough energy to reform lesser waves which run on to a
new stumbling point.
46
Hence the erosive energy in a wave system is a function of the off-
shore profile as well as the height and period of the oscillations. Attack
is strongest if deep water is continuous to the shore or shore structure
(Fig. 56). Bars, reefs and shoals weaken the attack in proportion to
the number of times the waves stumble, break and reform.
The attack is also a function of direction. If the wave front is not
parallel to the shore and offshore contour, stumbling will begin at one
part of the wave and retard it. The wave front will be refracted so as
to reduce its obliquity (Fig. 57). The uprun of this wave on the shore
terminates when the kinetic energy has been dissipated or converted

Example of wave attack. Beach in foreground is shallow with weaker attack than
at point in background where beach is steep.
Shore
Wave refracted by shoal (C) and reflected from shore (B)

FIGURE 57.
Refraction of skew waves,
HAZARDS OF EROSION 47
to potential energy, after which the downrun, accelerated by gravity
and deflected by incoming waves, flows outward to the shoal line as an
undertow. In the figure, ABCD is a wave front deformed by refraction
at C and reflection at B. All 3 segments have a longshore component to
the left, so that particles tend to flow along paths like CEF. The move-
ment of beach and bed particles entrained by the flow is called littoral
drift.
Interpretation and prediction of this motion is very important in the
design of shore structures and protection. Essentially, (1) flow in deep
water is orbital without advance, (2) flow in shoal water is a surge of
broken orbital motion advancing over a retreating underflow, (3) long-
shore currents are generated by oblique wave fronts, even though the
fronts are deflected by refraction and reflection, (4) advance and re-
treat on the foreshore reflects the longshore current, so that entrained
beach particles are displaced laterally during uprun and downrun,
(5) including similar shifting of detritus in the shoal area, the mass
movement is called littoral drift, and (6) both the deflections of wave
fronts and the littoral drift act toward parallelism of wave front and
shore line.
The orientation of deep-water wave fronts is not constant, of course.
With each change of front, the onshore pattern shifts to conform, occa-
sionally reversing the direction of littoral drift. Shore lines change
more slowly and tend to an alignment parallel to an average or domi-
nant wave front.
Long straight beaches, spits and strands attest to this approach to a
stable alignment (Fig. 58). Continuity is usually broken by an obvious
cause, such as a rocky headland, an estuary, or a crumbling cliff.
Headlands wear slowly and interrupt the flow of littoral drift. An
estuary maintains or periodically restores an outward channel for a
stream, and the stream itself may discharge the detritus used by the
sea in building beaches. Crumbling cliffs of receding shores are another
important source.
FIGURE 58. San Diego Bay XI-SD-199

Silver Strandâ€”Coronado Island at San Diego. Example of strand formation.
(Union Title Insurance and Trust Co. Historical Collection)
48
RANK AND SHORE PROTECTION
Seasonal changes may be remarkable. Fig. 59 shows the effect on a
beach between two headlands caused by a large difference in azimuth
of prevailing wind in summer and winter, reversing the littoral drift
and exposure of headland. Usually on the Pacific Coast, the wind waves
and swell are stronger in the winter and accompanied by greater tide
ranges; the combination steepens or denudes the beach, washing some
sand to the top of the foreshore and dragging some to deep water (Fig.
60). Higher waves increase the attack on exposed cliffs or cliff talus.
Estuarial streams are most likely to flood in winter also, dissecting bars
and strands at the shore line and contributing new detritus to the sup-
ply of beach material.
FIGURE 59.
Srs
Seasonal change of beach between two headlands.
FIGURE 60.
Freshwater Lagoon l-Hum-1-J
Strand across lagoon mouth. Despite cyclic recession and advance of beach
profile, the highway site is stable.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
4!)
This review of shore processes is too general to cover the multiplicity
of combinations along the coast, but it suffices to warn that design of
shore structures and protection should be preceded by observations over
at least one and preferably several seasonal cycles, combined with
analyses of statistical summaries of seasonal variations and extremes
of wind, wave, current and tide.
Waves need not be high to be erosive. Small but persistent ripples
on a lake leave their marks on the shore. On larger lakes wind waves
reach the shore as chop without developing parallel fronts; these
disorganized waves may be very destructive because of varied angle of
attack. Wake waves from passing vessels in still water or stationary
piers in moving water are surprisingly powerful in their attack on river
banks (Fig. 61). The hazard will often determine the weight of protec-
tion required.
FIGURE 61. Alameda Cr. IV-Ala-107-A

IIlustration of wake created by bridge piers in moving water. Notice attack on left bank.
At the other extreme, the highest waves may not determine design
because of their infrequency. Tsunamis caused by seismic upheavals
and tidal waves caused by hurricanes are such rare events on the Cali-
fornia coast that the hazards are ignored. Design for high waves is
limited practically and economically to shores frequently exposed to
such waves, such as those at heads of submarine canyons (Fig. 62) or
converging embayments.
50
FIGURE 62.
Seawall protection against high waves.
Pt. Mugu VII-Ven-60-A
STATIC EROSION
Hydraulic action under static or nearly static forces may have the
same effect as erosion in reducing grade of the earth surface and com-
promising support of roadway. Such action is called "static erosion."
Salts contained in a soil may be leached and organic material floated,
so that the residuum consolidates to a lower <rrade. The phenomenon is
unlikely in an old stabilized channel, but may develop in an artificial
channel or on embankments exposed to standing water.
Another such action is the quickening of saturated soils by percola-
tion of ground water toward a free surface. If the surface is horizontal,
it becomes a quicksand with particles indifferently stable under the
force of gravity. However, if the surface is inclined, particles lose their
stability and creep outward and downward. When large masses of
earth move in consequence of such erosion, the phenomenon is called a
slide,â€”a mudslide if the entire mass is saturated, or a landslide if drier
overlying materials are transported (Fig. 63).
The distinction between erosion and landslides is a matter of gener-
ality, since all landslides fall within the geologist's general definition
of erosion. This can be illustrated by another from of static erosionâ€”
the scaling of soil particles by seepage at the toe of a steep bank. Re-
cession of the face of the seepage zone by the sealing process undercuts
the overlying drier soil until it ultimately fails as a cantilever, that is,
by falling or sloughing rather than by sliding (Fig. 64). The two
phases are so closely related that the whole action is considered as one
erosional process, and the same can be said of landslides induced by
direct erosion at the root.
HAZARDS OF EROSION
51
(A)
FIGURE 63. Encinitas XI-SD-2-A
(A) Slide, caused by wave erosion at toe of bluff, jeopardizing highway. (Photo by San
Diego Union). (B) Corrective measures include backfill with rock
shore protection at toe.
FIGURE 64.
Bank erosion by undercutting and sloughing.
Soquel Cr. IV-SCr.-56-A
52 BANK AM) SHORE PROTECTION
Still more generally, erosion may be a chemical as well as a physical
process if natural reagents reduce the stability or supporting power of
soils. Air-slaking of cut banks is a common example. Oxidation is a
contributing factor in the depreciation of embankments built of peat
and other organic soils.
INTRINSIC EROSION
Visible processes of erosion do not account for all losses of soil nor
all solid load of streams. Water precipitated on the land is a practically
pure distillate with an affinity for soluble solids and a predilection for
capturing other solids by flotation, suspension, entrainment and salta-
tion. When accelerated by pressure or velocity, the processes are
notorious. By and large, however, the slow but steady "invisible"
processes of intrinsic erosion account for the major part of soil losses.
Because of the slowness of these processes, they are usually ignored
in design of bank-protection structures. Works which are to serve or
be maintained for a long period, however, should allow for an intrinsic
erosion of all surfaces exposed to water in any form. Even rock sur-
faces must be included, for some depreciate by gradual dissipation from
an unpredictable combination of slaking, flaking, granulation and
pulverization, presumably due to cycles of wet-dry, alkali-acid, and
hot-cold rather than abrasion or corrasion.
AEOLIAN EROSION
Two common examples of aeolian erosion will recall the forces in-
volved : (1) the formation and transiency of dunes and (2) the
obscuration of windshields by sandstorms. These forces are most active
in open country where winds attain high velocity at ground level, but
nearly negligible in areas protected by forest or chaparral.
Acting on cut slopes. wind dislodges the finer particles of soft forma-
tions by direct attack, leaving a matrix of harder materials exposed
in bas-relief. Pebbles and cobbles may lose their support and ravel
down the slope, exposing more fine particles to the wind. Thus a cut
slope may be simply scoured back to a durable surface, or it may be
progressively eroded for an indefinitely long period (Fig. 65).
Embankment slopes, as a rule, are built of homogeneous materials on
a flatter slope, and hence less subject to progressive erosion. In any
case, protection against rill erosion should cover the hazard of wind
as well.
Erosion of adjacent terrain by wind action affects highways in three
ways: (1) deposit of sand on the traveled way, (2) occlusion of the
highway in dust storms. and (3) damage to glass and painted surfaces
of vehicles. Ordinarily these effects are not related to bank protection,
but dunes near heavily traveled routes may require similar treatment.
Transient dunes advance to leeward by aeolian erosion of the wind-
ward slope and precipitation on the leeward slope, burying everything
in the path. A highway can resist burial by continual removal of de-
posits. Rivers resist by transporting the sand downstream. However,
small or ephemeral streams may be defeated by reception of sand in
excess of their transporting capacity. Some (like Scott Creek near
Davenport, Fig. 66) are diverted to a new channel. Others are dammed
HAZARDS OP EROSION
53
FIGURE 65.
Near Keeler IX-lny-127-C
Active sand dune formation near the highway.
FIGURE. 66. Scott Cr. IV-SCr-56-C

Outlet to Scott Creek in 1951 which has since been diverted to a new channel
by marching dune.
3â€”30166
by the sand in dry season and recut their channels in flood season.
Many desert washes have been permanently blocked because floods do
not overtop the dunes but are impounded until dissipated by infiltra-
tion and evaporation.
Aeolian erosion may be combined with hydraulic erosion when winds
are laden with water. Not only does this occur during rainstorms in
all parts of the State, but severe erosion has been observed along the
coast from ocean spray driven against roadway embankments at high
velocity.
SUMMARY
This chapter has described a wide variety of erosive forces and ero-
sion, with emphasis on those which should be recognized and antici-
pated in design of protection for highway facilities. Water and wind
are destructive agents well known for their erosive power, but the
power is applied in various and devious ways. Never to be overlooked
are the consequences of deviation of streams from rectilinear motion,
causing eddies, cross currents, divergence, convergence, surges and
jumps. These indirect attacks are usually more erosive than the more
obvious effects of parallel flow in erodible straight channels.
Ill
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
Erosion and scour are natural processes which may become hazards
to the highway by: (1) natural progress damaging the highway; (2)
unnatural modification by the highway facility to its own damage;
(3) unnatural modification by the highway facility damaging other
property; or (4) unnatural modification by other parties contributing
to damage to the highway.
Any of these may be ascribed to the hazard of a particular location
in that: (a) there was no hazard to the highway until it was located;
and (b) the degree of hazard depends on detail of location. Because
of distinct differences in character, hazards of location will be pre-
sented separately for streams, lakes, ocean, and surface water. Also for
streams and lakes the different hazards for crossing and following
will be stressed.
CROSS-CHANNEL LOCATION
Traverse of a highway over a stream requires a cross-channel loca-
tion. Correlative alignment (Fig. 67) may be normal, skew, or cross-
over, with corresponding hazards of erosion by direct or eddy attack.
The diagram shows the effect of constriction by projection of the road-
way embankment into the channel from the right bank, but it should
be noted that narrow, swift streams are usually crossed without con-
striction and wide, slow streams may have long approaches from both
banks.
Whether the highway crosses a stream channel on a bridge or over
a culvert, economy usually demands some restriction of the waterway.
The most common restriction is in width, to shorten the structure (Fig.
68). Next in frequency is obstruction by piers and bents of bridges or
partitions of multiple culverts. Restrictions in depth are notable in
culverts with paved inverts. Restrictions in stage by low clearance lines
are almost universal for culverts and common for bridges. Restrictions
in depth are influential for all flows, but the others are felt for large
flows, with progressive influence during rising stages of great floods.
The hazard of restricting the width of waterway is closely related
to the relative duty of the natural waterway obstructed. The relation
is not the relative width nor the relative area, but the relative con-
veyance. For unit width, conveyance varies directly with the five-thirds
power of the depth and inversely as the roughness. For example if
d = 1, n = 0.100 in an overflow channel and d = 8, n = 0.020 in the
main channel, unit conveyance in the main channel would be 160 times
that in the overflow. The example may be extreme, but it emphasizes
the principle that restriction in the main channel is much more haz-
ardous than obstruction of an overflow.
The effect of contraction of width is to increase stage and velocity
in the remaining channel and deflect riparian current around the end
(55)
56
BAXK AXD SHORE PROTECTION
FIGURE 67.
Cross-channel highway locations; (A) normal, (B) skew, (C) cross-over, with or without
constriction by approach embankments. Cancellation marks erosional hazard.
HAZABDS OF LOCATION
57
of the obstruction. Usually the latter is the more serious, requiring
protection of bridge abutment from accelerated flow, and the approach
embankment from eddies. The degree of hazard may be increased by
skew of crossing or curvature of the channel approaching the struc-
ture (Fig. 69). The hazard can be reduced by providing transitions
(Fig. 70) from natural to restricted and back to natural sections,
either by relatively short wingwalls or by relatively long training
embankments or structures.
Channel changes, if properly designed, reduce the hazard of a cross-
ing by reducing skew and curvature and enlarging the main channel
(Fig. 71). Unfortunately there are "side effects" which actually in-
crease the hazard. Velocity is almost always increased by the channel
change, both by a reduction of channel roughness and increase of slope.
Bed of the channel change may dissect lenticular deposits of alluvium
of varied resistance to erosion and scour, so that the stream tries to
return to its former channel or meander in its artificial location.
In crossing locations, the hazard of lateral erosion can be controlled
by positive protection, such as armor (revetment) on the banks, jetties
to deflect currents away from banks, retards to reduce riparian velocity,
or vertical walls or bulkheads. Cost of such devices presumably is con-
sidered in economic studies, determining a bridge length which min-
imizes total cost. The solution ranges from unrestricted crossings over
very swift streams in well-defined channels needing no erosion control
to slow streams in wide or poorly-defined channels concentrated by
dikes to pass relatively short bridges. The latter are often built with
open abutments in line with training dikes and similarly protected
against erosion (Fig. 72).
FIGURE 69.
Piru Cr. VII-LA-4-l
Bridge on skewed, channel crossing.
58
FIGURE 71. Piru Cr. VII-LA-4-l

Channel change (arrow) protected with concrete slope paving.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
59
FIGURE 72. Santa Ana R. on Crestmore Rd. VIII-Riv-FAS

Armored training dikes passing under bridge in a poorly defined channel.
Hazard of scour at such locations is seldom controlled, reliance
being placed in design of bridge foundations for anticipated scour.
However, if scour may undercut open abutments and toes of dikes or
embankments, control of scour is prerequisite to control of erosion.
Positive methods include self-adjusting armor at toe, jetties or retards
to divert scouring currents away from the toe, or sill-shaped baffles
interrupting transport of detritus along the bed.
Also at crossings built in part with embankments projecting into
the channel there is hazard of instability of saturated or inundated
embankments. Failures are usually compiled as "washouts", but sev-
eral distinct processes should be noted.
Saturation of an embankment reduces its angle of repose. Granular
fills with high permeability may "dissolve" steadily or slough pro-
gressively. Cohesive fills are less permeable, but failures have occurred
on falling stages.
Erosion of approach embankments is usually caused by eddies in-
duced by successive convergence and divergence of the stream at the
crossing restriction (Fig. 73). As these carve scallops in the embank-
ment, saturation is accelerated and complete failure may be rapid.
Partial and total losses have been reported for (1) an upstream eddy,
(2) a downstream eddy, and (3) both eddies eroding toward a central
conjunction.
A third process is notation. If the fill is pervious and the pavement
overtopped, the buoyant pressure under the slab will exceed the weight
of slab and shallow overflow by the pressure head of the hydraulic
drop at the shoulder line. A flat slab of thickness t will float when the
upstream stage is 4i higher than top of slab. Thereafter the saturated
fill usually fails rapidly by a combination of erosion and sloughing.
GO
FIGURE 73. Dune Cr. VII-Ven-2-D

Erosion and scour caused by an improperly designed channel constriction (bridge opening).
The hazard is also present or increased when euros, dikes, or emer-
gency sandbags maintain a differential stage at the embankment shoul-
der. It is increased by existence within the fill of an impervious or
less pervious mass.
Control of this hazard of flotation, insofar as bank protection is
concerned, should be obtained by using impervious revetment on the
upstream face of the embankment and an open revetment on the
downstream face. Both types will be described in a later chapter.
FIGURE 74.
Nojoqui Cr. V-SB-2-D
Result of eddy attack at downstream end of culvert.
HAZARDS OP LOCATION 61
In many respects culverts are small bridges subject to the same haz-
ards of location. As a class, however, they differ from bridges in these
respects: (1) transitions change the shape of the waterway section
from the natural rounded trapezoid with free-water surface to a rec-
tangle, arch or circle with pressured surface; (2) the invert is fixed
in grade; (3) specific energy is unnaturally high.
The hazard at culvert locations is in and along the downstream tran-
sition. Sharp divergence of the flow at high velocity develops outward
components of velocity which attack the banks directly by impinge-
ment and indirectly by eddies entrained in quieter water (Fig. 74).
Downward components added to the unnatural high velocity near the
bed are responsible for scour at the end of the apron and kolk action
farther downstream.
In ordinary design, economy lies in a concrete endwall transition
to a trapezoidal section, followed by a rough revetment extension to a
section where velocity will be practically natural. For extreme design,
such a transition would be too long for economy; energy dissipators
are used to shorten the deceleration process. In almost any case, bank
protection can be used economically at the end of wingwalls (Fig. 75).
Chapter V of California Culvert Practice [183] should be consulted
as a guide.
PARALLEL LOCATION
Many factors favor location of highways parallel to watercourses,
along small streams as well as rivers, in box canyons and gorges as
well as broad valleys (Fig. 76). Noteworthy factors are: (1) traffic
among settlements along the stream systems; (2) favorable gradients
and a minimum of adverse grades; (3) favorable alignments with a
minimum of earthwork; and (4) workability of alluvia with a mini-
mum of rock excavation.
Hazards of parallel locations increase with narrowing of valleys and
steepening of gradients, both characteristic of young streams. These
valleys are usually V-shaped, with the stream at flood covering all or
most of the valley floor. Mature streams usually develop U-shaped val-
leys with broad terraces above the flood plain. Highways located on the
terraces or the upper part of the flood plain are secure from damage,
but meander of the stream from side to side of the valley compels ac-
ceptance of some hazard, either along the outer bend of the meander
or at crossing of flood plain and main channel to reach a terrace on
the other side (Fig. 77).
A major hazard, both in miles of exposure and cost of acceptance
or protection against damage, is the location of a highway along an
erodible bank. The length of exposure prohibits continuous protection;
either (1) protection can be provided at points of greatest hazard,
or (2) protection can be deferred until these points are marked by ad-
vancing erosion.
The hazard varies with the relation of highway alignment to main
and overflow channels (Fig. 78). The setback location, usually above
the flood plain, would appear to be safest, but lack of access to the
bank has time after time deferred defensive measures until the meander
62
FIGURE 75. Valencia Cr. lV-SCr-56-D

(A) Sacked-concrete extension of culvert
wingwall, (B) bank erosion before ex-
tension constructed, (C) remedial pro-
tection and reconstruction.
HAZARDS OP LOCATION
63
FIGURE 76. Eel R. I-Hum-1

Example of highway location parallel
to stream.
FIGURE 77. Trinity R. l-Hum-84-A
Hazard at mature stream crossing with
parallel highway location.
FIGURE 78.
Hazard of alternative parallel locations varies with situation relative to main and overflow
channels classified as (A) set-back, (B) flood-plain, (C) riparian, (D) encroaching and
(E) constricting.
64
of a stream had cut through private property and attacked the high-
way behind it (Fig. 79). Instead of light-duty training work in a
straight channel, protective works had to be heavy-duty revetment
along an outside bend of the meander.
The flood-plain location may have the same lack of access as the set-
back location, plus the exposure to erosion by overflow. The riparian
location is so close to the bank that access to the stream is acquired
in fee or easement (Fig. 80). In many respects this is the ideal situa-
tion for parallel highways, since protection from overflow currents is
seldom expensive and access to and observation of the channel promotes
immediate control of threat of erosion before the attack is severe.
The encroaching location is very common, especially for highways
following mountain streams in narrow valleys or canyons (Fig. 81).
Much of the roadway is supported on top of a bank or berm and tbe
outer embankment encroaches on the channel in a zone of low or mod-
erate velocity. The impairment of channel is not substantial. Except at
points of impingement, cost of bank protection is moderate. In fact
in canyon locations the real cost is just that of hauling selected mate-
rials from rock cuts required nearby.
FIGURE 79. Eel R. Sandy Prairie l-Hum-1-E

Widening of meander has encroached upon proposed freeway right of way.
HAZARDS OP LOCATION
65
FIGURE 81.
VIII-Riv-77-C
Encroachment locationâ€”highway partially in the channel.
66
The constricting location (Fig. 82) is an extreme case of an en-
croaching location, causing such impairment of channel that (1) ac-
celeration of the stream through the constriction increases its attack
on the highway embankment so as to require extra protection, or (2)
additional waterway must be provided by deepening or widening along
the far bank of the stream.
FIGURE 82. Merced R.

Constricting locationâ€”roadway completely in the channel.
X-Mpa-18
A parallel highway may run the gamut of all five locations as the
stream crosses from one side of its valley to the other, with correspond-
ing range in hazard of attack (Fig. 83). Hazard is greatest where the
highway passes an outside bend. In a narrow valley, this maximum
hazard usually occurs at impingement of the stream against a canyon
wall where the highway is forced to a dugway section between a rock
cut on one side and an erodible bank on the other. In a broad valley,
hazard is great where the highway approaches the outer bend of a
meandering stream, within which one or more points of impingement
will be most active.
Crossovers are common in parallel locations. In addition to hazards
already described for cross-channel locations, a crossover between two
stretches of parallel location must have one or more of these unde-
sirable features: (a) reverse curvature in highways; (b) reverse curva-
ture in channel; or (c) extreme skew (Fig. 84). Ordinarily the great-
est hazard is associated with curvature of the channel, but temptation
to encroach on the channel to shorten skew bridges often generates a
more serious hazard at skew crossovers.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
67
FIGURE 84.
Cross-overs of parallel highway locations are (A) at reverse highway curvature,
(B) reverse channel curvature or (C) extreme skew.
Cancellation marks erosion hazard.
Parallel locations in canyons are vulnerable to two common hazards.
One is the consequence of a great reduction in channel roughness when
a rocky vegetated bank is denuded of trees and rock outcrops and re-
placed by long stretches of relatively smooth revetment (Fig. 85).
Velocity along such a bank is accelerated to a much greater erosion
potential. The other is the consequence of overtopping so that floods
inundate the highway and flow over and along the roadway. Even if
the pavement and shoulders are not scoured, debris is stranded on the
traveled way and embankment is lost where the overflow returns to the
channel (Fig. 86).
68
FIGURE 86.
Smith R. I-DN-1-C
Highway was overtopped during flood. Note embankment erosion where
overflow returned to the channel.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
69
Two other hazards of parallel locations in canyons are closely related
to maintenance. One is the grade of the roadway in relation to stream-
bed ; if low, damage to protection of the toe of the embankment can be
repaired by equipment operating from the shoulder (Fig. 87), but if
high it may be necessary to build an emergency ramp for access of
trucks and crane to the construction zone. Hence roadway grade should
be kept just above high water and higher grades should avoid align-
ments depending for support on "sliver" fills projecting into the
channel.
The other hazard related to maintenance is isolation of a stretch of
canyon highway by loss of the entire roadway at two points, or at just
one point of a spur route, greatly delaying repair of the isolated stretch.
For such locations, it is important to obtain solid support for the inner
lane or provide a large margin of safety in the protection of the outer
bank.
FIGURE 87.
Maintenance of revetment is simpler from highway shoulder (A) just above HW stage.
If roadway is much higher (B) cranes cannot reach the toe of revetment.
70
LAKES AND TIDAL BASINS
For bank-protection purposes, inland waters without erosive currents
are classed as lakes and tidal basins. Included as lakes are reservoirs
and landlocked lagoons; tidal basins include other lagoons that periodi-
cally breach their bars. For both classes the highway location may be
on the perimeter (Fig. 88) or on a causeway across the water (Fig. 89).
All such bodies of water generate waves. Height of waves is a func-
tion of fetch, so the larger (or longer) the lake, the higher the waves.
The higher waves break upon reaching shoals, reducing the hazard
along embankments behind shallow coves and increasing the hazard at
headlands or along causeways in deep water. However, it should not
be overlooked that constant rippling of tiny waves may cumulate severe
erosion of certain soils.
FIGURE 88. Clear Lake l-Lak-15-B

Perimeter location along a lake-shore.
FIGURE 89.
Causeway across a lagoon.
Big Lagoon l-Hum-1-J
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
71
The definition excluded waters with erosive currents, but there may
be exceptions. Sudden changes in surface elevation of standing waters
will produce transient currents, especially near inlets and outlets.
These currents have been notorious upon release of lagoons through
breached sand bars. Another exception is the necessity for drainage or
equalizing culverts through causeways across waters subject to rapid
change of stage; currents may be swift at ends of these appurtenances
(Fig. 90).
FIGURE 90. Batchelor Cr. I-Lak-15-A

Culvert serves to equalize water level on both sides of highway during
high-water periods. Note bank protection.
Older lakes have built thick beds of precipitated silt and organic
matter. Bank protection along or across such lakes must be designed to
suit foundation available, it usually being more practical to use light-
weight or self-adjusting types supported by soft bed materials than
to excavate mud to stiffer underlying soils. The warning is especially
applicable to protection of causeway embankments.
Inundated or partially submerged embankments tend to flow to flat-
ter slopes. For lakes or tidal basins subject to rapid fall in stage, the
springing of water from embankments may cause severe sloughing.
Hazard of such locations is a function of stability of slope, or from
another viewpoint, cost of protection will be increased by need of sup-
port for unstable slopes.
OCEAN-FRONT LOCATIONS
Like parallel locations along streams, highways are attracted to the
ocean front by directness of such a route between seacoast cities, and
by favorable factors of grade and gradient. However the soils and
topography of the littoral belt in which the highway must be con-
structed are relicts of erosion by the seaâ€”rocks which have resisted
and cliffs which have withstood the relentless and persistent action of
tide and wave (Fig. 91).
Headlands along the coast are relicts of the most durable rocks.
Analogous to riffles in a stream, they control erosion of intervening
softer rocks, so that embayments and beaches between headlands are
counterparts of pools and meadows between riffles and canyons.
Headlands also tend to control grade of a highway along the coast.
Sharp-nosed or steep headlands must be surmounted to gain longer
radii and natter side slopes. Such a location also shortens the route and
serves as an effective retreat from erosional hazard at base of the
headland.
The hazard of headlands is amplified by the steepness of rock surface
in the range of wave action and the convergence of energy due to re-
fraction of waves, both conspiring to augment height and power of
waves. Protection against such forces being unusually expensive, loca-
tions at headlands should be above or set back from the area under
attack. Even when this has been done some locations on berms cut in
durable rock have been short-lived because of the steady advance of
the sea (Fig. 92).
Bluff locations are treacherous at either top or base because of the
history and continued action along the face of the bluff. The slow
retreat of the face is usually cyclic, beginning at the base where the
sea erodes the talus and undercuts supporting earth or rock, followed
by sloughing or block-falling of segments of the bluff, and ending with
piling of new talus for attack by the sea.
FIGURE 91. l-Men-56-F

Steep, rocky ocean-front highway location.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
73
(B)
(A) Highway location around headland under attack. Note seawall protection.
(B) Retreat from headland eliminated need for protection.
74
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
75
A location at the top of the bluff (Fig. 93) will become precarious
as the bluff retreats from the sea. However, if done in time, the retreat
may be stopped by shore protection at the base of the bluff preventing
erosion of the talus.
A location at the base of the bluff protects the talus but exposes the
seaward slope of the roadway embankment to erosion by the same or
greater forces. Shore protection will be necessary at proportionately
greater cost (Pig. 94).
For either top or base location, protection of the talus may not stop
retreat of the bluff entirely. Slow weathering of the face by wind and
rain may continue. Other factors, like ground water, may be active in
precipitating landfalls and slides (Fig. 95).
Not all embayments are rimmed by bluffs. Between durable head-
lands, the shore line may be stabilized parallel to the prevailing wave
front, subject to seasonal variations in wind and tide. Backshore ter-
rain, relieved of attack by the sea, will have been modeled by other
erosional processes. Except that right of way may be expensive, these
embayments are ideal for highway location, with a minimum of shore
protection (Fig. 96).
Finally, and important because of special problems in protection and
the many miles of frontage involved, are the beach locations. Whether
the beach is the foreshore of an embayment or a strand, the problems
are essentially the same. These may be listed as: (1) attack by waves;
(2) littoral drift of beach sands; (3) seasonal shifts of the shore; and
(4) foundation for protective structures.
FIGURE 94.
Base of bluff highway location with rock shore protection.
VII-Ven-60-A
76
(B)
FIGURE 95.
Via de Las Olas Slide VII-LA-60-LA
Highway on ocean-front location blocked by major slide.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
77
FIGURE 96. IV-Ala-69-F

Light stone revetment sufficies for protection of highway located along embayment.
Wave attack on a beach is less severe than on a headland, due to the
gradual shoaling of the bed which trips incoming waves into a series
of breakers called a surf. This favorable factor may be offset by a temp-
tation to project the highway into deeper water.
In a later chapter the extra hazard will be measured in terms of
weight of riprap stones, which should vary as the cube of depth of
water at toe of embankment (Fig. 97).
Littoral drift of beach sands may be either an asset or a liability. If
sand is plentiful, a new beach will be built in front of the highway
embankment, reducing the depth of water at its toe and the correspond-
ing height of waves attacking it. If sand supply is less plentiful or
subject to large seasonal variations, the new beach can be induced or
retained by groins.
On the other hand, if sand is in scant supply, backwash from revet-
ment tends to degrade the beach or bed (Fig. 98), and an allowance
should be made for this scour when designing the revetment, both as
to weight of stones and depth of foundation. Groins would be ineffective
for such locations; if they succeeded in trapping some littoral drift,
downcoast beaches would recede from undernourishment.
For intermediate volumes of littoral drift, it may be feasible to build
groins to retain imported beach materials (Fig. 99), but cost will be
prohibitive unless replacement of the beach is a right-of-way obligation.
Seasonal shifts of the shore line follow the combination in winter of:
(1) greater ranges of tide; (2) reversal of littoral currents; (3) clock-
wise deflection of prevailing onshore winds; and (4) more frequent
attack by swell. Generally the shift is a recession, increasing the exposure
of beach locations to the hazard of damage by wave action. On strands
78
FIGURE 98.
Stone-faced embankment in beach location will change grade of bed, (A) upgrade
if sand is plentiful, (B) downgrade if sand supply is scant.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
79
FIGURE 99.
Pacific Palisades VII-LA-60-LA
Groin field retaining beach and protecting highway.
FIGURE TOO. Freshwater Lagoon 1-Hum-l-J

Typical strand subject to seasonal changes of shore line.
80
HAZARDS OP LOCATION
81
or along extensive embayments, recession at one end may develop ac-
cession at the other (Fig. 100). Observations made during location
should include investigation of this phenomenon. For strands, the
hazard may be avoided by locating the highway on the backshore facing
the lagoon.
The hazard of beach locations varies widely with foundation condi-
tions. On a receding shore, good bearing may be found on soft but
substantial rock underlying a thin mantle of sand. Bed stones and even
gravity walls have been founded successfully on such foundationsâ€”
wall footings as low as 2 ft. below mean sea level (Fig. 101), bed stones
at El. â€”10. On an acceding shore, the mantle may be much thicker and
rock foundation impractical.
Spits and strands are radically different, often with softer clays or
organic materials underlying the sand [182]. Sand usually being
plentiful at such locations, subsidence is a greater hazard than scour,
and location should anticipate a "floating" foundation for flexible,
self-adjusting types of protection (Fig. 102).
FIGURE 102.
Freshwater Strand l-Hum-1-J
Rock slope protection on strand formation.
DESERT-WASH LOCATIONS
Desert washes are a prominent feature of the physiography of Cali-
fornia. Many long stretches of highway are located across a succession
of outwash cones. Infrequent discharge is typically wide and shallow,
transporting large volumes of solids,â€”both mineral and organic.
Kather than bridge the natural channels, the generally accepted tech-
nique is to concentrate the flow by a series of dikes leading like a
funnel to a relatively short crossing,â€”a bridge on major routes or a
depressed section called a "dip" on lesser highways.
fi-
ll
It
FIGURE 103.
Of three alternative highway locations across debris cone, (A) crosses a single definite
channel, (B) a series of unstable indefinite channels and (C) a widely
dispersed and diminished flow.
HAZARDS OP LOCATION
83
The important hazard at these locations is instability of channel due
to irregular deposit of detritus. For a location at the top of the cone,
discharge is a maximum, but instability is minimized by good definition
of the channel debouching from the uplands. For a location at the
bottom of the cone, instability is a maximum with poor definition of the
channel, but discharge is reduced by infiltration and dispersion. The
least desirable location is midway between top and bottom where large
discharge may approach the highway in any of several old channels
or break out on a new line. Control may require dikes continuously
from top of the cone to such a mid-cone site with slope protection
added near the highway where the converging flow is accelerated
(Fig. 103).
SECTION
PLAN
Marching dune grows from obstacle A as wind B blows up slope to cresr
C. Sand drops from decelerated current D and eddy E.
FIGURE 104.
Formation of sand dune.
DUNE LOCATIONS
The best understood characteristic of sand dunes is their unpredicta-
bility. However, locations are attracted to dunes by the workability of
the materials and low value of the land. The problem of location is
mainly one of recognizing the hazard.
A dune is formed by a wind of fairly constant direction blowing over
and entraining loose sand (as from a beach) and dropping the sand
where some obstacle decelerates the flow. The initial obstacle may be
a small stone or stump acting as a baffle or retard. Thereafter the wind
is deflected over the infant dune to an eddy in the divergence at the
top, beyond which it continues to deposit sand on the leeward slope
(Fig. 104).
As long as this action continues, the dune grows in size and
"marches" to leeward. If the source of sand fails, the march may con-
tinue with dissipation in size. If the march is obstructed the dune
becomes "dormant" and may develop a cover of vegetationâ€”grass,
chaparral, or even forest. Some dunes are "drowned" when the march
reaches a stream that can transport the forward deposit. Others have
won the contest and blocked or diverted the stream (Fig. 105).
Location reconnaissance should recognize the status of active dunes
and the presence of dormant ones. The gentle slope will be to windward,
the steep slope to leeward. Activity will be evident by sand movement
during a wind and by residual ripples during a calm.
Greatest hazard is to leeward of a marching dune. Even an active
dune appearing to be dormant may resume its march if conditions
change to leeward. A location on the windward side is not without some
hazard, as sand will deposit on the pavement to leeward of guardrail,
culvert markers, parked vehicles and other obstructions.
A more surprising hazard follows location cutting an overgrown dor-
mant dune. Kemoval of the protective cover exposes loose sand to the
wind. Thorocuts are unstable, even if graded to moderate slopes (Fig.
106). Roadside ditches may scour catastrophically (Fig. 107).
LOCATION EXPOSED TO INTRINSIC EROSION
Attention was called to the slow but steady intrinsic erosion by sur-
face water. The hazard will seldom divert location from an otherwise
optimum alignment, but the cumulative effect over the years should be
recognized in developing the design.
The hazard may be considered negligible in humid regions of the
State, where slopes carved by highway construction are soon protected
by natural vegetation. Extremely arid areas can also be neglected
because of the infrequency of rain as a weathering agent and because
allowance for acolian erosion of earth surfaces should be generous
enough to cover intrinsic erosion.
In other regions the need for allowance for a protection against
intrinsic erosion can be judged by the appearance of old embankments,
(Fig. 108). It is not uncommon to observe a complete loss of shoulders
and some impairment of support of the pavement on stretches of
embankment not exposed to action of streams. A comparison of residual
embankment soil with roadside borrow pits should show whether there
has been a coarsening of the surface grading by loss of soluble, colloidal
and suspensible particles.
HAZARDS OP LOCATION
85
On cut slopes, the intrinsic loss may have been much greater due to
air slaking, exfoliation and chemical alteration. Since this enlarges
the cut, the highway may not have suffered damage, except due to im-
pairment of roadside ditches by talus.
FIGURE 105. Scott Cr.

Creek channel obstructed by marching dune (background).
IV-SCr-56-C
FIGURE 106.
Solomon Summit V-SB-2-L
Instability of highway cut-slop in sand dune. Light oil blanket did not
prevent slope from raveling.
4â€”30166
86
FIGURE 107. Near Orick l-Hum-1-J

Excessive scour in dune formation caused by roadside ditch runoff.
r
.BCggg SSgggggS
FIGURE 108.
Earmarks of intensive erosion: (A) rounded cut line, (B) flattened cut slope,
(C) impaired ditch, (D) narrowed shoulder, (E) flattened fill slope.
HAZARDS OF LOCATION
87
MECHANICS OF HYDRAULIC EROSION
In order to summarize this chapter on location hazards, it will be
pertinent to review briefly the mechanics of hydraulic erosion. The
process has two steps, (1) the dislodgment of a solid particle from
adhesive or cohesive contact with a mass of such particles, and (2) the
transport of the particle away from the site so that underlying par-
ticles can be attacked. This process is a natural consequence of the
flow of water past a solid boundary.
The resistance along the contact of a moving body with a stationary
body is called friction. When the two bodies are solids, friction is essen-
tially a function of the texture of the surfaces in contact and the
pressure between them, but when one of the bodies is a fluid, the con-
flict along its boundary disturbs its motion for some distance away.
The zone in which this disturbance is significant is called the turbulent
boundary layer. The thickness and dynamic character of this layer
depend on roughness of the solid boundary and velocity of the passing
fluid, independent of pressure.
Turbulence is characterized by random flow in all directions in a
wide range of velocity and with continual change in pattern. Neces-
sarily in a thin boundary layer, the pattern is small. It can be likened
to a complex and rapidly changing system of eddies and vortices super-
imposed on the translation velocity. Hence a solid particle on the bed
or bank of a stream may, within a short interval of time, be exposed
in turn (Fig. 109) to water particles flowing (1) tangentially down-
stream, (2) tangentially upstream, (3) directly impinging, and (4)
directly retreating,â€”together with intermediate combinations.
Any of these may dislodge a loosely-bound particle projecting from
the solid boundary. The impinging particles of water tend to vibrate
and loosen solid particles. The retreating particles introduce a sucking
action called cavitation that is very destructive. The combination of
"upstream-impinging" is notoriously disruptive to sediments bedded
in water flowing downstream, like wind ruffling up a shingled roof.
Â£?3 CTv C oX>
o.
Rough boundary attacked in turn by turbulent flow (A) downstream, (B)
upstream, (C) inward and (D) outward, idealized and magnified.
FIGURE 109.
Turbulent flow along rough channel boundary.
Hence location hazard for any situation is related to the roughness
of the channel and the velocity of the stream. An idealized "perfectly
smooth" bank would not be eroded by tangential flow at tremendous
velocity. Actual banks classified as "smooth" will tolerate fairly high
velocity, but as roughness or rugosity increases, the tolerable velocity
decreases. The hazard is also related to the bond of particles forming
the bed and banks of the stream, and this bond is high for cohesive
soils and vegetated banks.
Most important, in relation to velocity, is the size of particles. In
formulas and charts presented in a later chapter, it will be clear that
weight of elements in protective devices should vary as the 6th power
of velocity of streams and as the 3rd power of the height of waves in
the ocean. Translated to linear dimensions, the diameter of particles,
for stability in various situations, should vary as the square of the
velocity of the stream, or directly as the height of waves.
These relations should be borne in mind in appraising location haz-
ards. If, for example, a 12-in. boulder is stable in a stream flowing
at 10 fps, then for another stream flowing at 20 fps, a 4-ft boulder
would enjoy the same degree of stability. If such particles are not
present in the channel, the location should retreat or the banks must
be protected artificially. Such rules of thumb, of course, are guides to
reconnaissance and not precise bases for design.
IV
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Types of protective devices may be classified as to the materials of
which they are constructed, the general shape of the device, or, as in
the following, according to their function or application:
1. Armor
2. Retard
3. Jetty
4. Groin
5. Bulkhead
6. Baffle
ARMOR TYPES (including revetment)
As used herein, armor is the artificial surfacing of bed, banks, shore
or embankment to resist erosion or seour.
Revetment is bank protection by armor, that is, by facing of a bank
or embankment with erosion-resistant material.
Facing is the outer layer of slope revetment.
These are the commonest types of protective devices used, because (1)
protection is directly in contact with the embankment requiring protec-
tion, (2) the facility is built within the standard right of way, (3) in-
spection and maintenance are accessible from the highway shoulder, and
(4) economy is served by the wide range of types adaptable to specific
sites. These types are adaptable to the hazard or exposure at or below
curves where it is necessary to resist erosion of the outer bank by im-
pinging stream flow, and on tangent sections subject to turbulent action
of high-velocity flow.
Combinations of armor-type protection are often used, the slope
revetment being of one type and the foundation treatment of another.
The use of a rigid nonflexible slope revetment may require a flexible
self-adjusting foundation such as (1) grouted rock on the slope with
heavy rock foundation below; or (2) PCC slope paving with a steel
sheet-pile cutoff wall for foundation.
These armor devices can be subdivided as rigid, flexible and self-
adjusting :
Rigid
Sacked concrete.
PCC slope paving.
Pneumatically-applied PCC mortar.
PCC grouted rock.
Asphaltic slope paving.
Pneumatically-applied asphaltic mixtures.
Precast PCC ceUsâ€”filled.
(89)
90
FIGURE 110. Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-A

Sacked-concrete revetment on river bank.
FIGURE 112. Carson R. lll-Alp-23-C

Grouted-rock protection at river bend.
FIGURE 113. VI-Fre-41-N

Asphaltic slope paving as channel lining.
(B) Stevens Cr. IV-SCI-8-A
FIGURE 111.
(A) Concrete slope paving for protection of bridge ap-
proach embankment. (B) Concrete mortar being pneu-
matically applied for slope paving.
Precast PCC cells before placing and filling for
shore protection (circa 1925).
91
PCC articulated block slope protection and apron FIGURE 116. Tujunga Wash VII-LA-9-LA
on bridge approach embankment. Rock-and-wire mattress channel bank protection
passing under bridge abutment.
(A) Trifolium Drain XI-lmp-26-B (B) ll-Sha-28-B

FIGURE 119.
(A) Torpedo-netting reticulated revetment. One section folded back from high velocity impingement
at bend. (B) Wire-mesh reticulated revetment.
92
FIGURE 120. VI-Mad-32-A FIGURE 121. IV-SM-105-B

Salvaged pavement slabs on prepared slopes. Oyster shells for bank protection against
wave action.
Flexible
PCC articulated blocks.
Rock-and-wire mattress.
Hand-placed dry rubble facing.
Dry rubble walls.
Broken concrete (horizontal courses).
Reticulated revetment (wire mesh).
Willow mattress.
Salvaged pavement slabs, laid on slope.
Shells.
Self-adjusting-Flexible
Rock slope protection.
Broken concrete (uncoursed).
Precast PCC sections (solid).
1. Tetrapods and tribars (patented).
2. Blocks.
3. Rectangular prisms.
4. Other shapes for specific purposes.
Revetment serves a secondary purpose of preventing rill erosion of
embankments by direct precipitation. Otherwise the control of rill
erosion is not included in any detail in this classification. Wattles,
asphalt penetration, straw, seeding, planting and a number of other
treatments have been used for control of such erosion.
RETARD TYPES
A retard is a bank-protection structure designed to check riparian
velocity and induce silting or accretion.
Retard types are permeable structures customarily constructed at
and parallel to the toe of the slope. Their primary purpose is to offer
protection to the toe by reduction of riparian velocity. The resulting
93
FIGURE 125. Humboldt Jetty

Precast concrete blocks on Humbolt Jetty at Eureka.
94
FIGURE 126. Humboldt Jetty

Precast prismatic concrete blocks
used for jetty construction.
deposition reverses the trend of erosion and replaces material which
had been lost. This causes a shifting of the strength of the stream away
from the bank. Included in this category are the following:
Steel tetrahedrons.
Concrete tetrahedrons.
Timber jacks.
Steel jacks.
Single or double line of fence.
Line of timber piling or pile bents.
JETTY TYPES
A jetty is an elongated artificial obstruction projecting into a stream
or the sea from bank or shore to control shoaling and scour by deflection
of strength of currents and waves.
This classification may be subdivided with respect to permeability,
impermeable jetties being used to deflect the stream and permeable
jetties being used not only to deflect the stream but to permit some flow
through the structure to prevent the formation of eddies immediately
downstream. The following devices are included in this classification:
Impermeable
Single line of sheet piling (steel, timber or concrete).
Single line of sheeting (timber or concrete, framed and braced or on
piling).
Double line of sheeting or sheet piling (steel, timber or concrete,
filled).
Double fence, filled.
Prismatic log or timber cribsâ€”filled.
Earth or rock dikes.
PCC grouted-rock dikes.
Asphalt-surfaced or impregnated earth or rock dikes.
Permeable
Timber-braced pileâ€”single or double rows.
Steel jacks.
Timber jacks.
Steel tetrahedrons.
Concrete tetrahedrons.
Automobile frames, bodies and similar salvage.
95
FIGURE 127. Salinas R. V-Mon-2-F

Steel-rail tetrahedron retard.
FIGURE 129. Santa Clara R. VII-Ven-79-C

Single line of steel-rail,wire-mesh fence as a retard.
_1
San Benito R. V-SBt-119-E

Double-row fence of timber posts and barbed wire
â€”rock filled.
FIGURE 128
Steel-rail jack retard.
FIGURE 130.
Single line of timber-pile and wire-mesh fence.
FIGURE 132.
Double line of steel-pipe fence filled with
broken concrete.
96
FIGURE 137. Eel R. 1-Hum-l-D

Permeable three-pile bent, timber jetty.
FIGURE 138. Pajaro R. IV-SCr-56-Wat
Steel angleiron jack as permeable jetty.
97
FIGURE 139.
GROIN TYPES
Santa Clara R. VII-LA-23-l
Permeable, steel tetrahedron retards.
A groin is a bank or shore-protection structure in the form of a
barrier placed oblique to the primary motion of water, designed to
control movement of bed load.
These devices are usually solid; however, upon occasion to control
the elevation of sediments they may be constructed with openings. In-
cluded in this classification are the following protective devices:
Single line of steel or concrete sheet piling.
Double line of steel or concrete sheet piling, filled.
Rock mound.
Rock dikeâ€”PCC grouted or asphalt surfaced.
Precast PCC blocks, solid.
Precast PCC cells, filled.
Metal rectangular cells, filled.
BULKHEAD TYPES
A bulkhead is a steep or vertical structure supporting natural or
artificial embankment.
The bulkhead types are usually rather expensive solid types which
may be economically justified in special cases where valuable riparian
property or improvements are involved, and foundation is not satis-
factory for cheaper types. They may be used for toe protection in
combination with revetment types of protection. Included in this classi-
fication are the following:
Timber on timber piling.
Concrete wall.
Masonry wall.
Timber sheet piling.
Steel sheet piling.
Concrete sheet piling.
Concrete crib.
Timber or log crib.
bank ANb shore protection
FIGURE 140. VII-Ven-2-F FIGURE 141. Near Pt. Mugu VII-Ven-60-A

Steel sheet-pile groins and bulkhead. Concrete groins for beach control and highway
protection.
FIGURE 144. Seacliff VII-Ven-2-F

Concrete seawall bulkhead.
CLASSIFICATION OP PROTECTIVE DEVICES
99
FIGURE 145.
Tehachapi Cr. IX-Ker-58-E
Masonry wall at bend in channel.
FIGURE 146. Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-F FIGURE 147. Russian R. IV-Son-104-A

Concrete-crib bulkhead for support and Log crib for toe support and protection,
protection.
BAFFLE TYPES
A baffle is a pier, vane, sill, fence, wall or mound built on the bed
of a stream to parry, deflect, check or disturb the flow or to float on
the surface to dampen the wave action.
The fence types are the most frequently selected of the devices in
this classification as they are functionally adaptable to many hazards
or needs and the structural requirements for any given exposure can
readily be provided.
Included in this classification are the following:
Single line of fence.
Double line of fence, filled.
Triple line of fence, filled.
Check dams of earth, rock, concrete, logs, timber or fence.
Dikes of earth or rock.
Wire-bound rock sausages.
Floating logs or timber booms.
100
FIGURE 148. Grizzly Cr. I-Lak-15-C FIGURE 149. VIII-Riv-187-C

Concrete check-dam. Earth dike for stream control and training
in desert location.
St. Helena Cr. l-Lak-49-B (B)

VII-LA-62-LA
(A)
FIGURE 150.
(A) Rock filled double pipe and-wire fence acting as baffle to deflect flow under bridge
(B) Wire-bound rock sausage with rock-and-wire mattress apron.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
There are four general ways of dealng with the problem of waves or
high-velocity stream flow attacking highway embankments.
The most commonly used method is to armor the embankment with
more-resistant material. Rock slope protection, PCC slope paving and
sacked-concrete slope protection are examples of this method.
A second method, and probably next in order of use, is to reduce the
force of the attacking water. This is often done by means of single and
double pile retards, permeable jetties and various plantings such as
willows. Plantings once established not only reduce stream velocity
near the bank during heavy flows, but their roots add structure to the
bank material.
The third method is to move the attacking water away from the
embankment. In the case of wave attack, additional beach may be cre-
ated between the embankment and the water. This has been done by
means of groins which trap littoral drift or hold imported sand. In
the case of stream attack, a new channel can be dug or the stream can
be deflected or trained away from the embankment by various means
such as with the use of jetties, baffles and deflectors.
A fourth, the simplest and generally the surest of success and per-
manence, is of course, a retreat of the road away from the hazard.
This is not always feasible nor the most economical, but should be the
first to be considered due to the riddance of maintenance and to the
finality of the solution.
Various combinations of the above four general methods may be
used and sometimes a single device may contribute to more than one
of the first three functions.
ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
This kind of protection, commonly called riprap, consists of rock
courses placed directly upon the embankment, along the shore (Fig.
151) or along a stream (Fig. 152).
Where stones of sufficient size and quality are available, it is usually
the most economical type of revetment and also has the following ad-
vantages :
(1) It is flexible and is not impaired nor weakened by slight move-
ment of the embankment resulting from settlement or other minor
adjustments.
(2) Local damage or loss is easily repaired by the addition of rock
where required.
(3) Construction is not complicated and no special equipment or
construction practices are necessary.
(4) Appearance is natural, hence acceptable in recreational areas.
(5) If exposed to fresh water, vegetation will often grow through
the rocks adding structural value to the embankment material and
restoring natural roughness.
(101)
102
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
103
(6) Additional thickness can be provided at the toe to offset possible
scour when it is not feasible to found it upon the solid.
(7) Wave runup is less (as much as 70%) than with smooth types.
(8) It is salvable, may be stockpiled and re-used if necessary.
In designing the rock slope protection for a given embankment the
following five determinations are to be made for the typical section
(Fig. 153):
(1) Size of stone (may vary between top and bottom).
(2) Depth at which the stones are founded.
(3) Elevation of the top of protection.
(4) Thickness of protection.
(5) Need for backing material.
(6) Face slope.
Notes:
"T" is equal to or greater than 1.5D where "D"
is diameter of nominal size rock specified. For
Method B placement increase "T" 25%.
Face stone is determined from formula in text.
Bed stone is 50% to 100% heavier than face stone.
Filter backing should be designed to prevent extrusion through the face, using a
graded material or two or more courses of progressively coarser particles.
This is not a standard design. Dimensions
Below scour depth

or to bedrock
SECTION
and details should be modified
id.
ROCK SLOPE SHORE PROTECTION
FIGURE 153.
Rock slope protection for ocean shore exposure.
Shore Structures
Assuming that the waves are generated in deeper water and are
shoaling as they approach the embankment there will be a maximum
size wave that will reach it still in possession of most of its deep-water
energy. This maximum size wave which will expend its energy upon
the embankment is one that would ordinarily break at this depth of
water. Larger deep-water waves will break in deeper water and will
have spent a large portion of this energy before reaching the embank-
ment. Waves that would ordinarily break in shallower water will of
course reach the embankment but will contain less energy. Thus, the
wave that would ordinarily break at the depth of water near the em-
bankment is the wave that will expend a maximum amount of energy
upon the protection. The height of this breaking wave may be used
as a criterion for the maximum force that must be reckoned with.
Stone Size
(a) If deep-water waves are sufficiently large, available data indi-
cate that there will be a relationship between the depth of water at
the slope protection or a bar which the wave must pass over, and the
maximum height of breaker which will expend its energy upon the
protection.
For this condition the required stone size may be calculated from
nomographic Chart A derived from the following formula:
w _ 0.003 (Jb3 sgr esc3 (p â€” a)
w _ A*
\sga I
Where dB = maximum depth in feet of water at toe of the rock
slope protection or bar, see Figure 154
sgr = specific gravity of stones
sgw = specific gravity of water (sea water = 1.0265)
a = angle of face slope from the horizontal, see Figure 154
q = 70Â° for randomly placed rubble
W = minimum weight in tons of outside stones for no
damage
In general dB will be the difference between the elevation of the
scour line at the toe and the maximum Stillwater level. For ocean shore
dB may be taken as the distance from the scour line to mean sea level
plus one-half the maximum tidal range.
In determining the elevation of the scoured beach line the designer
should observe conditions during the winter season, consult records,
or interrogate persons who have a knowledge of past conditions.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
105
CHART A. Nomograph for design of deep-water rock slope shore protection.

106
gÂ°rmo| b.n^ ,|n||

tâ€” Scour line
*ln general dg will be the difference between the elevation of the
scour line at the toe and the maximum still water level.
For ocean shore dg may be taken as the distance from the scour
line to mean sea level plus one-half the maximum tidal range.
FIGURE 154.
Diagram showing design wave for shore protection.
(b) On the other hand, if the deep-water waves reach the protection,
the stone size may be calculated from nomographic Chart B derived
from the formula below.
W
0.00231 Hs sgr esc8 (p - a)
Where H = significant wave height (average of the highest %)â€¢
This may be estimated with the aid of Chart C.
If in doubt whether waves generated by fetch and wind velocity will
be of sufficient size to be affected by shoaling, use both charts and adopt
the smaller value.
Dimensions
Rock should be founded in a toe trench dug to hard rock or keyed
into soft rock. If bedrock is not within reach, the toe should be carried
below the depth of scour. If the scour depth is questionable, extra
thickness of rock may be placed at the toe which will autonomously
adjust and provide deeper support.
Wave run-up is reduced by the rough surface of rock slope protection.
In order that the wash will not top the rock, it should be carried up to
an elevation of twice the maximum depth of water (2dB) or to an
elevation equal to the maximum depth of water plus the deep-water
wave height (dB-\-E), whichever is the lower.
Consideration should also be given to protecting the bank above the
rock slope protection from splash and spray.
Thickness of the protection must be sufficient to accommodate the
largest stones. For average conditions the thicknesses required for the
various sizes are shown on Table. 2. Except for toes on questionable
foundation, as explained above, additional thickness will not compen-
sate for undersized stones. When properly constructed, the largest
stones will be on the outside and if the wave forces displace these,
additional thickness will only add slightly to the time of complete
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
107
â€”2.3
-2.4
â€” 2.5
â€” 2.6
â€” 2.7
-2.8
Example-
Design high tide
50-plO
"-9
20-
10 â€”
-\
5
4 â€”
3
\
-5
1000-
500â€”
*
s
200-
100-
50-
-3
O
o. 20-
10-
1:1-1
0.003d;; soâ€ž csc3 (p-a)
\ yw /
for sgw = 1.0265
p = 70 constont for broken rock
\
\
\
1.25 â€”
\
X
\
\
\
\
\
\
1.5^1
DESIGN OF ROCK SLOPE
SHORE PROTECTION FOR
2-
2.5-
3-
saR=2.6
Find W = 3.5T
l-"-l
SHOAL WATER
4:1-
CHART B. Nomograph for design of shoal-water rock slope shore protection.
108
â€¢D-D 0
VC
* o-
J- *
m 0)0
O J^>
O Â« Â«
-oâ– Â£ "
â– Â£ oi
1 â– * o Â« a Â«
c
*Â£ -r ono -=
D-O
<
r
** O 3^
t.to
l_ J I
â‚¬> TJ
O Â° .-
Â° u g
r?.i
"ox
I of
â€” Â»J -
Â°-a>\E
- Â«s p....
anoH a3d saiiw - aidctba qnim
.Â£ E c e
.2 o>.2
^'EÂ°S
i .Â°t
tÂ» I
o.Eoi
i "l^B
-2 SoE
E = -â– *â– !
o ui Â« S c
X x. o--
DESIGN PRINCIPLES 109
failure. As the lower portion of the slope protection is subjected to
the greater forces, it will usually be economical to specify larger stones
in this portion and smaller stones in the upper portion. The important
factor in this economy is that a thinner section may be used for the
smaller stones. If the section is tapered from bottom to top, the larger
stones can be selected from a single graded supply.
The embankment fill slope is usually determined from other con-
siderations such as the angle of repose for embankment material, or
the minimum of 2:1 specified for high-standard roads. If the necessary
size of rock for the exposure is not locally available, consideration
should be given to flattening of the embankment slope to allow a
smaller size stone, or substitution of other types of protection. On high
embankments, alternate sections on several slopes should be compared,
practically and economically; flatter slopes require smaller stones in
thinner sections, but at the expense of longer slopes and lower toe
elevation.
Backing
Backing material is placed between the embankment and the rock
slope protection to prevent fine embankment material from being
washed out through the voids of the face stones. It should be uniformly
graded from gravel to a size that will not work through the voids of
the rock, or placed in two or more layers of progressively coarser sizes.
"Where rock slope protection consists of quarry-run rock end-dumped
into place, most of the finer material will naturally settle against the
embankment face and the coarser stones will work to the outside, avoid-
ing the need for backing material. But where the face stones are nearly
uniform in size and embankment material is vulnerable, backing mate-
rial will be necessary.
Embankment material should never be carried out over the rock
slope protection so that the rock becomes a part of the fill. With this
type of construction fill material will filter down through the voids of
the large stones and the portion of fill above the rock will be lost
(Fig. 155).
FIGURE 155. N. of Sea Cliff VII-Ven-2-F

Failure of shoulder built over stone revetment resulting from
finer embankment material dropping into voids of the
coarser stone.
Stream-bank Structures
In general, stream exposure is much more variable over short lengths
than shore exposure. On smooth or uniformly rough tangent reaches,
riparian velocity may be only a small percentage of the average stream
velocity. Local irregularities of bank and streambed may cause turbu-
lence with resulting bank velocity even greater than that of the central
thread. These irregularities are not always permanent in location as
they may be caused during high river stages by local scour, deposit of
detritus or stranding of drift. It is rarely economical to protect against
all possibilities and therefore during high river stages some damage
should always be anticipated.
In the lower reaches of larger rivers wave action resulting from
navigation or wind blowing over long fetches may be much more serious
than velocity. A 2-ft wave, for example, is more damaging than direct
impingement of a cross current flowing at 10 fps.
Stone Size
Where wave action is dominant, design of rock slope protection
should proceed as previously described for shore protection. Where
current velocity governs, rock size may be estimated by using Chart D,
derived from the following formula:
w _ 0.0000^ v sgr esc3 \j> â€” aj
(sgr â€” l)3
V = stream velocity in fps to which bank is exposed
sgT = specific gravity of the stones
q = 70Â° for randomly placed rubble
a = face slope
W = minimum weight in lb of outside stone for no damage
For rough estimating, specific gravity of rock may be assumed as
2.65, face slope as 1$:1, impinging velocities (on outside bends directly
in line with the central thread) as % the average stream velocity and
tangent velocity as % the average stream velocity (see Table 2).
Dimensions
Requirements for depth, thickness, backing material and face slope
are generally the same as for shore protection. The grade to which
stream protection should be carried is the stage of design high water.
This stage may be exceeded during infrequent floods, but overtopping
seldom damages a well-designed pervious revetment.
The practice of using an arbitrary height of freeboard as a factor of
safety is not logical. For example, an arbitrary 2-ft freeboard may
decrease the probability of overtopping from one that would be caused
by a 50-yr flood to one that would be caused by a 60-yr flood in one
case, but from one that would be caused by a 50-yr flood to one that
would be caused by a 1,000-yr flood in another case.
Likewise, design high water should not be based on an arbitrary
storm frequency alone, but should be considerate of the cost of carry-
ing the protection to this height, the probable duration and force of
overtopping, and the possible extent of the damage if overtopped. By
this principle, design high water or freeboard may be more generous
along freeways, on bottleneck routes, on outside bends, or around
critical bridges. Preferably, however, design high water should be ad-
justed to the site on a rational basis, rather than to add an unwarranted
freeboard.
Summary Factors
Summarizing and listing additional factors and principles, the design
of stream-bank rock slope protection should:
(a) Assure stability and compatibility of the protected bank as an
integral part of the channel as a whole. For this major objective the
ideal for stability is along gently curved channel with its outer bank
rougher and tougher than the inner bank.
(b) Connect to natural bank, bridge abutments or adjoining im-
provements with transitions designed to ease differentials in alignment,
grade, slope and roughness of banks.
(c) Eliminate or ease local embayments and capes so as to stream-
line the protected bank.
(d) Establish an appropriate grade at, or below, design high water,
considering effects of backwater above constrictions and supereleva-
tion on bends, as well as tolerance of occasional overtopping by this
type of revetment.
(e) Adopt a slope no steeper than 1.5:1. Platter slopes (see Chart
D) use lighter stones in a thinner section and encourage overgrowth
of vegetation, but may not be permissible in narrow channels.
(f) Use stone of adequate weight to resist erosion, derived from
Chart D or Table 2.
(g) Provide a thickness of section comprising at least two layers
of overlapping stone.
(h) Prevent loss of bank materials through interstitial spaces of
the revetment, preferably by interposing one or more layers of backing
or filter material.
(i) Rest on good foundation, on rock or below the horizon of prob-
able scour. If questionable, use heavy bed stones and provide a wide
base section with a reserve of material to slough into local scour holes.
(j) Reinforce critical zones on outer bends subject to impingement
attack, using heavier stones, thicker section, flatter slope and deeper toe.
Specifications
Rock slope protection, more than any other type, adopts a non-
uniform widely varying material to a structural purpose, with gravity
alone holding the structure together. Specifications must allow an
acceptable nonuniformity for economic use of local materials, and
require enforceable and practical rules for placement.
112
1-30
50 H
10-
5-
2H
h2.3
-2.4
\-2.5
-2.6
<Â£- "
-2.7
\-2.S
1
/
S 1000
/\
/ -s
500â€”1
200-
100-
50-
20H
10-
5-U-
2
H
Example:
2.65
V* = 10, find W = 57 lb
Vâ€ž = 20, (ind W = 1.8T
0=11-111-
020
N
â€¢ 16 i
-10 -J
4-Â»
H5
"-3
1:1-1
W=
0.00002V6 sg csc3(p-a)
(sgR-l)3
W = Weight of critical stone
in pounds; two thirds of
stone should be heavier.
p = 70 constant for broken
rock.
X
X
X
1.25H
X
x
x
\
X
X -2
Va
s
- 1.5"
DESIGN OF ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
FOR STREAM BANK
2-
2.5-
3-
4:1-
CHART D. Nomograph for design of stream-bank rock slope protection.
1
60
O
o
S3
Section
thickness
ft
1.s
3.3
3.3
3.3
s.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
6.s
s.3
Impingement flow against curved 1ank
Placement
method
A or B
B
B
B
A
B
/A
\B
A
A
A
C TO DESIGN OF STREAM-BANK REVETMENT
Protection
class
Wc
None
Facing
X ton
H ton
}4 ton
1 ton
1 ton
1 ton
s ton
Special
Special
Minimum
stone
W
1orT
3 11
1
1s
1s0
11
11
LOT
1.s
1.1
03.s
1.1
Current
velocity
Vb
fps
6
s
00
1
1s
16
0
0
11
1
33
APPLICATION OF CHART
Section
thickn1s
T
ft
1.s
1.s
3.1
3.3
3.3
3.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
Parallel flow along tangent 1ank
Placement
method
A or B
B
B
B
B
B
14
%
TABLE 1.
Protection
class
Wc
None
None
None
None
Facing
Facing
Light
yi ton
% ton
lA ton
1 ton
Minimum
stone
W
1
1
3
s
1
1
1s
0s0
10
11
Current
velocity
Va
fps
3
1
1
6
s
s
1
00
1
01
16
Mean
stream
velocity
Vm
fps
1.1
6
s.1
1
00.1
1
03.1
1
0
10
11
Basic data and assumptions: vel'ity ratios Va:Vm:Vb , 2:3:4; specific gravity of r'k is sgr = 2.65; face slope of
revetment is 1.5:1; stones grade uniformly between specified minima for class with two thirds heavier than minimum
required on face; T , % \/W", plus 25% for Method B.
w,
2 X IP"1 V6 sgr
(sgr â€” l)3 sin3 (p â€” a)
.00002 F62.65
1.653
.5923
= .000057 Ve
Stone Size
In order to make optimum use of local materials, especially those
obtained in roadway excavation, designs should have not only a wide
range of stone sizes to choose from, but also an adequate number of
classes within this range. Each class available for a specific hazard
should be quite limited in range, as overly light stone would be washed
away and overly heavy stone would require a thicker, and therefore
more costly, protection than necessary.
The classifications shown in Table 3 were recently added to Califor-
nia's Standard Specifications, upon recommendation of this committee.
The weights by which the classes are designated does not necessarily
correspond to the weights called for by the various formulas. For ex-
ample, if the shore protection formula should call for 5-ton stone, it
would be proper to use the 8-ton class as approximately 80 percent of
this class would be larger than 5-ton, or special provisions would re-
quire that each stone weigh more than 5 tons.
Specific Gravity
Required stone size is a function of the specific gravity and, unless
unreasonably low, specific gravity should not be a limitation on its use.
In fact, excellent results have been reported for lava with a specific
gravity of 1.5. Once the stone size has been selected on the basis of a
certain specific gravity, specifications should then prohibit the use of
stones having specific gravity appreciably lower. For example, in order
to obtain equal protection from stone having a specific gravity of 2.3
compared to 2.7, it would be necessary to increase the weight of the
stone 100 percent and increase the thickness of protection 25 percent.
Soundness
Rocks that are laminated, fractured, porous or otherwise physically
weak, are susceptible to this test (use of sodium sulphate, AASHO
Test T-104-46, California Test 214B). Stones showing a loss of less
than 5 percent should be satisfactory in this respect.
Absorption
There is a general correlation between absorption and weathering.
The test (AASHO Test T-85, California Test 206-B) is more significant
when the rock is to be used in areas subject to freezing and thawing.
A limit of 2 percent absorption is reasonable.
Abrasion
The Los Angeles rattler test and Wetshot rattler test measure resist-
ance to abrasion. These tests are more significant when the rock is to
be used in shore protection where it is subjected to a pounding surf
carrying sand, gravel, and smaller stones. Stones having relatively high
losses in this test have performed satisfactorily in shore protection and
therefore a rather lenient value is permissible. A 40 percent maximum
loss for the Wetshot rattler and 45 percent for the Los Angeles rattler
are being used at present.
Properties contributing to durability of stone may be both physical
and chemical. Obviously the above tests measure physical properties
and therefore would measure the results of chemical change, not the
susceptibility to chemical change.
TABLE 3. STANDARD CLASSES OF ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
Rock ,iz0
8 Ton...
4 Ton..
0 Ton..
0 Ton..
ii Ton.
Yi Ton.
00 0.
. 0-
0 0-
No. 4__
No. 00
MINIMUM PERCENTAGE 0ARGER THAN
Method A Placement
Cla,,0
8 Ton
0
00
4 Ton
0
50
00
0 Ton
0
0
00
0 Ton
0
50
00
H Ton
0
0
4
Method B Placement
Clas,0
0 Ton
0
0
go
H Ton
0
0
Yi Ton
0
0
0ight
4
50
Backing
Facing
No. 0
No. 0
0
0
3
0
0
00
0
90
Although in California a wetting and drying test showed differences
between stones which had good service records and a stone which had
disintegrated badly in service as a result of chemical change, it showed
even more difference among poor stones, depending on how recently
they had been quarried. It is thus probable that even this test did not
accelerate chemical change but measured only the effects of what had
already taken place.
If the stone has not been previously used or its service record is un-
known, a visit to the quarry location should be made where detritus
and old exposed surfaces on outcroppings should be examined for signs
of weathering.
Placing
Rock slope protection should be placed in accordance with one of
the following methods as specified in the special provisions or as shown
on the plans.
Method A Placement. A footing trench shall be excavated along
the toe of slope as shown on the plans. The larger rocks shall be placed
in this toe trench.
Rocks shall be placed with their longitudinal axis normal to the
alignment of the embankment face, with attitude horizontal or dipped
slightly inward, and arranged so that each rock above the foundation
course has a 3-point bearing on the underlying rocks. Bearing on
smaller rocks which may be used for chinking voids will not be accept-
able. Placing of rocks by dumping will not be permitted.
Local surface irregularities of the slope protection shall not vary
from the planned slope by more than one foot measured at right angles
to the slope.
Method B Placement. A footing trench shall be excavated along
the toe of the slope as shown on the plans.
Rocks shall be so placed as to provide a minimum of voids and the
larger rocks shall be placed in the foundation course and on the outside
surface of the slope protection. The rock may be placed by dumping
and may be spread in layers by bulldozers or other similar equipment.
Local surface irregularities of the slope protection shall not vary
from the planned slopes by more than one foot measured at right
angles to the slope.
Dimensional Ratios for Revetment Stone
Revetment stones are classified by weight (SS 72-2.01) ; limited as
to ratio (1:3) of thickness to length (SS 72-2.02) ; placed with longi-
tudinal axis normal to, and projecting no more than one foot beyond,
the embankment face (SS 72-2.03) ; and used to determine normal
thickness of revetment section. This interrelationship of dimensions is
sensitive to a considerable range of shapes and densities of the stones.
Ordinary ranges of the dimensions and ratios will be derived after
defining geometric factors.
Definitions
Longitudinal Axis, (L-axis). A line connecting the most distant
faces, noses or apices of the stone. Its length is I the length of the
stone, measured in ft.
Breadth Axis, (B-axis). The longest line within the stone which
intersects the L-axis at right angles. Its length is b, the breadth or
width of the stone.
LB-plane. The plane passing thru L-axis and B-axis.
Thickness Axis, (T-axis). The longest line within the stone perpen-
dicular to the LB-plane. Its length is t, the thickness of the stone.
Bulk. The weight W in lb, volume V in cu ft, and density d in
pcf, related by W = Vd.
Class Weight. The nominal weight (WB) for median stone of a
standard class (SS 72-2.02).
Maximum Weight. The weight (Wm = 2 Wr) not to be exceeded
within a specified class.
Critical Weight. The weight (W) to be equaled or exceeded by face
stone to assure stability against erosive forces.
Axial ratio. The ratio r=t/l, ranging from % (specified) to 1.0
(by definition).
Width ratio. The ratio s = b/l, ranging from r to 1.0.
Maximum prism. The envelope prism with Vâ€ž = I b t and \Vm =
Ibtd.
Shape factor. The ratio V/Vm of rounded actual volume to hypo-
thetical maximum prism.
Spherical. Rounded and equiaxial.
Lenticular. Rounded, one axis shortened.
Ellipsoidal. Rounded and elongated.
Cylindrical. Rounded and truncated normal to L-ax\s.
Discoidal. Rounded and truncated normal to T-axis.
Cuboidal. Prismatic and equiaxial.
Tetragonal. Prismatic with long L-axis.
Slabal. Prismatic with short L-axis.
Conoidal. Tapered from broad rounded base to pointed top.
Pyramidal. Tapered from tetragonal base.
Tetrahedral. Tapered from triangular base.
Approximations
Random-shaped boulders and broken stone will not fit exactly in any
of the geometric categories. However, the commonest shapes are inter-
mediate between fully-rounded and fully-angular, so that tabulations
of factors for precisely defined shapes will provide a basis for interpo-
lation of approximate or intermediate variations. These are presented
in Table 4 and illustrated in Figure 157.
-301G6
118
TABLE 4.
EFFECT OF EXTREME RANGE OF SHAPE ON SIZE OF
SPECIFIED REVETMENT STONES
Shape ratios
*=
I
for
Shape
factor
V/Vm
V
Shape
r
s
sg = 2.4
d = 150
2.8
175
Spheroidal-_ __
1.00
.33
.33
.33
.33
1.00
.52
.52
.52
.785
.785
.19
.26
.28
.26
.33
.17
1.00
.52
.17
.058
.087
.26
.19
.082
.092
.26
.33
.062
1.00
.23
.34
.49
.42
.30
.33
.43
.41
.30
.27
.68
.188
.22
.32
.46
.40
Lenticular - -.
1.00
Ellipsoidal ... ...
.33
.33
Discoidal. _ _ __ â€” ..
1.00
.28
Cuboidal _ ..
1.00
.33
.33
1.00
.31
.41
.39
.28
Tetragonal _
.75
Slabal
.97
1.00
1.00
Pyramidal. . .. â€” â€”
Tetrahedral. .. . . .. â€”
1.00
.33
1.00
.26
.63
.38
1.00
1.00
.179
For this purpose, the characteristic shapes are assumed to be the
extremes within the definitions of shapes and specifications for permis-
sible elongation. Such shapes may occur, but they will not be dominant,
except possibly the slabal shape in rock broken from laminar forma-
tions, and the lenticular shape common to cobbles.
Axial length is also taken as an extreme. The effect of this is most
striking for the cuboidal shape. If axes were taken normal to faces of a
cube, the volume is I3, but if I is the diagonal of the cube, its volume is
.191s. The normal cube is listed at bottom of the table to emphasize
this difference.
Maximum Length
Table 4 expresses the volume of extreme shapes in two ways: (1) as
a shape factor, or ratio to the enveloping prism, and (2) as a ratio to
the cube of the longest dimension.
For the latter, the table shows k for the relation V = j I3, and since
W = Vd,
I = J/W/jd = k yW where k = l/y/jd
Values of k for extremes of density are tabulated in the last two
columns.
To illustrate use of k, consider a 4-ton stone, for which the cube root
of the weight in pounds is 20. Using a density of 175 pcf, if the stone is
a perfect cube, its side is 20 x .179 = 3.58 ft. If a sphere, its diameter
is 20 x .22 = 4.4 ft. If lenticular with vertical diameter only a third
of its horizontal diameter, the latter is 20 x .32 = 6.4 ft. Specifications
will even allow a shape 20 x .46 = 9.2 ft long.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
119
Normal cube Lenticular Discoidal

L = .182 W L = .33 L = .29 M
FIGURE 157.
Effect of extreme range of shape on size of specified revetment stones.
120
Revefment Thickness
Reasons have been given elsewhere for a general recommendation
that thickness of revetment should provide for at least two overlapping
layers of stone. If all stones were equal cubes, T = 2/ â€¢ if equal spheres,
T = 1.87/. However, the ordinary grading of stones by size and the rule
that larger stones be laid on the face led to the empirical recommen-
dation that, as a minimum, T = 1.5J for Method A placement. The
extra thickness of 25 percent for placement by Method B is equivalent
to T = 1.875/, appropriate for spherical cobbles.
Application of this recommendation requires a determination of /.
The importance of the problem can be illustrated by extreme calcula-
tions for thickness of a 2-ton class revetment. Grading for this class
requires that at least 95 percent of the stones be larger than 1-ton, 50
percent larger than 2-ton and 0 percent be larger than 4-ton. Any of
the following distributions would be acceptable:
Range of /
Distribution of 100-ton lot
Rock size
Min
Good
Max
A
B
C
D
4-ton (Wm)
3.58
3.25
2.86
2.25
1.79
5.0
9.2
8.3
7.3
5.8
4.6
20
30
30
20
3-ton
4.5
30
50
50
2-ton (We)
4.0
50
40
1-ton _ _ _
3.15
45
28
2.5
5
2
If the distribution was like Lot A with good shapes, T could be made
6 ft. Optimistically, expecting cube shaped stones placed with larger
ones on the face, T could be reduced to 2.86 -4- 2.25 = 5.11, the absolute
minimum. Pessimistically, expecting a distribution like Lot C with 4-ton
stones elongated and backed by overlapping 1-ton stones, T could be
computed 0.8 (9.2 -4- 5.8) = 12 ft. However, it would be more reason-
able to expect Lot B with good stones, which would overlap a little to
measure 0.9 (4.5 -4- 4.0) = 7.7 ft. If several classes of revetment were
used on one project, selection at the quarry would narrow to something
like Lot D, requiring a slightly greater thickness.
So far, this analysis has ignored the attitude of the longitudinal axis.
Method A requires that "rocks shall be placed with their longitudinal
axis normal to the embankment face." If this rule was followed liter-
ally, the thickness derived above would be the normal thickness.
A steep attitude, although advantageous in resisting lift by uprush-
ing waves, is not desirable because it transmits dead load outward as
well as downward, and hence toward the toe where foundation is most
likely to be impaired. A reversed attitude would risk outward slippage
of stones. The most favorable attitude is horizontal, or dipping gently
inward.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
121
Hence the specification cited above is interpreted to mean "normal
to alignment of the embankment face,'' and thickness can be computed
from an assumption that critical stones will be placed with a horizontal
attitude. The ratio of normal to horizontal thickness (Fig. 158) becomes
a function of the slope of the face.
T = Th sin a
Combining the several factors,
T = Th sin a = 1.5 I sin a = 1.5 k sin a j/W
Reconsidering the variety of shapes in Table 4, k = .40 is selected
as a conservative limit for common shapes. For a 1.5:1 slope, there is
derived the convenient formula,
r - i.5 x .40 x .555 ywlc = H VWlc
SECTION X-X
PART PLAN
FIGURE 158.
Geometry of interlay of revetment stone in segmental plan and section, showing
relation of thickness T to face slope and size of dominant and maximum stones.
In using Wc, the nominal weight of the class, the larger stones have
not been overlooked. Most of them will be on the face, backed by stones
weighing less than Wc. An infrequent cyclopean stone can lay as a
header from back to face of revetment and project as much as a foot.
For 2-ton class Th = 9.5, and L = 10.5 can be accommodated. This limit
exceeds the 9.2-ft length of a 4-ton ellipsoidal stone measuring only
3.07 ft along its other two axes.
Quantities
Payment for stone used in slope protection may be specified by volume
or by weight of material properly incorporated in the work. Choice
between these two measures should anticipate site factors. The choice
will also affect inspection and field control of the operation.
If payment is made by volume, expressed as dollars per cubic yard,
determination of the quantity is complicated by irregularity of bound-
ary surfaces. Although the embankment supporting revetment can be
dressed reasonably true to specified line and grade, the outer face will
be very rough, with large voids behind the specified face and some
stone projecting outwards therefrom. Filling these voids with erodible
stone would be futile, but the top of the mass can be and should be
filled and chinked to grade. Often, too, the foundation is soft so that
bed stones subside; if subsidence is large, payment will be claimed for
the additional volume. Fair measurement of overrun because of sub-
sidence and underrun because of face voids is difficult and likely to
provoke controversy.
If payment is made by weight, expressed in dollars per ton, the
quantity may be determined precisely from weight certificates. Care
must be taken, however, that the material weighted en route is accept-
able at the site and actually incorporated in the work within the speci-
fied section. For example, in Method B placement, end-dumped ma-
terial may roll beyond the toe or be deposited beyond the specified
face. In Method A placement, the smaller stones may be left in stock-
piles at the site. For either method, stone barely passing quality tests
may be broken or spalled by rough haulage or careless dumping.
Of the two alternative procedures, payment by weight is preferred,
but exceptions may be warranted if (1) the total quantity does not
warrant setting up scales, (2) much or all of the material will be pro-
duced locally in a way not requiring truck haul, (3) unclassified ma-
terial may be hauled for selection or classification at the site, or (4)
stone will be used in mattresses or similarly confined masses for which
volume may be accurately determined.
GROUTED-ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
This type of revetment consists of rock slope protection having voids
filled with PCC grout to form a monolithic armor. A photograph of this
type of installation is shown in Figures 112, 159, and a typical plan
in Figure 160. It has application in areas where rock of sufficient size
for ordinary rock slope protection is not economically available, and
in other areas to reduce the quantity of rock. Grouting not only pro-
tects the stones from the full force of high-velocity water but integrates
a greater mass to resist its pressure.
SECTION
This is not a standard design. Dimensions AND
and detail, should be modified o. t.aoit.d. GROUTED ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
FIGURE 160.
Rock slope protection for stream banks.
124
Proportions
Grouting will usually more than double the cost per unit volume
of stone, but the use of smaller stones in grouted-rock slope protection
than in an equivalent protection using ungrouted stones permits a
lesser thickness of protection, which offsets to some extent the cost of
the grout. Also, should the embankment material be fine grained, grout-
ing will eliminate the need for backing material which may be neces-
sary with ordinary rock slope protection.
As this type of protection is rigid without high strength, support
by the embankment must be maintained. Slopes steeper than the angle
of repose of the embankment are risky, but with rocks grouted in place,
little is to be gained with slopes natter than 1^:1. Precautions to pre-
vent undermining of embankment are particularly important. The
grouted rock must be founded on solid rock or below the depth of pos-
sible scour. Ends should be protected by tying into solid rock or form-
ing smooth transitions with embankment subjected to lower velocities.
As a precaution, cutoff stubs may be provided as are used with sacked
PCC slope protection. If the embankment material is exposed at the
top, freeboard is warranted to prevent overtopping.
The volume of grout required will be that necessary to the approxi-
mate depths shown in Table 5 to fill voids. This usually amounts to
from i to ^ the volume grouted. For grout penetration of one foot,
the volume of grout can be estimated as one cubic yard per 80-100
square feet of slope protection.
TABLE 5. RECOMMENDED GRADING OF GROUTED-ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
Rock sizes
Minimum percentage larger than grouted classes
Pounds
M-ton
H ton
Light
Facing
Cobble
2,000
0
50
1,000
0
50
500
0
50
90
200
90
0
50
90
75
90
0
25
95
18
14
10
8
6
Specifications
Quality specifications for rock used in grouted rock slope protection
are usually the same as for rock used in ordinary rock slope protection.
However, as the rocks are protected by the grout which surrounds
them, specifications for specific gravity and hardness may be lowered if
necessary. If in an area of reactive aggregates the same precautions
should be taken as with concrete. Grout usually consists of good
strength PCC using a maximum aggregate size of \" and a slump of
3 to 4 inches. Where roughness of the grout surface is unnecessary,
sand mixes may be used, provided sufficient cement is added to give
good strength and workability.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
125
Size and grading of stone should conform to requirements for weight
of armor and penetration of grout. For |-ton and heavier classes, grout
will penetrate readily to a depth of 12 in. which is a practical limit
for placement by gravity and hand tools. For the "Light" class, the
median stone has a minor diameter of 12 in. of which 4 in. should
project from the grout face and 8 in. be embedded; to assure penetra-
tion to this depth, stone smaller than 75-lb should be minimized. For
the "Facing" class, the median stone has a minor diameter of 7.5
in., of which 5 in. should be embedded; stone smaller than 25 lb should
be minimized. Table 5 summarizes these proportions, with the addition
of a "Cobble" class for very light exposure.
Son Bernardino VIIl-SBd-190-SBd
(B)
FIGURE 161.
Mojave R. at Victorville VIII-SBd-31-D
Examples of rough textured grouted rock protection.
126
Specifications should require that the rocks to be grouted be clean
and moist. The grout may be brought to the place of final deposit upon
the rocks by any means that does not result in segregation by gravity.
Nozzles may be used provided the mortar flows into the voids. Pressure
in the voids which may unseat the stones should be avoided. Immedi-
ately after deposit, the grout should be spaded and rodded into place
by any approved method which results in the interstices being filled
with grout.
It is generally desirable to decrease the stream velocity over the
revetment and therefore specifications should require that after the
grout has been placed, rocks should be brushed until the top surfaces
are exposed and project sufficiently ($ to $ of their diameter) to pro-
duce a rough textured face (Fig. 161, 301).
Any method may be used which will guarantee adequate curing and,
of course, no loads should be allowed upon the protection until good
strength has been obtained.
CONCRETE PAVING SLOPE PROTECTION
This method of protection consists of paving the embankment with
reinforced portland cement concrete. A photograph of this type of
installation is shown in Figure 162 and typical plans are shown in
Figures 163 and 164.
FIGURE 162. Grasshopper Slough

Concrete slope paving protection for constricting abutment.
lll-Yub-3-A
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
127
Notes:
Detail shown for stable soil conditions. For unstable conditions modify footing detail.
Rough or smooth surface finish to be specified according to hydraulic requirements.
Concrete paving may be applied as air-blown mortar.
This is not a ilondord delign. Dim.nsions HEAVY DUTY
ond d..=ii. ,h.uid b. modified.. .,.m CONCRETE PAVING SLOPE PROTECTION
FIGURE 163.
Details of heavy duty concrete slope paving.
Adaptation to Site
It is particularly adaptable to locations where the hydraulic efficiency
of smooth surfaces is important. It has been used very little in shore
protection. On a cubic yard basis the cost is high but as the thickness
is generally only 3 to 6 in., the cost on a basis of area covered will
usually be less than for sacked-concrete slope protection. This is espe-
cially so when sufficiently large quantities are involved and alignment
is such as to warrant the use of mass production equipment such as
slip-form pavers.
Due to the rigidity of PCC slope paving, its foundation must be
good and the embankment stable. Although reinforcement will enable
it to bridge small settlements of the embankment face, extensive move-
ments would be disastrous.
Every precaution must be taken to exclude stream water from per-
vious zones behind the slope paving. The light slabs will be lifted by
comparatively small hydrostatic pressures, opening joints or cracks at
other points in a series of progressive failures leading to extensive or
complete failure (Figs. 17, 49).
128
1 ' freeboard
Design high water
Weeps ot 6' horizontal ond
10' verlicol where required
Notes:
Rough or smooth surface finish to be specified occorc
to hydraulic requirements.
Concrete paving may be applied as oir-blown mortar.
Vi" exponsion loints nt 60' *
SECTION
Below scour
or to bedrock -
o stondord design. Dimens
should be modified os regu
FIGURE 164.
LIGHT DUTY
Details of light duty concrete slope paving.
The toe must be on bedrock or extend below possible scour. When
this is not feasible without costly underwater construction, rock has
been used as a foundation or the toe has been placed as deep as possible
and protected with a roek-and-wire mattress as shown in Figure 165.
Considering durability this would be an unbalanced design as the
service life of roek-and-wire mattresses has been limited. A better but
much more expensive solution is to place the toe on a PCC wall or
piles (Figs. 166-167).
To guard against progressive failure, cutoff stubs are sometimes
provided at the ends and at 20-ft to 30-ft intervals throughout.
Continuity of surface is important and, to maintain this, the embank-
ment should be well compacted and stable. Accidental offsetting of the
slabs at expansion joints will disturb the flow and induce cavitation.
Thicker slabs are sometimes dowelled at the expansion joints to inhibit
offsets, but this is not feasible with 3-in. and 4-in. slabs.
Considering the severity of failure from bank erosion or hydrostatic
pressure after overtopping, some factor of safety in freeboard above
the usual design high water is recommended for this type of revetment.
Weep holes should be provided to assure drainage of the bank to
prevent failure from hydrostatic pressure of ground water.
Thus, more than the usual precaution against failure should be
taken for this type of revetment as failures tend to be progressive and
hence repairs extensive and costly. On this account slope paving has
been favored only where flow is controlled or maximum flow is limited.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
129
Anchors ot 12' Â±
See defoil. *
A ' Â± or vnry to suit
Alternative anclio
Note:
For mattress detiiis
see Figure 10
W'dtli nat less than \
2' X 3' X 3' block at / d .probable

upstream end of mot. scour deptl
SECTION
,Cnble to
3 cnb'c
c'ips.
Â»" cot:.
Vi" coble
FOR USE WITH IMPERVIOUS
TYPE SLOPE PROTECTION
FOR USE WITH PERVIOUS
TYPE SLOPE PROTECTION
Slope pratection
/." cab.e
i ) tâ€”3 coble clips

\\
POST ANCHOR
2 No. 6 reinforcing bars
Anchor 5' long
CONCRETE ANCHOR
ANCHOR DETAILS
.tandord design. Dimensions
Duld be modified as required.
COMBINATION ARMOR
REVETMENT WITH ROCK AND WIRE MATTRESS
FIGURE 165.
Details for toe mattress in conjunction with bank slope protection.
130
-â€” Weeps ot 6' horizontal ond

0' verticol where required
Penetration 10'
below scour â€” .
â€” Sheet
piling
Jtf
Sheet pile
Chonnel splice
Notes:
Concrete paving may be applied
as air-blown mortar.
Rough or smooth surface finish to be speci-
fied according to hydraulic requirements.
stondord design. Dimensions
t.ou'd be modified os required.
COMBINATION ARMOR
CONCRETE SLOPE PAVING
WITH STEEL SHEET PILING
FIGURE 166.
Steel sheet-pile toe wall with concrete slope paving.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
131
Reinforcement
The purpose of reinforcing is to maintain the continuity of pavement
by the aggregate interlock even though cracks develop from shrinkage,
thermal and flexural stresses.
The following formula for calculating the minimum area of longi-
tudinal steel has been derived by assuming that in cooling, the steel
must drag half the slab toward the center. It is as follows:
. fLW cos a ,
A i = , where
At = area of longitudinal steel per unit width of slab (in.2/ft)
/ = coefficient of friction between slab and embankment. Range = 1
for sand, 2 for rocky material
L = length of slab (ft)
W = weight of slab per unit of surface (psf)
s = working stress of the reinforcing steel (psi)
a = angle of the embankment face with the horizontal
The area of transverse steel may be calculated from the following
formula:
At = ^ 2j^S a (P ~ tan2 a), where additionally
At = area of transverse steel per unit length of slab (in.2/ft)
b â€” breadth of slab measured up the face (ft)
132
Also a total area of steel equal to
fbWL
2s
(1 â€” COS a)
should be concentrated in the footing or toe especially when exposed
or resting on stones or piling.
Specifications
Concrete should be of good strength. Five sacks per cubic yard has
been used but Class A proportions with six sacks is recommended. For
light or irregular construction, concrete may be pneumatically applied.
Reinforcement may be either mesh or bar reinforcement, using 6-ga.
wire mesh in 4-in. slabs and \-m. rebars in 6-in. slabs. Both size and
spacing in each direction must be specified.
Specifications should require the embankment to be thoroughly com-
pacted and true to grade; 0.1 in. for tolerance is liberal. If the slope
is too steep to allow ordinary hand finishing, a J-in. thickness of mortar
may be applied immediately after the concrete has set.
Expansion joints should be filled with joint filler. Six-ft horizontal
and 10-ft vertical are common spacings for weep holes. If the embank-
ment material is fine-grained, weep holes should be backed with filter
material to prevent loss of embankment.
The usual specifications for placing and curing structural concrete
should apply to PCC slope paving. Depending on smoothness required
for hydraulics, a float or sand finish may be specified, or if roughness
is desired, plans may call for a deformed surface obtained by grooving
after initial set (Fig 168).
FIGURE 168. Los Gatos Cr. IV-SCI-5-LGts

Slope paving roughness obtained by application of concrete strips with epoxy adhesive.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
133
SACKED-CONCRETE SLOPE PROTECTION
This method of protection consists of facing the embankment with
sacks filled with concrete. Much hand labor is required but it is simple
to construct and adaptable to almost any embankment contour. A photo-
graph of this type of installation is shown in Figure 169 and typical
plans adapted to several slopes are reproduced in Figures 170 and 171.
It is an expensive but much used type of revetment. "Where both
ledge rock and gravel are readily available, sacked concrete will cost
four to five times an equal quantity of rock. For the more severe levels
of exposure protection built of sacked concrete will require consider-
ably less material than equivalent protection using rock. Even so the
cost of sacked-concrete slope protection will be more than twice that of
rock slope protection for the higher velocities and since standard design
is independent of velocity the price differential will be even greater
for lesser exposures. Hence, sacked concrete is almost never used unless
stream gravel is available at the location and satisfactory rock is not.
Dominic Cr. I-DN-71-A

(A) Sacked concrete slope protection,
(B) forming curved channel change.
134

and details should be modified as required.
SACKED CONCRETE SLOPE PROTECTION
FIGURE 170.
Details of sacked concrete slope protection on 1 Vi : 1 slope.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
135
FIGURE 171.
Sacked concrete slope protection on 1 : 1 and 2 : 1 slopes.
136
Details
Burlap grain sacks which accommodate one cubic foot of concrete
have been used for more than 30 years. The open mesh of the burlap
allows the mortar to work through and provides satisfactory bond
between sacks.
Tensile strength is low and as there is no flexibility the installation
must depend almost entirely upon the stability of the embankment for
support and therefore should not be placed on face slopes much steeper
than the angle of repose of the embankment material. Slopes streeper
than 1:1 are rare; 1.5:1 is common. The flatter the slope, the less is
the area of bond between sacks. From a construction standpoint it is
not practical to increase the area of bond by tilting the sacks; therefor
for slopes as flat as 2 :1 all sacks should be laid as headers rather than
stretchers.
Almost all failures of sacked concrete (Figs. It), 172-174) are a re-
sult of stream water eroding the embankment material cither from the
bottom or the ends.
Protection should be high enough to preclude overtopping. If the
roadway grade is subject to flooding and the shoulder material does not
contain sufficient rock to prevent erosion from the top, then the pave-
ment should be carried over the shoulder to the top of the slope pro-
tection in order to prevent water entering from this direction.
The bottom should be founded on bedrock or below the depth of
possible scour. In the case where streambed sands have normal specific
gravity a depth of 5 ft below flow line of stream is common practice,
supported by favorable performance.
If the ends are not tied into rock or other nonerosive material, cutoff
returns are usually provided and if the protection is long, cutoff stubs
are built at regular intervals, as shown on Figure 170, in order to pre-
vent or retard a progressive failure.
FIGURE 172. Cache Cr. IIl-Yol-50-A

Erosion behind sacked concrete revetment caused by overtopping flow.
DESIOX PRINCIPLES
137
Specifications
Economic justification for this type of revetment usually depends
upon the use of local pit-run material for aggregate, which need not
conform to that ordinarily associated with structural concrete.
Specifications should control the cleanliness of the aggregate and to
some extent the grading. A four-sack mix with enough water to produce
a slump of from three to five inches is commonly specified.
Sacks should be of sufficient size in relation to the amount of concrete
to allow folding at the top. A 19.5 x 36-in. burlap sack filled with one
cubic foot of concrete meets this requirement. The loosely woven burlap
allows the mortar to work through sufficiently to bond with the other
sacks.
The embankment upon which the sacks are placed should be reason-
ably close to planned grades. A tolerance of 0.2 ft either way is reason-
able.
In order to present a neat appearance, preserve the shape, and espe-
cially to guard against loss of concrete when placing, it may be specified
that headers should be placed with the folds underneath and against
the bank and stretchers should be placed with the folds against the
previously placed stretcher. Placement should be as soon after mixing
as possible. Horizontal bond is obtained by staggering the joints of each
successive tier.
When not resting on bedrock, a more substantial footing may be
obtained by placing first a double row of stretchers, second a single
row of headers, and for the third and remaining tiers, single rows of
stretchers. All this should be shown in the typical section. As with all
concrete, specifications should guarantee adequate curing.
Future Modifications
Design of sacked-concrete structures has seen little change since
initial use in 1928, largely because of the constancy of the grain sack
as a modular unit. It holds a cubic foot of concrete, which is a reason-
able limit for 2-man handling. Enough sacking is left over to seal the
top by folding without tying. The sack has been available, usually as
a salvaged material at a low price. Its shape was adaptable to laying as
headers or stretchers. In stepped construction, stretchers bonded on
the regular slope of 1.5:1, and headers on 2:1. Performance being
satisfactory (except along boundaries), there was no reason to change
the shape of the sack, the thickness of the revetment, nor the laying
procedure.
However, without recommendation, several suggested modifications
should be borne in mind because of (1) economic trends, and (2) pos-
sible use of the material in new situations. These are listed below with
a brief explanation of each.
Smaller Sacks
Availability of salvaged grain sacks is no longer certain. If new
sacks are used, other sizes may be economical. A half-size sack can be
handled by one man and would use only 80 percent as much concrete
to cover the same area. Thinner revetment would be adequate at many
locations.
Dry Pack
The sack could be filled with a mixture of solid components, without
water, and not wetted until after placement in the revetment. The
standard sack could be handled by one man. Water could be applied
by spraying the surface and depending on capillarity to complete the
saturation. Dry pack might be an excellent device for subaqueous
placement, for initial foundation or repair of undercuts. It would also
be adaptable for protection or repair of small areas, since dry batching
need not be done at site.
Dowels
Integrity of revetment can be increased by embedding dowels in
adjoining sacks to reinforce intersack bond. A No. 3 deformed bar
could be driven through a top sack into the underlying sack while
concrete was still fresh. At cold joints, dowels could be driven into the
top course at shut-down, and the first course the next day could be
impaled on the projecting bars. The extra strength might be needed
only at perimeter of the work.
Roughening
In many locations, the smoothness of sacked concrete is very undesir-
able. Projecting dowels would be quite effective in retarding velocity,
and doubly so if drift was lodged or impaled on them. In streams
carrying heavy drift, projections should be short or sacks would be
pried out by impact forces. Single bars might introduce a hazard of
serious injury to persons traversing the revetment; double bars (like
staples or hairpins) would reduce the hazard. Another type of rough-
ening could be obtained by design of an under-sanded concrete which
would expose a honeycomb surface when the sack decomposed.
ASPHALT CONCRETE SLOPE PAVING
This type of revetment consists of a facing of asphalt concrete usually
reinforced by wire mesh (Fig. 175).
In order to increase durability by excluding air and water, the mix-
ture should be dense and rich in asphalt. A rich mix is especially
susceptible to plastic flow when stress application is continuous and
under the force of gravity; the paving will assume the shape of the
embankment and offer little resistance to any change. It is therefore
important that the embankment be well compacted and stable. Also,
it is very susceptible to damage from hydrostatic pressure behind the
pavement and should not be used unless relief from this condition can
be provided at reasonable cost.
It has found most use in reservoir and canal linings where drawdown
is not rapid and water pressure acts to maintain close contact with
the bank. In highway work it has been used without reinforcement
as a lining for small drainage ditches where it is placed and compacted
by hand (Fig. 176).
140
FIGURE 176.
(a) Highway drainage ditch lined with asphaltic concrete, (b) culvert inlet protected
with pneumatically applied asphalt.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
141
Details
Limited use with reinforcement has been made in low-velocity or
overflow areas or where protection was considered expendable during
severe but infrequent periods such as occur in desert areas. Total
thickness is usually from 2 to 4 in. compacted in two layers with wire
mesh placed between. This method of construction precludes its use
as an armor for sandy eohesionless embankments unless the embank-
ment is first covered with a material capable of supporting the com-
paction equipment.
1 ' freeboard
- Aspholt concrete or pneumaticolly
applied aspholtic mixture
5% slope or conform
to chonnel bed.
No. 6 reinforcing bar onchor V Weeps ot 6' horizontally
pins with 4' penetration
( VJ
v Position of
ond 10' verticolly as required apron after scour.
SECTION
Ancho
ANCHOR
WRAP
Top edge
2" X2" - 12 ga
wire mesh or equal
12 ga wire wrapped
ucsi^v*. y I around onchor.
%V?\ / i See detail.
Lap wire mesh ond
tie with double
strond 12 ga wire
or hog rings.
PART PLAN
REINFORCING DETAIL
This is not o stondord design. Dimensions
ond detoils should be modified os required.
ASPHALTIC SLOPE PAVING
FIGURE 177.
Details of asphaltic slope paving revetment.
142
In order to avoid the difficulties of compacting on steep slopes, as-
phaltie mixes have been applied pneumatically. A mixing-type emulsion
is used for binder.
Typical construction details are shown in Figure 177. The apron
shown would be effective for moderate scour only.
Specifications
Specifications should call for an asphaltic mix similar to that used
in AC pavements with the exception that approximately 50 percent
more asphalt should be used.
Reinforcing is usually welded-wire fabric although chicken wire has
been used in thin sections or in expendable locations.
A prime coat should be placed before paving, a tack coat should be
applied between courses and a seal coat should be added if the paving
is found to be pervious.
Thickness tolerances should recognize the limitations of methods of
construction and sufficient thickness specified to guarantee the mini-
mum required.
The embankment and also the completed surface should be true to
line and grade in order to guarantee a uniform thickness of paving.
Spreading and compacting should be done by mechanical means if
feasible.
Warmth and moisture build-up beneath the black impervious paving
is conducive to seed germination and as weed growth will pierce the
pavement (Fig. 178, 320) the soil should be sterilized.
FIGURE 178.
Vegetation growing through
asphaltic slope paving.
Marple Canyon VII-LA-4-G
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
143
ROCK-AND-WIRE MATTRESS
This type of bank protection consists of flat mats fabricated from
wire mesh of fencing, filled with rock, connected together with provi-
sions made for adequate anchorage to the embankment. (Fig. 363).
As a revetment, its application has been limited to locations where
the only rock economically available is too small for rock slope protec-
tion, or where grouted protection is unsuited because of fineness of the
stone or insecurity of bedding or foundation. Alternatives of wire
strength, mat thickness, or compartmentization make it adaptable to a
wide range of exposure to hydraulic forces, but the lighter exposures
are served more economically by reticulated revetment (q.v.).
Its most common usage has been to provide a flexible toe protection
for other types of embankment armor as shown in Figures 179-181. The
purpose is to provide a mat that will extend from the embankment slope
out into the streambed, ready to adjust itself by flexure and subsidence
and block the progress of erosion and scour which might threaten the
toe of the embankment. For deep soft streambeds the mattress is an
FIGURE 179.
Eel R. I-Hum-1-D
Rock-and-wire mattress protecting toe of rock slope protection.
FIGURE 180.
Eel R. I-Hum-1-E
Rock-and-wire mattress toe protection showing good performance.
144
FIGURE 182. Soquel Cr. IV-SCr-56-A

Rock-and wire mattress failure after deep scour.
economical alternative to a deep foundation for the primary protection.
They have not performed well on curves (Fig. 182, 32o) where settle-
ment requires a lengthening or shortening in the length of protection at
the toe end. They are more adapted to tangent reaches, for which the
mat must have sufficient strength to hang suspended when scour occurs
deep and unevenly. Its life and that of the bank protection above de-
pend on the durability of the wire which will eventually corrode or fail
due to structural inadequacy. Therefore, it should have a longer service
life in drier climates (or at least remote from the salt air of the sea-
shore) and mature streams carrying mud and silt (but not gravel and
stones which would corrode the wire mesh).
Considering (1) the current high cost of the labor involved (2) the
questionable service life of the wires and (3) efficiency of modern
methods of excavating for toe protection, use of this type has declined.
Typical design details are shown in Figures 183-185. No. 9 wire is
the usual size for mesh as heavier wire would be very difficult to form
into baskets. As the service life of the installation depends mostly on
the rate of deterioration of the wire mesh and ties, they should be
galvanized.
PCC ARTICULATED BLOCKS
This type of revetment consists of small precast concrete blocks held
together to form a flexible mat. A typical installation is shown in Fig-
ure 115.
In this installation the blocks contain wire-mesh reinforcement with
rebars extending out from each edge and bent into an eye at one edge
and a hook at the opposite edge. As the block is placed the open hooks
are put through the eyes of the adjacent blocks and bent closed. Fail-
ures have occurred when hooks opened under load, hence this detail
should be strengthened in future designs. As can be seen from Figures
18 and 115, this type of fabrication becomes complicated for curved
contours as the blocks must be cast in different sizes for each row.
Details of a design that permits the use of a uniform size block on
curved contours is shown in Figure 186. Although this simplifies con-
struction and corrects the hook deficiency, it is still an expensive type of
installation and should preferably be used where they have been most
successful, that is for toe protection on tangent sections.
Specifications should demand PCC of good strength, using 6 sacks
per cubic yard and the blocks should be adequately cured after casting.
If desired, the spaces between blocks may be filled with soil and seeded
or may be filled with asphaltic mixture.
RETICULATED REVETMENT
Wire-mesh netting is useful in revetment work to confine rock that by
itself would be too light for the exposure. It may be used as a cover for
rocky fills, or earth fills over which has been placed a layer of rocky
material. The size of the mesh must be small enough to confine the
majority of the stones. Although some small stones may wash through
the netting, there will remain a top layer of larger stones which in turn
will confine the small stones underneath.
The netting is placed over the rocky slope and pinned by means of
short lengths of reinforcing bar hooked at the top. Brush often grows
through the wire and provides additional anchorage. At the bottom it
should be weighted with a concrete-filled pipe, rail or something of sub-
stantial weight. An application of this type is shown in Figure 187.
Typical design details are shown in Figure 188. If the streambed mate-
rial is gravel, the wire may serve as a flexible toe protection by extend-
ing it into the streambed and weighting the toe end.
The mesh size depends on the size of stone to be confined. The wire
size and whether galvanizing is necessary is largely a matter of judg-
ment and depends on the climatic conditions, the kind of exposure and
the service life desired.
Reinforcing bar pins should be of sufficient length so that they may
be driven 4 to 5 ft into the embankment slope.
146
Design high water

-Slope T2 : 1 or flatter
Notes:
Moke "W" greater than 2d.
-and details should be modified as required.
FIGURE 183.
5% slope or conform to channel bed
cam
Probable scour
^^depth â€”
Mattress after scour
SECTION
HEAVY DUTY
ROCK AND WIRE MATTRESS ARMOR
Heavy-duty rock-and-wire mattress used as armor. See Figure 184 for details.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
147
Mesh lap
Cable lacing
y^Loop and clomp all cable ends
â€” End of mnt
9 ga hog-ring ties
Yin cable at 12' Â±
PLAN
V U-bolt and clip, typical
'4" cable lacing, typical

% " bolt, nut and
washer at 2'
2" x 2" x % Â» z
13' Â± 'ong-^0-,^^
6" to 8"
PART SECTION
cable lacing
Hog-ring
T
V cable lacing, typical
Hog-ring
ties at 11
!4" cable lacing0
BASKET ASSEMBLY
10" 6" ,
V cable
not shown
"96" - 9 ga chain
link fencing, or
equal
- Hog-ring ties, typical

SECTION B - B
1 T=
ANGLE SPLICE
in
SECTION A - A
Thli ii not a standard design. Dimensions
and details should be modified at required.
FIGURE 184.
Heavy-duty rock-and-wire mattress details.
148
End of mnttress
PLAN
bl
PART SECTION B - B
jL
9 go wire mesh
c^X
c
4" to 6"
, '/P M P I
&i
*- Wire mesh connection,
offset top ond bottom
SECTION A - A
l"his is not o stondord design. Dimensions
md detoils should be modified os required.
FIGURE 185.
Light-duty rock-ond-wire mattress details.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
149
Design high wafer
SECTION
j |, n>â€”X" coble or
0
=
c
E
Position of blocks y- v /N
after scour v
- Embedment -
4" for deformed bars
8" for smooth bars
Bolted clamp /
ot 10', typical ^
bar with standard
reinforcing bar bend
18 ga wire mesh
PART ELEVATION
3-
ocks shown are 1 '-6" square. Size
^4'' + may be varied to suit conditions,
PART PLAN
and de.ail, should be modified a, ,e,aâ€ž.d. ARTICULATED CONCRETE BLOCK
FIGURE 186.
Details of articulated concrete block protection.
6â€”30166
150
(B)
FIGURE 187.
Wire-mesh netting (A) placed over rock backing; (B) reinforcing bar anchor pin. Protection
performed well although overtopped by flood.
Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-E
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
151
- Ground line
Wire mesh
Rock mat 4" thick or
os required by design.
Not required on native
rocky bank.
Anchor - No. 6 reinforcing ba
Top of 9 ga Â£'t
wire mesh- rr H
SECTION
Anchors at mesh lops
or flatter
/-Below scour
' f or to bedrock
6" concrete filled
pipe or anchor of
equal weight, at-
tached to mesh.
Mesh
9 ga hog-rings
at 6'' or equal
DETAIL - WIRE MESH LAP
^6'' concrete filled pipe
PLAN
and details should be modified as required
FIGURE 188.
WIRE MESH SLOPE PROTECTION
Details of wire mesh slope protection.
152
FIGURE 190.
S. Fork Eel R. I-Hum-1-C
Pile retard combined with rock slope protection.
RETARDS AND PERMEABLE JETTIES
Retards and permeable jetties are extensive or multiple-unit struc-
tures composed of similar open forms, like piling, fencing, and unit
frames. However, thoy are dissimilar in function and alignment, one
being parallel and the other oblique to the banks.
Retards are placed parallel to the embankment and are applicable
to erodible banks of channels on stable gradient where the prime pur-
pose is not to alter the alignment of the channel but rather to lessen
the tangent or impinging stream velocities sufficiently to prevent ero-
sion of the bank or scour of its toe, and possibly to induce accretion.
As a remedial measure, the prime purpose may include deposition in
deep channels near the bank, or accretion to restore a bank which
had been lost.
They may be used alone (Fig. 189) if the embankment will be pro-
tected by deposition behind the retard, or by vegetation regaining a
foothold; otherwise they may be used in combination with an armor
type. (See Fig. 190.) Often they permit use of a lighter type of armor
where heavier types are not economical, or they may be used as toe
protection of armor types when due to high water or extreme depth
of poor material, good foundation for armor is impractical.
On tangent reaches where the channel is narrow they may. by slow-
ing the velocity on one side, effect an increase in velocity on the other,
but in the wider reaches of a meandering stream they may not only
reduce an impinging attack but have a beneficial effect on the opposite
bank by slowing a rebounding high-velocity thread.
Permeable jetties are placed at an angle with the embankment and
are more applicable in meandering streams for the purpose of direct-
ing or forcing the current away from the embankment (see Fig. 191).
They also encourage deposition of bed material and growth of vege-
tation, but where retards build a narrow strip in front of the em-
bankment, permeable jetties cover a wider area roughly limited by the
envelop of the outer ends.
Timber Piling
Timber piling retards and jetties may be of single (Fig. 192), double
(Fig. 193), or triple (Fig. 137, 194) rows of piles with the outside or
upstream row faced with wire mesh or fencing material which adds
to the retarding effect and may even trap light brush or debris to sup-
plement its purpose. As retards, this type is particularly adapted to
larger streams where the piles will remain in the water, removed from
the fire hazard of brushy banks. The number of pile rows and amount
of wire may be varied to control the deposition of material. Tn leveed
rivers it is often desirable to discourage the accretion in order not to
constrict the channel but provide sufficient retarding effect to prevent
loss of a light bank protection such as vegetation or a light rock facing.
This function is a continuing one and presuming negligible fire haz-
ard, the wood may be treated with preservative to provide a long life
(Fig. 195). When used as jetties their purpose, of course, is to deposit
material and promote the growth of brush. When this occurs, the jetties
are considered to have fulfilled their function and are expendable.
Thus, when used in this latter function, treatment of the wood and
piles which approximately doubles the cost may not be necessary.
154
(A) Eel R.-Dyerville l-Hum-l-C,D
(B) Santa Clara R. VII-Ven-79-C
(C) San Benito R. V-SBt-119-E

FIGURE 191.
(A) Timber pile jetty, (B) single rail-and-wire fence
jetty system, (C) tetrahedron jetties with jack
retard.
FIGURE 192. Redwood Cr. I-Hum-1-K

Single row, timber pile retard. Vegetation taking hold.
FIGURE 193. Eel R. I-Hum-1-D

Double row, timber pile jetty in conjunction with
grouted rock slope protection at severe exposure.
FIGURE 194. S. Fork Eel R. I-Hum-1-C

Triple row, timber pile retard showing connection of
retard to the bank.
FIGURE 195. Sacramento R. IIl-Sacll-E

Single pile retard provides protection for light rock facing.
Details of typical designs are shown in Figures 196-198. Typical
layouts are shown in Figures 196 and 292. Further considerations are
as follows:
(1) If the stream carries heavy debris, the elevation of the top of
the pile should be well below the high-water level in order that heavy
objects such as logs will pass over the top during normal floods.
(2) Piles must have sufficient penetration to prevent loss from
scour. This is especially important for the piles at the outer end of
jetties. If there is question as to the adequacy of that obtainable, the
pile may be protected by a layer of rock placed on the streambed as
shown in Figure 199.
(3) Ends of the retard should be joined to the bank in order to
prevent parallel high-velocity flow between the retard and the bank.
If the retard is long, additional connections may be placed at intervals
(Fig. 200).
(4) Wire or mesh should be fastened to the upstream or channel
side of the piling in order that the force of the water and impact of
debris will not be entirely on the fasteners.
(5) If a double pile retard is to be constructed by pile driving
equipment advancing along the top of the pile, a third brace pile may
be needed in alternate bents (Fig. 201, 275).
(6) Pile rows should be connected with wales and diagonals and
pile bents with struts and X-bracing. Long piles will be framed in
8-12 ft stories with repetition of all bracing in each story.
Specifications
Where pile retards are placed to perform a permanent function
such as to protect the toe of an armor-type protection, the piles and
timber wales and bracing should be treated with preservative. How-
ever, as an interim protection to promote accretion and the growth of
brush which eventually eliminates the need of the retards, less expen-
sive untreated piling should be satisfactory. Likewise, the wire and
hardware may be galvanized or not depending on the service life ex-
pected. Piles should be sufficiently long to attain the desired pene-
tration beyond probable scour. With velocities of 10 to 15 fps and
sandy stream beds, piles should be driven to refusal, preferably with
a penetration of at least 15 ft.
156
SECTION
PILE BENT
SECTION
MULTISTORY BENT
Notes:
Bent spacing 8T Â±. Pile faces dapped for waling ond bracing.
Third pile may be added as shown in Figure 19^ if necessary for support of pile driving equipment.
For the multistory bent, piles may be battered laterally if conditions warront. If the third pile is added,
battering con be restricted to this pile.
TIMBER PILE RETARD
FIGURE 196.
Details and typical layout of timber pile retard.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
157
SECTION
This is not a standard design D.mensions ALTERNATIVE
ond details should be modified os reauired TIMBER PILE JETTY AND RETARD
FIGURE 197.
Details of timber pile jetty and retard used where stronger bracing is required.
158
â€” Timber piles
I W X6" - 10 go
! wire mesh or
barbed wire
Add thiid pile if necessary for support
of pile-driving equipment. Spacing as
required.
X 8" wale
%" bolts, typicol
Dop pi le faces for

walino ond bracing
This is not o stondord design. Dir
ond detoils should be modified os
TIMBER PILE JETTY DETAILS
FIGURE 198.
Timber pile jetty details which are also adaptable to a retard.
FIGURE 199.
EelR. I-Hum-1-D
Pile jetty protected from scour with rock.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
159
160
Fence Types
For smaller streams or areas of less frequent attack such as overflow
areas, single and double rows of various types of fencing have been
used extensively (Figs. 202-205). All-metal types, such as pipe-and-
wire or rail-and-wire, are more suitable when conditions are conducive
to the growth of brush, which presents a serious fire hazard to wooden
posts. Details of typical designs of pipe and wire retards are found
in Figures 206 and 207.
FIGURE 202. VII-LA-23-H

Single timber pile fence with bank ties provides protection in overflow area.
FIGURE 203. Cache Cr. Ill-Yol-90-B

Double pipe-and-wire fence retard without fill serves adequately for low-
velocity flow.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
161
The principal difference between fence retards and ordinary wire
fences is that the posts of retards must be driven sufficiently deep to
avoid loss by scour.
When it is desired to reduce the permeability as an aid in directing
the stream, as is frequently required at earth fills behind bridge abut-
ments, then self-adjusting wire baskets may be added as shown in
Figure 207 and filled with alternate layers of rock and brush.
Permeability can be varied in the design to fit the requirements of
the location. For single fences, the factor most readily varied is the
pattern of the wire mesh. For multiple fences, the mesh pattern can be
varied or the space between fences can be filled to any desired height.
Making optimum use of local materials, this fill may be brush ballasted
by rock, or rock alone.
FIGURE 205. VII-Ora-2-B

Very light-duty single fence retard on both sides of channel change.
162
Stream side /'lWire mesh
5'Â±
Wire mesh
-2" pipe post
and braces
PLAN
Flow
Galvanized wire mesh attached
with 10 ga galvanized wire or
hog rings at 6"
ELEVATION
/Horizontal brace pipe ring
3' to 4
Brush and rocl
/ fill optionol
!4" x V/i" pipe ring '
DIAGONAL BRACE
SECTION
J l/pipe ring
Pipe flattened .
HORIZONTAL BRACE
This ii not o standard design Dimensions
ond details should be modified as required
LIGHT DOUBLE FENCE DETAILS
FIGURE 206.
Details of light-duty double fence used as retard, jetty or baffle.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
163
Anchors os required
% " coble
-2" pipe cross-broces-
4 ' to 6" pipe depending upon

penetration and exposure.
Use 60 lb railroad rail alternative.
Stream side
PLAN
ga wire mesh attached with

10 go galvanized wire or hog rings at 1 ' Â±
Stream side shown
12' typical
ELEVATION
* Fill with rocks and brush-"
<1
Stream
side
Mesh -
- Cables^
â– (Basket -\
â– Ûnattached J
I Attached ^
4
L
Pipe post
%" bolt
Crossbracc
llfl^-V J-
ELEVATION
'A" J-bolt
Wire mesh
Wire mesh
WITHOUT BASKET WITH BASKET
SECTIONS
Nates:
Post penetration = 2H or more as required for scour conditions
Wjre mesh basket provides for settlement after undcrscoui
ond details should be modified as required
CROSSBRACE AND CABLE

FASTENING DETAILS
HEAVY DOUBLE FENCE
FIGURE 207.
Details of heavy-duty double fence used as jetty, retard or baffle.
164
Jacks and Tetrahedrons
These devices are skeletal frames adaptable to permeable retards and
jetties by tying a number of similar units together in longitudinal
alignment. Cables are used for ties between units and for anchorage
of key units to deadmen. Struts and wires are added to the basic frames,
as desired, to increase impedance to flow of water, directly by their own
resistance and indirectly by the debris they collect (Figs. 208, 209,
273).
The basic frame of the tetrahedron is assembled from 6 equal mem-
bersâ€”3 forming the triangular base and the others the 3 faces sloping
upward from the base to an apex (Fig. 210). In all respects these
faces are like the base so that the tetrahedron can rotate and stand
equally well on any faceâ€”as it may if undercut by the stream.
FIGURE 208. Salinas R. at King City Br. V-Mon-2-F

Steel-rail tetrahedron retard. Note debris collected by wire mesh.
FIGURE 209. VI-Tul-129-B

Steel-rail jack retard with ties to the bank. Performance indicated by quiet
water inside of retard.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
165
Connection to suit
See details V
Pipe strut connectioi
)g" pipe hongar
clomp or equal
with V holts
30 ' main members
ELEVATION
Railroad roi!
Strut connection.
4" X 4 XV ongle
clip with V' bolts.
/:
10" X 10'' - 10 ga w.re

nesh extending 1$ to
sâ€¢} height. Mesh
optionol - see text.
Struts not
shown
Stream side
PLAN VIEW
Notes:
Moin Members - 6'' stondard pipe or
60 lb railroad roil
Struts - 4" stondard pipe or 40 lb
railroad roil
For 15' tetrahedrons, use 4"
snndard pipe or 40 lb railroad
rail without struts. Modify
Connections to suit.
3-1" bolts
ST 7 WF 43.5 lb
or equal
2- m" bolts
//' steel plate, cut
ond dnlled to hi
PART ELEVATION
PIPE
PART PLAN
RAILROAD RAIL
MAIN CONNECTION DETAILS
FIGURE 210.
STEEL TETRAHEDRON
Steel tetrahedron details with alternative type members.
The commonest material has been salvaged railroad rail. Using 33-ft
rails, the largest units stood 27 ft high and had to be braced with sub-
dividing struts. Units 9 ft high using rails cut in thirds need no brac-
ing. Angle-iron and pipe are suitable for light duty and moderate
size. RC units were tried in 1928 (Fig. 13); partial success at that
time, combined with subsequent development of precasting techniques,
warrants further experiment.
Structural design of tetrahedrons has not been formulated. From
observation of deformation and distress of rail units, there are three
load factors to be considered, viz: (1) hydraulic drag on frame mem-
bers loaded with collected drift; (2) impact on frame members by
heavy drift; and (3) rotation of undercut units. Drag causes minor
deformation of the frame members, but major tension in cables, anchor-
ages, and connecting hardware. If an intermediate unit in a taut sys-
tem is undercut and rotated, the cable tension is greatly increased.
Impact of logs cripples frame members without destroying them or
adding much to cable tension. Hence the important factor in design
is cable anchorage, which should be proportioned to size and number
of units and velocity of the stream.
The basic frame of the jack is a triaxial assembly of 3 mutually
perpendicular bars acting as 6 cantilever legs from their central con-
nection (Fig. 211). Wires strung on these members to collect drift
and impede the flow of water tend also to relieve stress in the canti-
levered legs. Standing equally well on any 3 of the 6 legs, this device
can also rotate like the tetrahedron.
Also, like the tetrahedron, a jack stands to a height of 82 percent of
the length of a member, but having only 3 instead of the tetrahedrons
6, it uses only half as much framing and is structurally weaker.
Practical applications have been limited to 15-ft members standing
12.3 ft high. These have used salvaged rails, but angle-iron and pipe
are well adapted to smaller units. Concrete has not been used, but
timber has been combined with steel to reduce the unbuoyed weight of
units on a soft bed.
Both devices serve best in meandering streams which carry consider-
able bed load during flood stages. Impedance of the stream along the
string of units will cause deposit of alluvium, especially at the crest
and during the falling stage. Beds of such streams often scour on the
rising stage, undercutting the units and causing their subsidence, often
accompanied by rotation when one leg or side is undercut more than
the other. Deposition on the falling stage usually restores the former
bed, partially or completely burying the units. However, in that lowered
and rotated position, they may be completely effective in future floods.
Jacks require less anchorage than tetrahedrons, mainly because of
self-anchorage of units by penetration of the legs into the bed. When
cabled together to assure continuity, comparatively light cables or heavy
wire will suffice. In emergencies single units have been cast overbank
at point of attack by eddy or impingement, gaining effective control
immediately (Fig. 212).
Anchorage for tetrahedrons (and for jacks when required) should be
aligned with the force of the current. The force on a retard is nearly
parallel to its line; anchorage should be upstream on that line in a
location safe from scour, using tree, pile or deadman (Fig. 213). The
force on a jetty is oblique to its line and security may require several
anchorages spaced along the jetty; deadman or drag anchors have
been used successfully where anchors must be located in the stream bed.
Drag anchors were constructed in the bed of Colorado River by casting
a bowl-shaped concrete fluke around a vertical rail and later rotating
the rail to the horizontal to set the fluke.
Selection of these devices and detail of design may be influenced by
location in or near urban or recreational areas. Unless units will be
screened by reproduction of vegetation, some attention should be given
to their appearance. Where units may become '' attractive nuisances,''
details should avoid sharp points and edges or other features dangerous
ISOMETRIC VIEW
V bolts
n
i
RAIL CONNECTION ANGLE CONNECTION
JOINT DETAILS
This is not O stondord design. Dimensions
ond details should be modified os required.
STEEL JACK
FIGURE 211.
Steel jack details with alternative type members.
to children running around or climbing up. It should be foreseen that
unprotected metal may corrode and become unsightly and dangerous
with the years.
Except as indicated for appearance and safety, galvanizing of metal
parts is not warranted. At most, allowance for corrosion may consist of
extra gauge of metal or diameter of cable. Plow cables are preferred
to wire rope because of the greater gage of the wires.
Connections should be designed to facilitate field assembly of pre-
fabricated parts. Welding may be practical for structural shapes, but
should not be permitted for rails which would lose strength in the
process.
168
GROINS
A groin is a solid or permeable and relatively slender barrier oppos-
ing the natural flow of water so as to control the movement of bed
material (Fig. 214-216). In its simplest or basic form, it is a spur
structure extending outward from the shore over beach and shoal, or
from the bank outward on the streambed. Factors pertinent to design
are: material, alignment, grade, permeability, length and spacing.
Materials
Common materials in the order of permanence are stone, concrete,
steel and timber. Stone groins are built like moles, usually with a mas-
sive trapezoidal section depending on weight for stability. Concrete is
precast, either in heavy solid blocks, tillable cells, or skeletal interlock-
ing forms like tetrapods. Steel may be as simple as a line of sheet piling,
or compounded of H-piling, waling and sheathing. Timber is adaptable
to a multitude of forms: sheet piling, pile fence, pile bent, ballasted
crib, or boom.
Although all of these materials and most of the forms have been tried
in highway practice, design guides herein will be limited to stone struc-
tures. Principles of design for precast concrete elements are similar, but
the higher cost per unit length of groin inhibits their use in shoals com-
mon to highway practice. As for steel, its cost has increased with
inflation much more rapidly than either concrete or stone. Also its
comparatively short life in sea water is effectively foreshortened by
impractibility of restoring protective coatings and the hazard of sharp
jagged edges of corroded steel to beach users, Timber, where applicable
to temporary hazards in inland waters, will be guided by principles
defined for retards and jetties.
Alignment
Alignment of groins has been the subject of comprehensive study by
many agencies, both in theory and in observation of performance, but
without deriving a conclusive or compelling reason for departing from
the conventional alignment normal to the shore. The obvious factors
which might influence alignment are (1) effectiveness in retaining or
detaining littoral drift, and (2) self-protection of the groin against
damage by wave action. These will be considered in turn.
Groins depend upon a favorable rate of littoral drift, even if the
area between groins is filled artificially. Movement of littoral drift is
far from steady, either in rate or in direction. For any particular site,
the seasonal variation may be fairly regular, with 6 to 9 months in one
direction followed by 6 to 3 months in the opposite direction. Storm
variation is extremely irregular, a slight difference in direction of wind
spelling the difference between upcoast or downcoast drift on a stretch
of beach, and between onshore and offshore movement of sand at any
particular part of the stretch. More influential than local storms on
littoral balance are swells produced by distant storms, because of the
sustained attack at nearly constant azimuth. In tidewater, the effect
of both wind wave and swell is very sensitive to tidal stage, and grade
of the residual beach is determined by the tide when the dynamic forces
subsided.
170
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
171
FIGURE 216.
San Mateo Br. IV-SM-105 B
Timber groins in bay exposure badly deteriorated.
172
However, nature tends to establish a balance throughout large num-
bers of regular and random events on a shore, establishing a beach line
nearly parallel to fronts of dominant wave patterns. The longer the
beach, the better the measure. Strands, spits and onshore stretches con-
form to the front of refracted waves, often resembling a logarithmic
spiral. Short beaches are generally sharper in curvature, controlled by
the downdrift headland acting like a groin (Fig. 217).
Reversing this viewpoint, a groin acts like an artificial headland in
controlling a slightly curved beach on the updrift side. A field of groins
acts as a series of headlands, with beaches between each pair aligned
in echelon, that is, extending from outer end of the downdrift groin to
an intermediate point on the updrift groin (Fig. 21B). The offset in
beach line at each groin is a function of spacing of groins, volume of
littoral drift, slope of sea bed and strength of the sea, varying meas-
urably with the season. Length and spacing must be complementary to
assure continuity of beach in front of a highway embankment.
Hence, as a first approach to design of groins, the pattern consists of
a series of parallel spurs normal to the beach extending seaward a dis-
tance proportionate to the spacing. This alignment would be correct for
a littoral drift alternating upcoast and downcoast in equal measure.
However, if drift is predominately in one direction it may be inferred
that median attack by waves contributes materially to the longshore
current because of oblique approach. In that case the groin should be
more effective if built oblique to the same degree. Such an alignment
will warrant shortening of the groin in proportion to the cosine of the
obliquity (Fig. 219).
Not only does conformity of groin to direction of approach of the
median sea obtain an optimum ratio of groin length to spacing, but the
groin in this alignment is least vulnerable to storm damage. Attack on
the groin will be longitudinal during a median sea and oblique on either
side in other seas, but for the latter the hazard of damage is less for a
range of obliquity from 15Â° on one side to 15Â° on the other side than
for a normal groin with the range from 30Â° to 0Â° on one side only.
FIGURE 217.
Beach and shore line between headlands induced by wave W and drift D.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
173
Former beach line in equilibrium
FIGURE 218.
Offset beach detained by normal groins on a beach in equilibrium.
FIGURE 219.
Alignment of groins to an oblique sea warrants shortening proportional to cosine of
obliquity.
Grade
Grade of groins should conform to the ultimate beach profile neces-
sary to the security of the highway (or as may be required for right-
of-way obligation). Since sand may be entrained over a low barrier, the
grade may be established higher than the beach, say 2 ft as a minimum
for moderate exposure combined with an abundance of littoral drift,
to 5 ft for severe exposure and deficiency of drift. (Although this sec-
tion has been limited to stone groins, it should be noted that the effec-
tive grade of sheet groins may be established by apertures called win-
dows, permitting a progressive aggradation as flashboards are added
to the windows).
At termini, grade of groins may depart from a parallel to beach
profile in order to serve a secondary purpose. At the shore end it should
be tapered upward to prevent attack of highway embankment by rip
currents. At the seaward end it should be tapered downward to match
the side slope of the groin in order to diffuse the direct attack of the sea
on the end of the groin.
Permeability
Permeability of a groin may serve three purposes: (1) pass some
sand and water from updrift to downdrift side of the groin as an offset
to eddy and scour on the downdrift side; (2) dissipate wave energy
by turbulent dispersion of flow and consumptive compression of en-
trapped air; and (3) reduce the quantity of material. However, these
purposes are considered secondary, so that permeability is permitted
as a desirable characteristic instead of being designed as a necessary
element. Ordinary placement of stone will leave 30% of voids, which
is usually advantageous. Grouting seals most of the passages, but may
be necessary to adapt small stones to severe exposure.
Length and Spacing
Finally, for consideration together because of interdependence, are
length and spacing of a series of groins in a groin field (Fig. 220).
The most conservative rule equated length to spacing, so that aggregate
length of all groins equalled the stretch of beach to be protected. It
should be obvious by reference again to Figure 218, that length of
groin should equal or exceed the sum of the offset in shoreline at each
groin plus the width of the beach from LW to HW line. The offset
is approximately the product of the groin spacing and the obliquity (in
radians) of the entrapped beach. The width of beach is the product of
the slope factor and the range in stage. The relation can be formulated:
L = ab 4- rh, where
L = Length of groin in ft,
a = obliquity of entrapped beach in radians,
i = beach width between groins,
r = reciprocal of beach slope,
h = range in stage.
For example, with groins 400 ft apart, obliquity up to 20Â°, on a
beach sloping 10:1 with a tidal range of 11 ft,
L = .35 X 400 + 10 X 11 = 250 ft.
The same formula would have required L = 390 for 800-ft spacing,
reducing the aggregate length of groins but increasing the depth of
water at the outer ends and the average cost per lineal foot. For some
combination of length and spacing the total cost will be a minimum,
which should be sought for economical design.
If groins are too short, the attack of the sea will reach the highway
embankment with some reduction of energy. Some sites may justify a
combination of short groins with light revetment (Figure 221).
Section
Details of the design must specify a section for the groin and weight
of stone (Figure 222). The typical section is a trapezoid defined by a
top width and side slopes. The stone may be specified as a single
class, or by designating classes to be used as bed, core, face and cap
stones.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
175
176
FIGURE 221. Pacific Palisades VII-LA-60-LA

Groins with rock revetment protecting embankment. Note typical shoreline formation between groins.
Dynamic forces being less with small angles of incidence, face stone
may be chosen one class below the requirement for revetment by Chart
A or B. Full weight stone should be specified for bed stones, for the
front face at the outer end of the groin, and for cap stones exposed
to overrun. Core stones in wide groins may be still smaller.
Width of groin at top should be at least 1.5 times the diameter of
cap stones, or wider if necessary for operation of equipment. Side
slopes should be 1.5: 1 for optimum economy and ordinary stability.
If this slope demands heavier stone than is available, side slope can
be eased or the cap and face stones bound together with grout. Figure
223 shows different types of groins.
DESION PRINCIPLES
177
' Roadway
-Shore slope protection
PLAN
-Ground line
1-Cap stone^ ^Face stone. Weight of rock
depends upon exposure.
Core rock
SECTION
This is not o stondord design. Dimension

ond detoils should be modified os require>
FIGURE 222.
SECTION-GROUTED
DETAILS - STONE DIKE GROIN
Typical stone dike groin details.
178
VII-LA-60
VII-LA-60
FIGURE 223.
(A) Steel sheet-pile groin, (B) short concrete groins on reefs backed with stone revetment, (C) concrete groins
extending from headlands, (D) concrete groins extend beach beyond protection of older groin field.
BULKHEADS
In bank and shore protection, a bulkhead is an armor on a slope
steep beyond stability, serving to retain the bank against sliding as
well as to secure it against erosion (Figures 224-226). In its capacity
as a retaining device, the bulkhead should be designed by conventional
methods for retaining walls, cribs and laterally-loaded piles. These
methods are beyond the scope of this report.
In its capacity as an armor, a bulkhead is designed by principles
established for revetment, the essential difference being the slope of
the face. Specifically, it must be secure against hydraulic forces at
each of its edges and present an acceptable surface as a boundary to
highly energized water.
Along a stream bank, use of a bulkhead armor presumes a channel
section so constricted as to prohibit use of a cheaper device on a
natural slope. Velocity will be unnaturally high along the face of the
bulkhead, which must have a fairly smooth surface to avoid com-
pounding the restriction. The high velocity will increase the hazards of
scour at the toe and erosion at the downstream end. Allowance must
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
179

Concrete seawall with throwback coping in area of severe exposure.
FIGURE 225.
Rubble masonry wall at point of stream impingement.
Trinity R. l-Tri-20-D
180
be made for these hazards in selecting the type of foundation, grade

of footing, penetration of piling, transition and anchorage at down-
stream end. Transitions at both ends may appropriately taper the width
of channel and slope of the bank; transition in roughness is desirable
if attainable.
Along a shore, use of a bulkhead armor presumes a steep lake or sea
bed profile, such that revetment on a 1.5:1 or flatter slope would pro-
ject into prohibitively deep water. Such shores are generally rocky,
offering good foundation on residual reefs, but historic destruction of
the overlying formation attests to the hydraulic power of the sea to be
resisted by an artificial replacement. The face of such a bulkhead must
be designed to absorb or dissipate as much as practical of the shock
of these forces.
Walls
The commonest bulkhead in highway practice is the wingwall (or
end wall) at bridges and culverts, serving as a transition from a rec-
tangular constriction to a trapezoidal channel. The commonest forms
(Fig. 227) are briefed below:
Straight Endwall
No transitional value, but protects approach against eddy erosion;
suitable only for low velocity in poorly defined channel.
Straight Wingwall
No transitional value, but protects steep banks which support the
approach embankment.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
181
(E) (F)
FIGURE 227.
Types of wingwalls in common use: (A) straight endwall, (B) straight wingwall, (C) obilque
wingwall, (D) tapered oblique wingwall, (E) warped wingwall, and (F) returned wingwall.
7â€”::ni(ifi
182
Oblique Wingwall
The conventional transition; efficient and economical for well-defined
channels and moderate velocity. Flare angle in degrees should be lim-
ited to 300/y for converging and 150/F for diverging flow, where V
is the velocity in fps through the constricted section.
Tapered Wall
Tapering the grade of the parapet of either the straight or oblique
wingwall is common practice for streams of moderately low velocity.
By matching the surcharge slope to the natural bank, the transition
progressively exposes this slope to the low-velocity boundary of the
varied flow.
Warped Wall
Tapering the slope of the wall from vertical at the abutment to a
stable-bank slope at the end of the wall makes an excellent transition
for moderate to high velocity.
Returned Wall
Building the standard cantilever wall on a curved alignment re-
turned from the abutment is an economical solution for a specific
combinationâ€”a vulnerable approach embankment projecting into a
channel with durable banks.
For concrete construction, all of these forms have been reduced to
standard plans. The first three are adaptable to precasting by modular
panels, and stepped taper has added the fourth (Fig. 228). Hence
design is simply (1) selection of the appropriate form, using the de-
scriptive guides, (2) defining line and grade from hydraulic factors,
and (3) adapting to precast construction when warranted.
Walls are also used at natural constrictions of a stream. For design
purposes, the procedure may follow the same procedure as at a bridge
by considering the central part of the wall like a bridge abutment and
the terminal transitions like bridge wings. Standard plans are available,
including gravity as well as cantilever walls.
Cribs
Timber and concrete cribs are used for bulkheads in locations where
some flexibility is desirable or permissible (Figs. 229-233). Metal cribs
are limited to support of embankment and are not recommended for use
as protection because of vulnerability to alternations of corrosion and
corrasion. Using backfill for stability, cribs are economical in the use of
structural materials. Their rough surfaces are advantageous in all nat-
ural locations exposing banks to flow at high velocity.
Standard plans are available for concrete cribs and crib elements. A
patent (of dubious value because of anticipation in 1917) limited use
of the device until its expiration in 1941. Design is essentially a deter-
mination of line and grade. Foundation grade should be adaptable to
sound bearing materials rather than requiring regularity of crib
stretchers.
Timber cribs generally use log headers and stretchers dapped to in-
terlock at the contact. Headers must be long enough to integrate a
stable mass of backfill. Although more vulnerable to decay, the greater
184
(A)
FIGURE 229
(a) Trinity R.
(A) Concrete crib bulkhead, (B) details of construction.
ll-Tri-20-E

Log crib bulkhead.
Hit
FIGURE 231. S. of Fort Bragg l-Men-56-E
Redwood log crib face showing relation of
crib members.
â–
FIGURE 232. W. Fork Carson R.

Log crib bridge abutments.
X-Alp-23-D FIGURE 233. S. of Carmel V-Mon-56-H
Shows typical timber crib arrangement.
DESION PRINCIPLES
length of available materials is a great advantage for this device, often
warranting the use of dimension lumber instead of logs.
Backfill for either kind of crib must be self-draining and secure
against erosion through the louvers of the stretcher system. Of greatest
importance is security of base of the crib from loss of backfill upon
scour along its toe.
Piling
Timber, concrete and steel piling are used for bulkheads depending
on deep penetration of foundation materials for all or part of their
stability. High bulkheads are usually counterforted at upper levels
with batter piles or ties to deadmen. Any of the three materials is
adaptable to sheet piling or a sheathed system of post or column piles
(Fig. 234).
Structural design of pile bulkheads is highly specialized and not
adaptable to standard plans, except possibly for a low bulkhead com-
monly used as an extension to bridge wingwalls. More correctly, such
extensions are baffles guiding flow to and from a narrow constriction,
with little or no earth retained behind them.
Excluding structural requirements, design of pile bulkheads is essen-
tially (1) recognition of foundation conditions suitable to or demand-
ing deep penetration, (2) choice of material, and (3) determination
of line and grade. The first should assure penetration of at least 15 ft.
below scour level, or into soft rock. For the second, timber is economical
for very dry or very wet climates and easy driving; for other situations
comparison should be made of preliminary designs. Finally, line and
grade should provide a fairly smooth transition with protection to high-
water level, since such structures should not be overtopped.
Seawalls
in
tawalls
Any type of bulkhead may be used as a seawall, there being examples
highway practice with log cribs, gravity walls, pile-supported walls,
FIGURE 234.
Russian R. IV-Son-104-A
Steel-pile timber bulkhead with anchor rods.
186
and sheet piling (Figs. 235-237). Structural design being beyond the
scope of this report, this section will be limited to desgin of external
features from consideration of dynamic forces.
The force which a wave can exert on a wall varies widely with the
wall's alignment, height, shape, texture and resilience. Precise analysis
is not practical, so that design must rely on observation of models and
performance of prototypes. However the qualitative influence of these
5 factors should be understood as a guide to model study.
A sea may be considered a partly random, partly systematic sequence
of waves differing from one another in period and amplitude. Without
identifying its particular elements, one wave of the sequence may be
called the critical wave for a particular design because it applies the
(B)
FIGURE 235. (a) Sea Cliff VII-Ven-2-F
Old Sea Cliff seawall (a) when wave is deflected over parapet and (b) during low tide.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
187
FIGURE 236.
Sea Cliff VII-Ven-2-F
Steel sheet-pile seawall with sheet-pile groins.
FIGURE 237.
XI-SD-2-A
Concrete seawall, also serving as retaining wall.
greatest force on the structure. This critical wave approaches the wall
with a combination of potential and kinetic energy which must be
disposed of. The rate at which the energy reaches the wall is the power
of the wave. With some simplification, the significant force on the
structure depends on disposition of energy at the moment of maximum
power. The effect of each of the 5 factors on disposition of energy will
be briefed in turn.
Alignment
Alignment of a wall is usually parallel to the wave front, so that
maximum power attacks all of a structural unit at the same moment.
Hence the force of the attack should be considered a continuous load
along the entire structure. An oblique alignment might be advanta-
geous, but reflected energy may be combined with oncoming energy to
build up more power in the attack at another point, as was observed
regularly on the westerly half of the old Sea Cliff wall in Ventura
County.
188
Heighf
Height of a wall is usually proportined to prevent overtopping. How-
ever the factor is listed so as to include breakwaters or breast walls
designed to intercept part of the wave and pass tolerable energy to
other protective elements.
Shape
Shape of a wall is of greatest importance, as it may (a) concentrate
the power of the wave as a horizontal load on the wall, (b) deflect part
of the wave over the parapet, (c) deflect part of the wave downward
so as to scour the toe, or (d) throw back a major part of the wave into
the sea to dissipate its energy (Fig. 238).
SECTION A SECTION B
SECTION C
SECTION D
FIGURE 238.
Effect of various seawall sections on wave impact. (From C. S. Pope Article ASCE Trans.,
Vol. 98, 1938.)
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
189
Texture
Texture of a wall affects its ability to absorb or dissipate energy along
its surface. However the portion which can be dissipated by ordinary
roughness is small and this factor is important only for louvered walls
with apertures leading to pockets where energy can be expended on
compression of air.
Resilience
Resilience of a wall measures its capacity to yield to the power of one
wave and recover before the attack of the next one. Some energy may
be absorbed by internal work and some expended on the falling wave.
Pile structures enjoy a great advantage because of this factor.
Summarizing, the energy at the moment of maximum power may be
disposed of by dispersion, deflection, dissipation or destruction. Force
applied to the structure must be resisted by its inertia, requiring great
mass, or elasticity, requiring great flexibility. The optimum principle
is to " fight water with water," as by throwing back the front of a wave
to collide with its crest. The greatest hazard is the deflection of energy
downward so as to attack foundation materials.
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES
No attempt will be made here to describe in detail all of the various
devices that have been used to protect embankment against scour. Some
result from emergency decisions, other methods though rarely used may
result from thorough analysis to determine the most economical cor-
rection. Presented on the following pages are illustrations of some less
common types and methods that have been used in California.
190
(A)
FIGURE 240. I-Hum-1-E
(A) Precast concrete pyramids showing cable eyes for lifting, (B) deteriorated pyramids.
(C) lll-Yol-50-E
FIGURE 241.
(A) Precast concrete blocks on jetty subjected to severe attack. Largest
stones available were found inadequate and later supplemented with pre-
cast concrete pyramids weighing 25 and 45 tons. The concrete blocks were
added later and, finally all were grouted. (B) Weathered concrete blocks
supplemented with tetrapods. (C) Widely spaced precast concrete blocks
for protection under light exposure.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
191
FIGURE 242. VIII-SBd-58-N

Sand-bag jetties placed for emergency flood protection.
FIGURE 243. San Mateo Br. IV-SM-105-B FIGURE 244. IH-Sac-ll-F

Here a bay-shore mud embankment was pro- Old bituminous pavement serves as bank pro-
tected with pile groins and shells dredged tection against infrequent attack,
from just offshore. It was a continuing main-
tenance problem until broken concrete was
disposed of here as riprap which provided
adequate protection.
FIGURE 245. VII-LA-61-A

Pneumatically applied bituminous mixture for light exposure.
192
FIGURE 247. N. Fork Cache Cr.

I-Lak-15-C
Degradation of the streambed
FIGURE 246. Eel R. I-Huml-B was undermining concrete slope
Impervious triangular log-cribs jetties created eddies which protection. This was arrested by
caused damaging scour. construction of concrete check
dams with energy dissipating
aprons shown in Figure 148.
Design high woter
Large broken
concrete blocks
- Below scour
or to bedrock
SECTION
This is no! o stondord desiun. Dimensions
FIGURE 248.
BROKEN SLAB SLOPE PROTECTION
Broken slab slope protection placed in horizontal courses.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
193
FIGURE 249.
Prison labor made this rubble masonry wall economically feasible.
VI-Kin-58-E
FIGURE 250. V-SBt-22-A

On numerous occasions old car bodies have been dropped in front of scouring embankment
as an emergency measure to retard erosion.
FIGURE 251. XI-lmp-2-B

Wire nettingâ€”this illustrates the use of war surplus submarine netting. In this desert area as
the sand erodes during infrequent floods the coarse netting acts as a retard and encourages
restoration by both the wind and water.
194
(A) (B)
FIGURE 252. Crescent City Breakwater l-DN-1
(A) A patented type of precast concrete unit called tetrapod, (B) tetrapods used as armor for jetty. Small
scale tests indicate that due to the ability of these shapes to key themselves, a reduction of more than
50% in weight from that necessary with ordinary quarry stone may be possible.
(B)
(A)
FIGURE 253.
(C)
Salinas R. V-Mon-117-A
(A) Flexible fencing backed with brush placed in 1944, (B) six years later willows have taken hold. Waste
material has been dumped between the 1944 bank and the fencing, (C) flexible fence with timber jacks
closing embayment of Salinas River.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
195
FIGURE 254. Santa Ana R. VII-Ora-183-A

Fallen-log retard anchored to bank for emergency flood protection.
' Tr
FIGURE 255. US 66, Mohave Co., Arizona
Inclined rail-pile fence backed with stones.
FIGURE 256. Santa Clara R. VII-Ven-155-C

Articulated concrete blocks hung from toe of
concrete slope paving provides self-adjusting
toe protection.
FIGURE 257. Bodfish Cr. IV-SC1-32-D
Light protection provided by planted
vegetation.
VIII-SBd-58-P
FIGURE 258.
Examples of road overflow aprons: (A)
erosion at toe; (B) with energy dissi-
pator to reduce toe erosion; (C) in
overflow area; (D) asphaltic paving; (E)
made of rock-and-wire.
(C)
(D)
lll-Gle-7-B
XI-Riv-146-E
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
197
DESIGN HIGH WATER
Design high water for shore protection is a high stage of the static
or still-water level of the sea. It is a hydrographic item independent
of datum, but must be determined from the two factors datum and
stage.
Except for inland waters affected by wind tides, floods and seiches,
the level used for design is the highest tide. In tide tables, this is the
stage of the highest tide above "tide-table datum" at MLLW. To
convert this to MSL datum there must be subtracted a datum equation
(2.5 to 3.8 ft.) factor. If CHC datum differs from MSL datum, a
further correction is necessary. These steps should be undertaken with
care and independently checked because of costly mistakes in the past,
particularly of (1) ignoring the datum equation, (2) adding the factor
instead of subtracting it, and (3) using half the diurnal range as the
stage of high water.
To clarify the determination of design high water, Fig. 259 shows the
Highest Tide in its relation to an extreme-tide cycle and to a hypo-
thetical average-tide cycle, together with nomenclature pertinent to
three definitions of tidal range. Note that the cycle has two highs and
two lows. The average of all the higher highs for a long period (pref-
erably in multiples of the 19-yr. metonic cycle) is MHHW, and of all
the lower lows, MLLW. The vertical difference between them is the
diurnal range.
Particularly on the Pacific coast where MLLW is datum for tide
tables, the stage of MHHW is numerically equal to diurnal range.
Maximum range between highest and lowest tides is 1.8 to 2.0 times
the diurnal range.
FIGURE 259.
Nomenclature of tidal ranges.
OOOOiOOOOOOâ€”" â€”i >h h Â« N N
lOiOiOiOiCiOiOiOiOiOiOiOOCtOtOCO
if:
10 o ira
OiOSOS'-tOOitOI^.tOM'-iaO'-'OJCOCQifi
000(N'-t--"'-"0!NÂ«-''-"OCSOOO
dddddooodddoooddd
III III I
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
(N(N(NfqNWC0(NMNNWMMMMM
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
a .2
m
^> X o ft
J O I J (U 0<
S5i^15îii|ll||
PnÂ«!MiB0<1coO!Â»!ilft<&,MajStrlE-iO
DESIQN PRINCIPLES
199
The average of all the highs (indicated graphically as the mean of
higher high and lower high) is the MHW, and of all the lows, MLW.
Vertical difference between these two stages is the mean range. On the
Atlantic Coast, MLW is datum for tide tables and the stage of MHW
is numerically equal to mean range. On the California Coast, mean
range is 0.66 to 0.73 times the diurnal range.
Because of the great variation of tidal elements, Figure 259 was not
drawn to scale. Table 6 shows these elements for 17 coastal locations
in California arranged in order of latitude. The dependence on latitude
is evident in all but the half-tide column of the table, and relation-
ship is more evident in Figure 260 in which the datum equation (E),
diurnal range (R) and maximum range (Rm) are plotted against lati-
tude. Because of sampling errors in the basic data, the curves relating
E, R and Rm to latitude may be more accurate than the tables. In any
case they are recommended for interpolation to intermediate locations.
The relation of Rm to highway districts suggests use of one or two fac-
tors in each district like those in Table 7.
TABLE 7. TIDAL DESIGN FACTORS FOR COASTAL DISTRICTS
E = MSL
above MLLW
Maximum
Range i,Rm)
Highest tide above
District
MLLW
MSL
I-N ..
3.57
3.40
3.05
2.95
2.74
2.67
2.60
12.33
11.50
11.00
10.60
10.40
10.10
10.20
9.74
9.15
8.55
8.25
7.94
7.72
7.70
6.17
I-S
5.75
IV-N
5.50
IV-S. .__
5.30
V
5.20
5.05
VII
XI
5.10
The foregoing data is limited in use to the outer coast. Tides are
generally higher on inland waters, but information in tide tables is
more extensive and reliable.
Row.-S.pt. 1960
FIGURE 260.
234567
Feet
10 II 12
Variation of tide with latitude along the California coast.
200
PLANS AND DRAWINGS
In addition to specifications already discussed, a set of plans (or of
drawings within a set of plans for a more comprehensive project) must
be prepared to define and describe the design engineer's scheme for
protection. These plans should show controlling factors and end product
in such detail that there will be no dispute between construction en-
gineer and contractor. To serve the dual objectives of adequacy and
economy, plans should be precise in defining materials to be incorpo-
rated in the work, and tolerant in describing methods of construction
or conformance of the end product to working lines and grades.
The following check list has been prepared for reference by designer
and reviewer, to assure that all necessary information is included in
the plans. It is a comprehensive list for all types of protection, from
which items pertinent to a particular type can be selected readily and
the rest ignored.
1. Location of the planned work with respect to (1) the highway,
(2) the stream or shore, and (3) right of way.
2. Datum control of the work, and relation of that datum to CHC
Datum (if different), gage datum on streams, and both MSL and
MLLW on the shore.
3. A typical cross section indicating dimensions, slopes, arrangement
and connections.
4. Quantity of materials (per lineal foot, per protection unit, or per
job).
5. Relation of the foundation treatment with respect to the existing
ground.
6. Relation of the top of the proposed protection to design high water
(historic, with date; or predicted, with frequency).
7. The limits of excavation and backfill as they may affect measure-
ment and payment.
8. Construction details such as weep holes and pervious materials
associated with them.
9. Location and details of construction joints, cut-off stubs and end
returns.
10. Restrictions to the placement of reinforcement.
11. Connections and bracing for framing of timber or steel.
12. Splicing details for timber, pipe, rails and structural shapes.
13. Anchorage details, particularly size, type, location; and method of
connection.
14. Size and shape of units such as tetrahedrons and jacks.
15. Number and arrangement of cables and details of fastening
members of tetrahedrons and jacks.
16. Size, weight, mesh spacing and fastening details for wire-fabric
materials.
17. On timber pile construction the number of piles per bent, number
of bents, length of piling, driving requirements, cut-off elevations, and
framing details.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
201
18. On fence-type construction the number of lines or rows of fence,
spacing of lines, dimensions of posts, details of fastening fence to posts,
details of bracing and anchorage ties, arrangement of longitudinal
cables, details of ties at the end.
19. The details of adjustable baskets used in connection with fence-
type construction, and the filling material within the basket.
20. The size of articulated blocks, the placement of steel, and con-
struction details relating to fabrication.
FIGURE 261.
Constructing rock slope protection.
Sea Cliff VII-Ven-2-F
VI
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
This section discusses the construction phase of bank protection. In-
cluded are comments relating to engineering factors affecting con-
struction and inspection, as well as construction details relating to
methods and equipment.
Comments are on the premise that (1) the protective device to be
used for the given exposure has been selected, (2) the plans prepared,
(3) the specifications and any modifying special provisions set forth,
and (4) that actual construction will soon be started.
CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION
The engineer may note that the plans and specifications contain re-
quirements relating to the method to be employed during construction.
In the rather specialized field of constructing bank protection facil-
ities, a particular method is often required to assure a finished prod-
uct that will perform as anticipated.
Field Review
Prior to the start of actual construction, a thorough review of the
plans, specifications, special provisions, and locations of the installa-
tions should be made. Other items which should be checked are listed
for reference.
1. Changes in terrain that have occurred between plan preparation
and construction. Changed conditions could possibly lead to damage of
property or highway facility and might dictate revision of plans.
2. Sources of proposed materials should be determined and tested for
specification compliance.
3. Foundation conditions should be investigated. During the prelimi-
nary and design stages, an exacting investigation might not have been
possible and revision may be necessary if assumed conditions are not
confirmed.
4. Observe high-water stages and their relation to the proposed work.
5. Observe the direction of flow and angle of impingement at various
stages. The highest stage is not always the most severe condition and
the location of attack may vary at different rising and falling stages.
6. Observe the type of adjacent soils, trees and vegetation capable of
resisting erosion. This will assist in determining the desirable terminal
limits.
7. Observe springs or water courses that might affect the stability
of design.
8. Start a pictorial record of the project with pictures of existing
conditions.
(203)
Field Control
During the actual construction operations, constant attendance is
necessary to assure that the work conforms to plans and specifications.
Items which should be checked are listed for reference.
1. Foundation conditions should be reviewed as excavation proceeds.
Any deviation from conditions contemplated in the design should be
cause for immediate action and corrective measures.
2. The pictorial record should be continued during all phases of
construction.
3. Dimensions, limiting heights and depths should be recorded on
"as built" plans.
4. If the installation of protective devices is a portion of a larger
project, the work should be properly scheduled with other operations
to become functional in a coordinated manner.
Final Inspection
Upon completion of the work, a final inspection should be made,
preferably in the company of persons responsible for the subsequent
maintenance. At this time there should be agreement on classification
of facilities as either temporary or permanent, and how the latter
should be marked.
Any portions of the works which are critical because of foundation
conditions, exposure, or any other reason should be noted in a final
report for the future guidance of design engineers and also called to
the attention of maintenance personnel for their information and in-
specting and patrolling the facilities during storm periods.
Eock, as a slope protection material, has a number of desirable fea-
tures which has led to widespread application. It is usually available
within reasonable distances, the costs are favorable, the sizes may be
adjusted for varied exposures, and the performance record is adequate.
Placement under Method A (California specifications) requires
considerable care, judgment, and precision. This method is required
where the larger rocks are used in shore protection and heavy duty
installations. Rocks shall be placed with their longitudinal axis normal
to the alignment of the embankment face and each rock should have a
three-point bearing. No rock shall be dependent on an overlying rock
to hold it in place nor should any rock be dependent on chinking with
smaller rocks to hold it in a temporary stable position.
In placing rocks in position, selection of size should be made so that
the entire mass will approximate an integral unit with the larger rocks
utilized on the face and foundations. These stones should have a hori-
zontal attitude or dip slightly toward the bank.
Normally, the equipment used for placing rocks in this manner is
of the crane type and the rocks are handled by rock tongs, slings,
orange peel, or clamshell attachments depending on the sizes to be
placed. Dropping of rocks for any appreciable height or excessive
moving with tractor bulldozers should be avoided.
205
(C) Horse Cr. VI-Tul-10-E

FIGURE 262.
Construction of rock slope protection; (A) Placing rocks by Method A using sling, (B) laying
rock in place, (C) Method B placement of bridge abutment protection.
Under some circumstances the costs of placing rock slope protection
with refinement are not justified and placement by end-dumping, bull-
dozer, or similar method can be specified. To compensate for partial
loss and assure stability and a reasonably secure protection, the quan-
tities are generally increased over the precise method.
It is often necessary to place a backing material on the slope prior
to or simultaneously with the placement of rock to prevent erosion of
the underlying embankment through the voids of the rock slope pro-
tection. As an example, on a sand embankment it may be desirable to
back a 2-ton class rock with some 200-lb rock which in turn may require
backing with a gravel size. It is not necessary when the embankment
material is cohesive and not subject to erosion or when the slope protec-
tion is graded from coarse to fine.
The foundation excavation, whether performed by tractor bulldozer,
tractor-scraper, dragline, clamshell, backhoe, or some other excavating
equipment must afford a stable base on bed rock or extend below antici-
pated scour.
In underwater excavation where visibility is obscured, the operation
of equipment should be closely observed and the area probed to deter-
mine the adequacy of foundation.
In shore protection the foundation work may be controlled by tidal
action as well as excavation quantities, and production may be limited
to only two or three toe or foundation rocks per tide cycle. If these toe
rocks are not properly bedded, the subsequent vertical adjustment may
be detrimental to the protection above. Even though rock is self-adjust-
ing, the bearing of one rock to another may be lost. It is often necessary
to construct the toe or foundation in a triangular or trapezoidal shape
to an elevation approximating high tide in advance of embankment
construction to prevent erosion of the latter.
Where the larger sizes of rock (say 4-ton upward) are used, the top
surface should be kept smooth enough to permit truck delivery of the
rock to the placing equipment. The coordinated placement of smaller
rocks used as backing or to fill the voids in the larger size will usually
provide an adequate haul road.
Tolerances for deviations from planned slope are usually included in
the specification and should be adhered to for economics, appearance,
and proper performance of the revetment.
Terminals of revetments are often destroyed by eddy currents and
other turbulence because of nonconformance with natural banks. Either
these should be secured by transitions to stable bank formations, or
the end of revetment should be reinforced by returns of thickened
edges.
SACKED-CONCRETE SLOPE PROTECTION
The use of sacked concrete for an armor or revetment type protec-
tion has widespread application. It is generally possible to utilize local
stream bed materials for the aggregate and the total volume placed is
somewhat less than is the case for rock slope protection.
207
Sacked-concrete slope protection is constructed by placing a concrete
mixture into burlap sacks and then placing the sacks in a neat and
orderly fashion on a prepared slope. Sacks should be of uniform size
and filled to same capacity to obtain a regular arrangement. Bond of
one sack to the other is developed through mortar exuding through the
burlap bag.
Whenever placement of the slope protection is delayed sufficiently
to affect the bond between succeeding courses, a small trench should be
excavated back of the row of sacks already placed and the trench filled
with fresh concrete before the next layer of sacks is laid. At the start
of each day's work the previously placed sacks should be moistened and
dusted with cement to develop bond.
Various systems have been developed by constructors for the delivery
of the filled sacks from the concrete mixer to placement on the slope.
Chutes, sleds on rails, or a crane handling several sacks on a platform
have been successfully used. A multiple-chuted hopper wherein sacks
can be rapidly filled with concrete benefits production.
Common failures observed in sacked-concrete construction are poor
foundation, uncompacted slopes, inadequate cutoffs, and lack of end
returns. Terminals should be returned into the bank and cutoffs should
be spaced throughout the length.
In the desire to develop horizontal courses for good appearance, it is
probable that the bottom of foundation trench has not always been on
satisfactory material. It is essential that this first course be founded on
bedrock or be below scour elevation. If the foundation is irregular, the
corrective work should involve either the placement of entrenched
concrete or sacked concrete to level up the foundation upon which to
start the revetment.
GROUTED ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
This type of revetment has application in those areas where adequate
supplies of heavy rock are not available. It permits the utilization of
a smaller rock with the entire mass bound together by the grout. This,
in effect, provides sufficient weight to the mass to resist erosion by high-
velocity flow or direct impingement.
Unless the foundation is dry or reasonably so, it may be necessary
to combine this type with a suitable foundation treatment. The usual
foundation is heavy stone supporting the rock slopes treated with the
grout.
Normal construction procedures are: (1) development of founda-
tion; (2) placement of the rock slope protection; and (3) grouting of
the interstices.
The structure is dependent on the penetration and strength of the
grout. Where penetration is obtained by gravity flow into the inter-
stices, spading and rodding are necessary so that the grout will not
bridge over voids and leave unfilled volumes. A limit must also be ad-
hered to with respect to the amount of water used in the grout or the
resulting strength will be weakened and bond lost by excessive shrink-
age.
The size of rock to be grouted should be relatively free of fines so
that penetration of grout may be assured. It may be necessary to sluice
209
FIGURE 264.
Grouting rock slope protection.
Merced R. X-Mpa-18-F
the fines to the bottom prior to placing the grout. The rock should be
wet immediately prior to the grouting operation.
The grout may be delivered to the place of final deposit by use of
chutes, tubes, buckets, pneumatic equipment, or any other mechanical
method which will control segregation and uniformity of the groutâ–
A rough surface is essential to avoid acceleration of the stream along
an unnaturally smooth bank. The finished grout should leave face stones
exposed for one-fourth to one-third their depth and the surface of the
grout should expose a matrix of coarse aggregate.
This type of protection is placed on prepared slopes true to line and
cross section. It is adaptable to those locations where high-velocity flow
is not detrimental but desirable.
The slope paving may be placed as concrete using graded aggregates
and mixing in the conventional manner or as air-blown mortar. Rein-
foreement with steel bars or wire mesh is included.
The placement, consolidation, and finishing of the concrete all re-
quire close attention to the consistency and unformity. If the slopes are
steep and the slump of concrete so low that mortar cannot be flushed
to the surface, it may be necessary to construct a mortar finish. Mortar
should not be placed on concrete which has attained its initial set.
Headers or forms for use during screeding or rodding operations
must be firm enough and so spaced that adjustment will not be neces-
sary during placement operations. Reinforcement must be supported so
that it will be maintained in its proper position in the completed pav-
ing. Subgrade should be dampened before placement of the concrete.
(B) Los Gatos Cr. IV-SCr-5-LGts

FIGURE 265.
(A) Spreading and compacting PCC slope paving with vibratory screed. (B) Placing PCC slope
paving as channel lining. Note weep holes.
211
ASPHALT SLOPE PAVING
This type of slope protection consists of a mixture of graded aggre-
gate and asphalt placed upon a prepared slope. The mixture is gen-
erally placed in two courses with wire-mesh reinforcement between.
Pneumatically-applied asphaltic mixtures have also had a limited use
in bank protection and precast slabs have been tried experimentally
with encouraging results.
The mixture should contain 50% more asphalt than for normal
pavement construction as this will extend the service life. Paving
grades of asphalt should be used.
Normal construction procedure would include: (1) preparation of
subgrade on the slope; (2) soil sterilization if necessary; (3) prime
coat if desired; (4) placement of the lower course of paving; (5)
placement of reinforcement, including necessary anchorage; and (6)
placement of the top or surface course of paving.
The subgrade should be compacted and reasonably true to line and
grade so as to obtain a pavement of uniform thickness. The paving
should be spread and compacted by mechanical means if the slope is
flat enough and there are no other restrictions. Hand spreading may
be necessary on small or restricted areas, using pneumatic tampers
or manual rollers for compaction.
Construction joints should be either parallel or normal to the toe
of slope. No diagonal or irregular joints should be permitted. Asphalt
paint binder should be used as a tack coat between layers of asphalt
paving and at all construction joints which have cooled during sus-
pension of operations.
FIGURE 266.
Xl-Riv-64-D
Pneumatic application of asphaltic mixture.
212
FIGURE 267. VII-LA-166-A

Placing wire-mesh reinforcing between courses of asphaltic slope paving.
ROCK-AND-WIRE MATTRESS
This type of device consists of wire fencing so placed as to form
longitudinal or transverse baskets filled with selected rock, broken
concrete or boulders. To provide the designed width of installation any
given number of the longitudinal baskets are fastened together or
transverse baskets are constructed of the desired length.
For less hazardous locations, a lighter design may be adequate, such
as the continuous blanket of small stones retained between top and
bottom spreads of wire fencing. Each spread consists of parallel strips
of fencing stitched together at the seams, and the two spreads are
interconnected with wire ties to maintain constant spacing.
Rock-and-wire mattress installations have been made on the slope
proper as a flexible revetment and on the stream bed at the toe of
slope as a flexible armor protection. When used in the latter manner,
they are usually in combination with some other type of revetment.
Observations of performance of this type of installation indicate
that their effectiveness is adequate for a limited service life and that
they may become completely expended in one major exposure. Fail-
ures usually occur in the wire mesh or the ties due to deterioration
by the elements or structural inadequacy of the size of wire and the
size and number of ties and anchors.
The subgrade on which the rock-and-wire mattress is to be con-
structed, either on the slope or on the stream bed at the toe of slope,
need not be graded to a precise plane or surface. Deviations from
the planned line or grade up to 6 in. should be permitted.
The planned thickness of the mattress is determined primarily from
the maximum size rock to be used. There is no hydraulic or structural
need for a thickness in excess of 4 in., but such size may be expensive
if obtained from ledge, quarry, or broken concrete. The spacing, num-
213
ber, and security of cables, ties, and anchorage are significant so that
the mattress will function as a unit. If there appears need for addi-
tional reinforcement, ties, anchorage, or general strengthening at points
of subnormal foundation conditions or direct attack by impingement,
the engineer should initiate the performance of such extra work.
The method by which the contractor elects to place the wire-mesh
fabric and rock is optional with him; however, the selected method
should preclude any damage to the material such as breaking strands
of the wire, abrasion of the galvanizing, loosening of anchorage, or
degradation of the rock sizes. If the mattress is fabricated at an off-
site location a thorough inspection is required after placement.
my ^J^tf^ji^
FIGURE 268.
Rock-and-wire mattress construction.
VII-LA-9-LA
ARTICULATED BLOCKS
Several installations using articulated concrete blocks have been
constructed in California and have performed with varying degrees
of success. The protection consists of a number of precast concrete
blocks placed on a prepared slope and fastened one to another. The
blocks are reinforced with wire mesh and also bar steel, the latter
protruding for use in assembly.
In fabricating the blocks, concrete should be Class A, the wire
mesh should be fastened to the bar reinforcement, the bar steel should
be in the indicated position within the block, and the blocks should be
cured by conventional methods.
In assembling the blocks, the subgrade should be compacted and
true to line and grade, the blocks placed in courses parallel to the toe
of slope, and, if the embankment material is granular, the interstices
between the blocks may be filled with soil and seeded, or filled with
a bituminous mixture.
The size of the individual blocks is such that no problem is presented
in handling or placement.
8â€”30166
214
HAND-PLACED DRY-RUBBLE FACING; BROKEN CONCRETE
Hand-placed dry-rubble facing consists of the selection of relatively
flat slabs and placing them to form a complete coverage of a slope. This
construction is fairly expensive due to the labor involved and the more
or less uniform shape of rocks.
Broken concrete is useful and economical for bank protection when
the materials will be available as a part of planned construction. It has
been used as revetment protection where (1) slabs or other shapes are
dumped or placed at random on slopes, (2) slabs of fairly uniform
shape are placed flat and neatly arranged on slopes, and (3) slabs or
other regular shapes placed on the slope in horizontal courses to form a
substantial revetment.
The construction of hand-placed dry-rubble facing and broken-
concrete facing both require (1) that the slope be prepared reasonably
true to line and grade, (2) judgment in the selection of sizes and
shapes for placement, and (3) that the void or open areas between
slabs be at an absolute minimum. Chinking or filling of voids with
small pieces is of no value from a protection standpoint and should
not be permitted.
In the random placement of broken concrete on slopes, some care
should be shown during construction to approximate the planned thick-
ness of protection normal to the slope, develop some stability to the
structure by interlock or bearing of the pieces on those adjacent, min-
imize voids to prevent subsequent erosion, and give attention to the ap-
pearance of the completed revetment so that it looks like a planned
construction and not just a waste pile. These features can usually be
accomplished by care in depositing the material, spreading and com-
pacting of the material by controlled operation of tractor and bulldozer,
clamshell shovel, or in some cases the dropping of a heavy hammer or
ball onto the spread material.
FIGURE 269.
Placing broken concrete in horizontal courses on prepared slope.
V-SLO-56-CD
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES 215
The most popular variety of broken-concrete revetment protection
is construction on prepared slopes in horizontal layers. Failures in
this type of construction are usually caused by excessive steepness of
the face slope. Installations are often located adjacent to bridge abut-
ments or wingwalls to protect against scour by eddies where vertical
faces are required to conform to the bridge elements. Considerably
more material is required in such locations to gain the stability of a
gravity wall.
As this type of construction consists of individual pieces not bonded
together, it is considered flexible revetment; however, it is not self-
adjusting and movement generally leads to failure. It is therefore
necessary that foundation be secure on bedrock or below possible scour.
The broken concrete is usually salvaged from demolished structures
or pavement. The size of pieces will be controlled by specification and
will normally range from 18-in. diameter to 36-in. square. Pieces are
placed in horizontal courses with slabs tipped from the horizontal
toward the slope on a ratio of 1 vertical to 4 horizontal. The pieces
should decrease in size from bottom to top with the larger pieces
placed in the foundation or toe trench. Pieces should be placed in close
contact to minimize voids and all joints between subsequent courses
shall be staggered much the same as brick or other masonry work.
Spaces between the larger pieces shall be filled with spalls securely
rammed into place.
The exposed faces shall be those containing the least amount of rein-
forcing steel and all visible steel shall be burned off flush with the con-
crete. Cap pieces shall be fitted to good bearing so that they will not
rock if stepped on.
RETICULATED REVETMENT
The use of wire-mesh netting for revetment protection has had
limited but varied application in highway work. Basically, the installa-
tion consists of a metal netting placed on a prepared slope and securely
anchored to the slope. The netting may vary from light to heavy,
depending on the exposure requirements, placed directly on normal
embankment slopes or overlaying rock slope protection.
In the desert regions in the southern part of the State, heavy-duty
installations made excellent use of torpedo netting which was available
from war surplus at a favorable price. Some steel pierced plank was
also available from surplus and was adapted to revetment protection.
The metal mesh netting is classed as a flexible type of revetment pro-
tection as it will normally conform to subsequent alteration in the slope.
However, it may be constructed with added lengths extending beyond
the toe of embankment so as to adjust to foundation scour.
From a construction standpoint, the following comments are offered
pertaining to both the wire-mesh slope protection and the prepared
slope protection and the prepared slope on which it is to be placed:
1. Roadway finishing operations should be completed over the em-
bankment areas prior to placing the wire mesh.
2. The slope shall be so finished that the wire mesh will in no place
be more than 6 in. from the surface of the slope. The edges of wire
mesh should be knuckled and galvanizing should not be damaged.
216
3. Any unsightly debris that accumulates on the protection subse-
quent to placement shall be removed.
4. Wire-mesh fabric shall be laid laterally on the slope and held at
the bottom by steel rail or other ballast, securely fastened to the wire
mesh.
5. The anchorage must be securely fastened to the wire mesh.
6. If there is any evidence or indication of the inadequacy of anchor-
age, the field engineer should not be hesitant in initiating a change.
There is always a possibility that the depth or spacing of the bar rein-
forcing anchors may need modification due to local conditions or mate-
rials. The integrity of the installation is destroyed by a failure in
anchorage or ties.
PRECAST CONCRETE CELLS, FILLED
As a heavy duty revetment on the coast in Ventura County at Point
Mugu, precast concrete cells subsequently filled with concrete were
installed in 1928. The cells were 5 x 10 ft in section by 3 ft in depth,
weighing 3 tons empty and 12 tons when filled. Each cell was cast with
four eye-bolts for lifting purposes. Using a crane, they were installed
in step fashion on the slope with a 3.5-ft tread and a 3-ft rise. The
rock foundation slope upon which the cells were placed was sealed and
bonded to the cells by placing concrete to fill the voids of the underlying
rocks.

Filling precast cells with concrete for shore protection.
217
TETRAPODS AND TRIBARS
These devices are solid precast concrete shapes used for heavy duty
revetment and are illustrated in Figure 124. They may be constructed
in sizes to satisfy the exposure requirements. So far, none have been
used in highway protection, being more appropriate for breakwater and
offshore ocean work.
The units are cast in 2-part metal forms which can be clamped to-
gether for ease in assembly and removal. The concrete is placed in con-
trolled lifts of 2 ft and vibrated to avoid the possibility of rock pockets
or unconsolidated concrete.
Due to the large size (25 tons) of units used for heavy-duty work
the placement equipment must be large. Generally a crane is used, with
a sling arrangement holding and placing the units. The units are shaped
so as to offer a self-interlocking feature and subsequent adjustment is
of little concern.
Even with close interlock, interstitial spaces between tetrapod units
are large and backing material of corresponding size and quantity is
a necessary part of the design to prevent erosion of embankment or
core materials. Minimum thickness of the revetment should be twice
the altitude of a unit.
218
TETRAHEDRONS
Tetrahedrons are a skeleton construction of steel or portland cement
concrete in the shape of a triangular pyramid. They serve as retards
or permeable jetties, depending on the need and whether they are
installed parallel to the embankment toe or stream channel or extend
into the channel.
Most of the installations of steel have utilized salvaged railroad rail
for the prime members. The members are fastened together by a plate
and bolting arrangement to form the pyramidal shape. Welding of rail
steel makes it brittle and should not be permitted. Wires are placed
at intervals around the outside of the skeleton shape to catch floating
debris and contribute to the retardant action of the structure. The
wires are securely fastened to the rail members, preferably threaded
through holes drilled or burned in the members instead of being tied
or clamped.
Concrete tetrahedrons have had only limited use. One installation
was branded a failure after units sank in a sandy stream bed, with an
allegation that concrete is too heavy. Taller units might have succeeded.
The sunken units may actually limit scour during floods. High unit
cost is a more positive disadvantage, as forms had to be built around
reinforcement cages unit by unit. Modern demountable forms and rising
cost of salvaged rails may warrant renewed experiment with this
design.
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES 219
The units are field-assembled due to their size and the obvious prob-
lem of transporting for any distance. If sufficient area is available at
the site assembly can be expedited by constructing the base triangle in
place and fastening the remaining members to each corner of the base
triangle so that they can then be raised to the peak of the pyramid for
the one necessary above-ground connection.
The tetrahedron units are connected together in a line by cables,
the number of cables depending on the anchorage necessary. Upon occa-
sion, some preparatory grading may be necessary to facilitate the in-
stallation; however, such work should be restricted to actual necessity
lest disturbance of the bank contribute to the existing hazard.
It should be borne in mind that overturn and settlement of the units
may occur upon exposure and is contemplated in design. Any effort to
raise a unit which has settled is not warranted and is probably not
desirable under any circumstances.
â– â€¢> 3^â– ; Â»
U
FIGURE 273. Stony Cr. lll-Gle-47-A
Detail of railroad rail jack. Wire installation is substandard.
JACKS
Jacks serve the same basic function as tetrahedrons, but are generally
smaller in size. They are a system of three straight members of steel or
timber securely fastened together at midpoint to form a six-pointed jack
shape. Wire or cable is fastened at intervals around the skeletal shape
to catch floating debris and assist in the deposition of materials.
The steel jacks are normally of railroad rail cut in lengths as needed;
however, angle-iron structural shapes have been used. The three mem-
bers are fastened together by plate and bolt or by cable and bolt ar-
rangements at the midpoint or hub. In the case of railroad rail, welding
is not permitted because of the damage to the steel. Wires are threaded
through holes drilled or burned in the members or fastened by wire ties
to the members.
The units are customarily fabricated at the job site and in place if
possible. Due to their smaller size, as compared to tetrahedrons, they
can usually be assembled at the job site and moved into place using
a crane or similar equipment. Pushing them into place with a bulldozer
or any similar rough treatment should be avoided except in emergencies
during floods.
The individual units are fastened together by one or more cables to
affect an integral installation. Anchorage is necessary and must be
located outside the zone of possible scour.
Timber jacks have been used where a lesser weight of unit is desired
to prevent sinking into the stream bed too rapidly. The same basic
construction principles are involved. Concrete jacks are available as a
manufactured product, but they have not been used on highway work.
TIMBER PILE STRUCTURES
Timber pile construction combined with timber framing and possible
wire fabric installation on the structure are utilized for retards, perme-
able jetties, groins, and bulkheads.
Generally, 2-pile bents and framing are adequate for the protection
work. It is occasionally necessary that pile-driving equipment be sup-
ported on the structure in which case 3-pile bents are required alter-
nately with 2-pile bents. The size of pile-driving equipment and the
accessibility of the structure determine this necessity.
The penetration of the piling is important. If it is inadequate, scour
may cause a premature failure, floating the piling out of the ground or
reducing their resistance to lateral pressure of current or drift.
Framing and wire installation should progress close behind pile driv-
ing as there is always a chance that debris or floating drift will damage
unbraced work and interfere with its completion.
Rock protection may be placed on the stream bed along the retard or
jetty to prevent erosion by eddy currents. Such work should be per-
formed simultaneously with the framing or wire installation, after
which framing should be inspected for damage.

Timber-pile jetty construction. Piles drivenâ€”ready for framing.
221
222
FIGURE 277. XI-Riv-64-H

Light duty, double pipe-and-wire-mesh fence before filling.
FENCE-TYPE STRUCTURES
Fence-type structures have a wide and varied use in their application
and function. They are used as retards, permeable or impermeable
jetties, and as baffles.
These structures are constructed of timber piling, timber posts, rail-
road-rail posts, and tubular metal posts, to which may be fastened wire
mesh, barbed wire, metal plate, or lumber. Due to the possible number
of combinations of materials, the fence-type structures can be utilized
as protective devices for many hazardous exposures and are quite
adaptable for training devices in the control of stream flow.
The fences are built in single, double, and possibly triple rows. Single
rows may be solid or permeable to the degree desired. Multiple-row
installations may be partly or completely filled with rock, brush, tree
limbs, foliage, or similar local materials.
223
FIGURE 278. Berenda Slu VI-Mad-32-A

Single row rail-and-wire-mesh fence. Note sleeve-type drop hammer for driving.
In the construction of such devices, the following items should be
observed and controlled, as may be provided in specific instructions:
1. Posts may be set or driven.
2. Penetration of posts should reach below possible scour.
3. Anchorage of the installation must be located outside the zone of
exposure.
4. Ties between adjacent rows of multiple fence shall be adequate
and secure. They should only be snug at the time of installation because
rock fill will increase the tension.
5. Wires or fabric attached to posts must be securely fastened and
capable of withstanding loads induced by (a) forces of stream flow,
(b) combined forces of stream flow and dead loads when the wire or
fabric is covered with debris, (c) lateral pressure of rock when multiple
rowrs of filled fence are used, and (d) combined forces of stream flow
and weight of rock.
6. If the wire mesh in multiple-row construction forms a basket de-
signed to adjust vertically, there shall be no ties or other restraining
devices left in place following construction which would obstruct settle-
ment of the basket.
7. Welded-wire fabric is not an acceptable substitute for woven-wire
fabric.
224
FIGURE 280.
Construction of steel sheet-pile groins.
VII-LA-60-LA
225
FIGURE 283.
(A)
(A) Concrete crib construction. (B) Log crib deflector under construction.
Trinity R. l-Tri-20-F (B) Eel R. I-Hum-1-K
226
(B) Cache Cr. Ill-Yol-90-B

FIGURE 284.
(A) Preparation of slope for concrete slope paving channel lining. (B) A simple, economical
and effective pipe-and-wire fence retard for tow-velocity stream. Note deposition in foreground.
VII
PLANNING OF PROTECTIVE WORKS
The preceding chapters have presented design principles and de-
scribed construction procedures for protective devices classified in
Chapter IV. Adaptation of these tools to hazards of erosion and loca-
tion described in Chapters II and ITT in the development of protective
projects within economic limitations requires careful planning, which
will be outlined in this chapter. The steps begin with reconnaissance
and lead to layouts of the system.
RECONNAISSANCE
During or following reconnaissance, the first procedure in planning
the protective works is the selection of the class of device which may
be used. For some sites, the choice is obvious; at other sites, several
alternatives may be applicable.
Table 8 presents in chart form the hazard of location and the classes
of bank protection which should receive consideration in the pre-
liminary development. This chart is rather general in scope and may
not be applicable to unusual problems. Limitations at a specific loca-
tion may favor or even dictate the selection of a class different from
one based on ordinary engineering principles. Such limitations might
be imposed by: (1) inadequate right of way; (2) possible damage to
other properties through shifting of stream currents or increased
velocity; (3) physical restrictions; (4) channel capacity or conveyance;
(5) conformance or adaptation to new or existing structures; (6) pro-
visions for side drainage, either surface waters or intersecting streams
or rivers; or (7) necessity for conformance to existing works con-
structed by ourselves or others.
It will be noted in reviewing the chart that there are two primary
basic functions, one being a bank or shore armor treatment and the
other stream or ocean training works. Bank armor includes the classes
of revetment, vegetation and bulkhead; training works include the
retard, jetty, groin and baffle classes.
The second procedure in the planning is the determination of the
extent of the works with particular reference to length and depth,
the degree of security that is necessary, and the desired end result.
Considerations in this stage of planning should include (1) the
severity of attack, (2) the present and anticipated alignment of the
stream or river, (3) the economic ratio of cost of highway improvement
versus cost of protection, (4) whether the protection need be perma-
nent or temporary, and (5) analysis of foundation and materials ex-
plorations.
The third procedure in the planning is the definitive selection of the
appropriate type of device and layout of protective elements in rela-
tion to the highway facility.
( 227 )
TABLE 8. GUIDE TO SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE CLASS OF PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS
Hazard of location
Cross channel
Young Valley
Mature Valley
Parallel
Young Valley
Mature Valley
Lakes and tidal basins -
Ocean front
Desert-wash
Top Debris Cone
Center Debris Cone
Bottom Debris Cone
Overflow and floods _ -
Artificial channels
At bridges
Dune
Roadside and intercepting ditches
Intrinsic erosion
Armor
Training
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF PLANNING
This section will discuss the concepts that should be kept in mind
in laying out the protective works. The determination of the lengths,
heights, alignment, positioning of the protective works, as well as the
basic hydraulic limitations, are outlined with respect to the various
classes of protection devices.
Armor
1. The lower limit of armor should be below anticipated scour or on
bedrock. If for any reason this is not economically feasible, a resonable
degree of security can be obtained by construction of a flexible mat-
tress at the toe of sufficient width to adjust downward as scour occurs
or in some distances by replacement of additional quantities of heavy
rock at the toe which can settle vertically as scour occurs.
2. The upper vertical limit of stream-bank protection should be the
stage of design high water. In the case of slope paving or any expen-
sive revetment which might be seriously damaged by overtopping and
subsequent erosion of underlying embankment, extension above design
high water may be warranted. In general, one foot above high water
will be adequate margin for waves, surges and local backwater due
to drifts.
229
3. The upstream terminal can be determined best by observation of
the existing conditions. Adjustments may be required to accommodate
new construction. The determination can also be made by measuring
velocities or other erosive factors along the bank.
If there are outcropping.s of erosion-resistant materials, trees, shrubs
or other indications of stability, the terminal may be devolped to con-
form.
In general, the upstream terminal on bends in the stream will be
some distance upstream from the point of impingement where the
effect of erosion hazards discused in Chapter II are no longer damaging.
It may actually extend upstream to the beginning of the curve.
4. The downstream terminal should also be made against outcrop-
pings, erosion-resistant materials, or returned securely into the bank
so as to prevent erosion by eddy currents and velocity changes occur-
ring in a transition length. Such treatment is shown in Figure 285.
5. The encroachment of embankment onto the stream channel must
be considered with respect to its effect on the conveyance of the stream
and possible damaging effect on properties both up and downstream.
This feature may control the selection of a smooth or rough type of
armor. This condition is illustrated in Figure 286.
6. Another consideration is the surface roughness factor. Smooth
surface will accelerate velocity along the bank, requiring additional
protection at the downstream terminal. Rougher surfaces tend to keep
the thread of the stream toward the center of the channel.
7. In the case of heavy-duty armor used in hazardous exposures
along the ocean shore, the planning and design features may be influ-
enced or dictated by economics, or the feasibility of handling heavy
individual units. Complete and detailed analysis is warranted when
unit cost will exceed $100 per foot.
FIGURE 285.
N. Fk. Cache Cr. I-Lak-15-C
Terminal construction for sacked-concrete protection.
230
Retard
1. To facilitate intelligent planning and layout of a retard installa-
tion, reconnaissance should be supported by maps or photos for a con-
siderable reach on each side of the exposed area. These devices are ap-
plicable primarily on streams which meander to some extent within a
valley that is mature or approaching maturity. Typical layouts of
retard installations are shown in Figures 287-290.
2. As these devices encourage deposition of material with resulting
shift in location of the channel, the effect on adjacent property should
be appraised.
3. The chronological sequence in retard development is (1) installa-
tion, (2) deposition of materials at and adjacent to the retard, (3)
stability of the bed at a new elevation, and (4) return of vegetation to
bank and nearby bed.
4. The necessary service life of the installation may be a function
of the rate of deposition and establishment of a natural retard.
5. The top elevation of a retard need not extend to stage of high
water. In major rivers and streams where drift is large and heavy, it
is essential that the retard be low enough to pass debris over the top
during the high stages.
6. If the embankment material behind the retard is of new construc-
tion, it may be necessary to place a light armor treatment on the slope
to inhibit erosion until the retard has had an opportunity to function.
This armor treatment should not prohibit but promote the development
of a natural vegetal cover.
7. The retard is a milder remedy than jetty construction, with con-
venient application in emergencies.
231
Top of bonk
Sonta Ynez R
PLAN
not o stondord design. Dimfnjions
nls should be modified os required.
TETRAHEDRON RETARD
FIGURE 287. Santa Ynez R. V-SB-56-C
Layout of tetrahedron retard for protection against attack threatening bridge approach.
-Roodwoy
Top of bonkN
Tole R
PLAN
ond detoils should he modified os teouired.
FIGURE 289.
JACK RETARD
Tule R. VI-Tul-129-C
Layout of jack retard to protect bridge approach.
232
Heavy double
fence
SECTION
This It not o stondord design. Dimensions
DOUBLE FENCE RETARD
FIGURE 288.
Santa Clara R. VII-Ven-79-C
Heavy double fence retard for highway protection.
8. Retards are used for (1) protection at the toe of highway em-
bankments in direct contact with the stream, (2) training and control
to inhibit bank erosion upstream and downstream from river crossings,
(3) control of erosion and redeposition of material where progressive
embayments are creating a hazard.
9. Retards should extend in length from a secure anchorage on the
upstream end to anchorage on the downstream end beyond the haz-
ardous location. Since it has been observed that the hazard of erosion
often progresses downstream, the length of initial construction should
review this possibility.
233
Retard -
Piles at 10'
^
^
Toe of slope yl"l Anchor fences ot 70'. ^s
Alternative layout-
.I)IL
- Roadway
1
^
V
^
11 I. 1 J.
Top of slope'
Bonk slope
SINGLE PILE FENCE

TYPICAL LAYOUT
4" X 8" plonk on
retard only
Timber piling
ANCHOR FENCE
'â– Wire mesh or equivalent, stream side or bath sides,
stapled ond wired to piles with 9 go galvonized
wire and 2 ' stoples.
ELEVATION
- Fill (opfionol). May be brush,
WA rock or other nvailoble material.
SECTION
ii not o stondord design. Dimeni
eroils should be modified os requ
FIGURE 290.
Details and layout of single pile fence retard.
Jetty
1. Basic principles for permeable jetties are much the same as for
retards, the important difference being that they deflect the flow in
addition to encouraging deposition. The preceding comment on retards
should be considered as related and applicable to jetties when qualified
by this basic difference. Typical layouts of jetty systems are shown in
Figures 291, 292.
2. The major jetty installations are permeable structures of piling
or a chain of units like tetrahedrons.
3. The relation between length and spacing of jetties should ap-
proximate unity as a general rule to assure complete entrapment and
retention of material. The spacing can be increased if the resulting
scalloped effect is not detrimental to the desired result.
4. Impermeable jetties in the form of filled fences, earth or rock
dikes, and fitted log cribs have been used with only limited success.
Characteristic performance of this type is the development of an eddy
current immediately downstream which attacks the bank and often
requires secondary protective measures.
Groin
1. For planning of groin installation in the ocean, the planner should
consult and study USGS quadrangle sheets, USC & GS navigation
charts, US Navy hydrographic charts on currents for the Northeast
Pacific Ocean, and aerial photos of the area.
2. For a groin to function satisfactorily, there must be littoral drift
to supply and replenish the beach between groins. The groins detain
rather than retain the drift and will soon be ineffective unless there is
a steady source of replenishment.
3. A new groin installation will starve the downcoast beach, tempo-
rarily at least, and permanently if the supply of drift is meager.
4. The spacing and length of groins are a function of the minimum
width of beach which can be tolerated. A rule of thumb for successful
retention is that a length of groin will serve an equal length of beach.
An increase in spacing beyond the 1 :1 ratio will result in a lesser
minimum width of intermediate beach, possibly requiring some revet-
ment of embankment. A typical layout of a groin installation is shown
in Figure 293.
5. The materials of which groins are constructed have no appreciable
relation to the function. The materials selected should conform to the
service life required of the groin, economics of construction and mainte-
nance, and the possible effect of safety on persons utilizing the beach.
Bulkhead
1. In effect, bulkheads can be considered vertical revetment. They
are expensive, but may be necessary where encroachment on a channel
cannot be tolerated, retreat of highway alignment is not desirable, right
of way is restricted, or the force and direction of the stream can best
be redirected by a vertical structure.
235
pratected.
See Figure 210for relnted detoils.
TYPICAL LAYOUT
END VIEW PART ELEVATION

ANCHORAGE AND CABLE LAYOUT
This is not o stnndord design. Dimensions
â€¢ nd detail, >h.uld b. modified o, r.qu.r.d. TETRAHEDRON JETTY LAYOUT
FIGURE 291.
Layout details of tetrahedron jetties.
236
TYPICAL WING-JETTY LAYOUT

High water
Low woler fy n n Q C,
Pile penetration depends upon
scour ond buoyoncy
ELEVATION
TIMBER PILE JETTIES
FIGURE 292.
Example of timber-pile wing-jetty layout.
237
Drift
LONG GROINS WITHOUT REVETMENT
Note:
"S", "L" ond "&' are determined by
conditions at site. See text.
This la not o stondord design. Dimensions
ond detoils should he modified os required.
SHORT GROINS WITH LIGHT STONE
REVETMENT
TYPICAL GROIN LAYOUT
FIGURE 293.
Typical groin layout with resultant beach configuration.
2. Bulkheads serve a dual purpose by supporting an embankment as
well as protecting it from erosion.
3. Foundations must be positive.
4. Lengths of structures should be the minimum necessary, with
transition to other types when possible.
5. All terminals must be secure. Tie into stable banks or outcrop-
pings at the ends, or return into the bank. Eddy currents can be dam-
aging at the terminals and transitions. If overtopping of the bulkhead
is anticipated, provision must be made for drainage.
Baffle
1. These installations are training devices designed to control eddies
and guide or deflect the flow rather than to check the velocity. The
devices vary in magnitude from a check dam on a small stream to a
system of training dikes for deflecting or directing flow as illustrated
in Figure 294.
2. For planning purposes on the major installations it may be neces-
sary to utilize USGS maps, aerial photos, or other available data which
offers information covering a considerable area. On the smaller installa-
tions, survey data obtained in connection with other planned work may
suffice. Eeconnaissance should include a field review.
FIGURE 294.
System of training dikes for drainage control in desert area.
3. When using fences or dikes as deflectors along the more mature
valleys or meandering streams, the potential erosion to previously un-
exposed areas, hazard to adjacent property, effect of eddy currents and
possibility of scour should all be considered.
4. When fences or dikes are used as a collecting system to control
and direct the flow to new or existing drainage facilities or to bridge
openings, the alignment of the installation should be developed as a
series of curves and intervening tangents guiding the stream through
transitions to maintain smooth and steady flow. The surface and curva-
ture of the training device should be governed by the natural or modi-
fied velocity.
5. Check dams are an effective means of gradient control. They may
be constructed of rock, concrete, timber, sacked concrete, filled fences,
sheet piling or combinations of any of the above. They are most suited
to locations where bed materials are relatively impervious or underflow
could be prevented by cutoffs.
6. Floating logs or timber booms are effective protection against
the smaller wave actions common to lakes and tidal basins. Anchorage
is the prime structural consideration.
APPLICATION
The following sections, one for each hazard of location described in
Chapter III, will describe appropriate applications of devices to the
planning of protective works.
Cross Channelâ€”Young Valley
The typical situation for this location hazard is a bridge crossing a
well-defined channel in which the design discharge will flow at moderate
to high velocity.
Characteristic hazards to be controlled are: (1) stream velocity; (2)
scouring action of stream; (3) bank stability; (4) channel restrictions
(artificial or natural) ; (5) nature of flow (tangential or curvilinear) ;
(6) areas of impingement at various stages; and (7) security of
terminals.
239
Effectual protective methods to consider would be the more substan-
tial revetments such as rock, sacked concrete, slope paving, grouted
rock and broken concrete. The list may be reduced by nonavailability
of some materials, after which a hydraulic analysis of the channel and
economic comparison of alternatives should determine the general plan.
On streams in young valleys where channel gradients are not estab-
lished, the security of foundation should be assured for the service life
of the protection.
Observations of performance in such locations attribute the more
common failures to: (1) undermining of the toe (inadequate founda-
tion) ; (2) local erosion due to eddy currents; (3) inadequate upstream
and downstream terminals or transitions to erosion-resistant banks or
outcrops; (4) structural inadequacy at points of impingement, and (5)
limited damage by overflow (Fig. 295).
Yuba R. IIISie-25-B
FIGURE 295.
(A) Failure of sacked-concrete slope protection from inadequate terminals, (6) failure at
point of impingement.
240
Any of the more substantial revetments can function properly in such
exposures providing precautions are taken to alleviate the probable
cause of failure. If the foundation was questionable for sacked concrete
or grouted rock, it would not be necessary to reject these types from
consideration but only to provide a more acceptable treatment of the
foundation, such as heavy rock or sheet piling (Fig. 296).
Upon occasion a bulkhead or vertical wall may be necessary at cross-
channel locations where the stream must be deflected sharply to pass
under a bridge, or where the slope must be retained to conform to the
bridge abutment. Other types of revetment on the slopes do not satisfy
this condition, as the stream flow has a tendency to "climb or walk"
up the slope, and transition from slopes to vertical sections often pro-
duce undesirable flow characteristics.
-Slope protection
SECTION
| >....t^:
5
\S
SHEET PILE SECTION
end detoils should be modified os required.
COMBINATION ARMOR
SLOPE PROTECTION USING
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SHEET PILING
FIGURE 296.
Slope protection with detail of prestressed concrete sheet-pile toe wall.
241
Cross Channelâ€”Mature Valley
The typical situation in a mature valley is a bridge crossing a
stream which meanders within a rather broad valley. The normal-
flow channel may be well defined but a marginal area subject to
overflow will usually be traversed by the highway raised above the
surrounding ground. Gradient and velocity of the stream are low to
moderate.
Characteristic hazards to be considered would be (1) shifting of the
main channel, (2) skew of the stream to the structure, (3) foundation
in deep alluvium, (4) erodible embankment materials, (5) channel
restrictions, either artificial or natural, which may affect or control
the future course of the stream, (6) variable flow characteristics at
various stages, and (7) stream acceleration at the bridge.
Protective methods which have proved effective are a revetment type
to prevent erosion of the bridge approaches, supplemented if necessary
by stream training or control devices such as permeable retards or
jetties to direct the stream through the bridge (Fig. 297). Allowance
should be made for general scour on rising stage and local scour at
obstructions; on established gradients the allowance may be nominal,
but otherwise the depth of sediments exposed to scour may be a primary
factor in selecting type of protection. The stream velocity may be
increased at the bridge where protection is needed and this velocity
is the one to consider in the structural design. At the bridge ends
one of the more substantial armor types such as rock, sacked concrete,
or slope paving may be required, but the bridge approach embank-
ments affected only by overflow would seldom require more than a
light revetment, such as a thin layer of rocky facing material, a wire
FIGURE 297.
Rock revetment at bridge approaches.
Santa Ana R. VIll-SBd-43-F
242
mesh over small rock, vegetation on the slope, or, for shallow over-
flow, a fencing along the toe of slope. For channel control upstream
from the bridge the quality of training works would be dictated by
converging velocity, ranging from timber-pile wings for high velocity,
through fence-type baffles for moderate velocity, to the earth dike
suitable for low velocity. A typical condition is shown in Fig. 298.
Observations of performance in such locations attribute the more
common failures to (1) lack of upstream control of channel align-
ment, (2) damage of unprotected embankments by overflow and return
flow, (3) undercut foundations, (4) formation of eddies at abrupt
changes in channel, and (5) stranding of drift in the converging
channel.
FIGURE 298. St. Helena Cr. l-Lak-49-B

Fence-type baffle for training flow into bridge opening.
Parallel Locationâ€”Young Valley
Typical examples of a parallel highway location in a young valley
are the existing routes through canyons and gorges such as the Merced,
Smith, Walker, and Trinity Rivers. In these locations the highways
are adjacent to the river sometimes on a solid ledge and sometimes on
embankments extending partly or wholly into streams capable of high
velocities during flood stages (Fig. 299).
The characteristic hazards are (1) high-velocity flow, (2) narrow
confined channels, (3) accentuated impingement, (4) swift overflow,
(5) disturbed flow due to rock outcrops on the banks or within the
main channel, and (6) alterations in flow patterns due to the entrance
of side streams into the main channel. The erosion forces are similar
to those of cross-channel in young valleys except that they are more
extensive.
243
FIGURE 299.
Failure of embankment crossing old river channel.
Merced R. X-Mpa-18-G
Effectual protective methods that have been used are (1) rock slope
protection, (2) grouted-rock slope protection, (3) walls of masonry and
concrete, (4) reticulated revetment over rock slope protection, (5)
sacked concrete, (6) cribs of timber or concrete, and (7) rock-and-wire
mattress for foundation treatment. Retreat to solid ground is always
considered as an alternative. Typical installations are illustrated in
Fig. 300.
The performance of protective devices in these exposures has been
the major source of knowledge gained by experiment and observation
of armor protection. There have been a number of serious failures
during the rather unprecedented storms which occurred during the
last 20 years and it was possible to evaluate the sizes of rock, the effec-
tiveness of sacked-concrete and rock-and-wire mattresses, and the dam-
aging effect of eddy currents and turbulence at the terminals of wall-
type structures.
At many locations rock of adequate size was not available at reason-
able cost, which led to the development of the grouted-rock slope
protection (Fig. 301) wherein smaller rocks were bound together with
grout. Some of the early trials with this type were not successful due
to improper penetration of the grout; however, the experience has
dictated design procedures which assure effective results.
From an economic standpoint, the heavy rock is the less costly if
available, grouted rock and sacked concrete equal but much higher,
and wall or bulkhead construction the most expensive. Sacked concrete
and walls are usually smoother than rock protection causing increased
velocities along the bank.
244
245
FIGURE 301. E. Fork Russian R. I-Men-15-A

Grouted-rock slope protection with relatively small rock but desirable rough texture.
Parallel Locationâ€”Mature Valley
Parallel highways along mature rivers such as the Sacramento, San
Joaquin and Santa Clara are usually situated on or behind levees
built, protected and maintained by other agencies. Along other streams
like the Eel and Salinas Rivers rather extensive protective measures
have been required to control the action of these meandering streams.
Along smaller mature streams or rivers some control devices have been
required, but less extensive because of lesser depth and velocity.
The channel change is an important factor in locations parallel to
mature streams. Whether limited to closure of an embayment or ex-
tended to cut off an oxbow or shift the alignment of a long reach of
the stream, positive means must be adopted to prevent return of the
stream to its natural course. For a straight channel, the upstream end
is critical, usually requiring bank protection equivalent to the facing
of a dam. On a curved channel change, all of the outer bend may be
critical, requiring continuous revetment. For a channel much shorter
than the natural channel, particularly for elimination of an oxbow,
the corresponding increase in gradient may require checks along the
bed to prevent degradation, or toe protection of the new bank to pre-
vent undercutting.
Effective methods of control are armor, retard, and jetty. The armor
is usually of the modest variety; jetty or retard of piling, tetrahedrons
or jacks. Fence-type jetties, usually impermeable in construction, have
been used for deflection and training of shallow streams. All of these
methods, each with a variety of designs, have performed well in some
9â€”30166
246
locations and failed in others. Choice of alternatives should be strongly
influenced by experience recorded for an analogous location. For
example, the following preferences have been expressed:
Colorado River Large (30-ft.) steel tetrahedrons (Fig. 302)
Eel River Low pile-bent jetties; grouted revetment (Fig. 303)
Salinas River Medium steel tetrahedrons; jacks (Fig. 304)
The compelling reasons for these preferences were (1) deep silty
sands along the Colorado, (2) heavy log drift on the Eel, and (3)
light-weight bed sands along the Salinas.
Jetty and retard devices compare vary favorably in cost with the
armor type, with the added advantage of shifting the main force of
the stream away from the highway. An application of combination
tetrahedron jetties and jack retards on a curved location is illustrated
in Fig. 305.
FIGURE 302.
Colorado R. XI-Riv-64-F
Steel tetrahedrons with good performance record.
Timber-pile jetties functioned satisfactorily though ends of some jetties were prematurely
destroyed.
247
FIGURE 304. Salinas R.

V-Mon-2-F
Steel tetrahedrons functioning
as planned.
Anchors>
Roadway
PLAN
* not o itondord design, D.menstons
'oils inould be modified os required.
FIGURE 305.
Layout of tetrahedron jetties with jack retard.
TETRAHEDRON JETTIES WITH JACK RETARD
Santa Clara R. VII-Ven-79-C
Lakes and Tidal Basins
Typical examples of lakes and tidal basin locations are those at Big
Lagoon in District I, the open water project in South San Francisco,
and the causeway at Cedarville in Modoc County. In these locations,
highway embankments are constructed across the lakes and basins and
drainage is generally confined to a comparatively narrow opening.
The characteristic hazard is possible erosion of the embankment due
primarily to the wave action and in some instances, the possibility
of developing moderate-velocity flow adjacent to the drainage struc-
ture or bridge.
The erosive force of wave action is a function of the fetch and in
most inland waters is not very serious. In fresh waters effective pro-
tection can often be provided by the establishment of vegetal cover,
but planners should not overlook the possibility of moderate erosion
before the cover becomes established. Any light armor treatment should
be adequate for this transitional period.
If the materials from excavation are at all rocky, a provision re-
quiring that such rocky material be placed on the outside of embank-
ments will often provide adequate protection.
Floating logs or timber are also effective for dissipating the wave
forces. They need only be anchored along the toe of slope.
Adjacent*to the equalizing structure there is need for protection
depending on the anticipated velocities. An armor protection is the
most suitable as it offers little restriction of waterway. Deflecting wing
baffles may be added to converge the flow toward the constriction.
Ocean Front
The major shore protection installations for highway protection
have been made in Los Angeles and Ventura Counties between Santa
Monica and Carpenteria. Other locations in contact with the ocean
are rather limited in length.
Characteristic hazards are the exposure to ocean wave actions, the
continual migration of beach materials, and the foundation conditions.
Through the years a number of devices have been used. Concrete
bulkheads or walls (some with a throwback shape) (Fig. 144), steel
sheet-pile bulkheads, steel sheet-pile groins (Fig. 140), precast con-
crete cells filled with concrete, and heavy rock (Fig. 270), have had
various degrees of success and failure. The failures have contributed
to the knowledge necessaiy to appreciate factors for design consider-
ation.
In planning ocean-front locations, the primary decision is a choice
of (1) alignment far enough inshore to avoid wave attack, (2) armor
on the embankment face, or (3) offshore devices like groins to aggrade
the beach at embankment toe. The first requires suitable topography
and reasonable cost of right of way. The second is sensitive to availa-
bility of strong heavy stone and accessibility of good foundation. The
third must have a generous supply of littoral drift. If all three are
objectionable, the armor method can always be developed for a price;
this price has been as high as $200 per front foot.
PLANNING OF PROTECTIVE WORKS 249
A formula has been developed for determining the size of rocks nec-
essary in shore protection for various wave heights. This formula has
been checked against the performance of actual construction and is
acceptable as a basis for future design. The maximum size of rock has
practical limitations both with respect to legal-load weights and equip-
ment.
Desert Wash
Characteristic hazards are (1) the intensity of rainfall and subse-
quent runoff, (2) the relatively large volumes of solids that are carried
in such runoff, (3) the lack of definition and permanence of the chan-
nel, (4) the scour depths that can be anticipated, and (5) the lack of
good foundation.
Effective protective methods are primarily armor along the highway
and at structures and the probable need for baffles to control the direc-
tion and velocity of flow (Fig. 294). Installations of rock, fence, tor-
pedo netting, slope paving, and dikes have been successful, although
some installations have been damaged and practically destroyed in one
major exposure. However, most of these were cheap expendable struc-
tures that had served their purpose.
The question of economics is definitely involved in locations of this
nature where the cost of protection and characteristic infrequency of
exposure must be balanced against the value of the highway investment
in the road and the possible inconvenience to traffic.
Planning the traverse of a typical debris cone requires a decisive
choice between small waterways at each wash and large waterways fed
by interception of several small washes. The latter is usually economical
on midcone traverses, interception consisting of long dike baffles pro-
tected at sensitive points. At top of cone the single channel is usually
stable. At bottom of cone the stream is dispersed and its energy dissi-
pated, so that little if any protection is required.
Overflow and Floods
Characteristic hazards are (1) low areas subject to periodic inunda-
tion during heavy runoff of floods, (2) planned overflow areas, and (3)
uncontrolled overflow (Fig. 306).
Effectual protective methods are normally light-weight cheap types
of the armor class. Reinforced paving of shoulders and slopes is eco-
nomical and easily maintained. Cement treatment, thin rock slope pro-
tection, grouted rock, and vegetation may also be considered for control.
Artificial Channels and Ditches
Characteristic hazards are (1) scour, (2) maintenance of planned
grade, (3) impingement at curves, (4) embankment slopes too steep,
(5) transitions from natural to artificial channels, (6) velocity, and
(7) capacity.
Effectual protective methods may require a combination of armor
and baffle classes (Fig. 307). Pôr the slopes. and sometimes the bottom,
protection has been afforded by slope paving, rock, sacked concrete, and
broken concrete, all of which may serve. Check dams constructed of
concrete, rock, sacked concrete, and filled fences have been successful
for grade control to forestall excessive scour.
250
Many artificial channels are designed precisely for a particular maxi-

mum discharge. Impairment of that capacity by roughness or constric-
tion at one point may effectively impair the entire channel to the same
degree. Hence armor should not impair smoothness, and baffles should
not impair the channel section. Under certain circumstances, however,
an impairment of one factor can be compensated by fairing the other.
For example, impairment of section by constriction for a bridge might
be offset by smooth paving of the abutment slopes.
Experience and observation indicate that the undercutting both be-
low and behind the protection has caused most failures. Security of
terminals is necessary.
PLANNING OK PROTECTIVE WORKS 251
Special Application at Bridges
In addition to general comments for cross-channel locations, in both
young and mature valleys, bank protection at bridges should be planned
to conform to several economic and structural principles peculiar to
bridge sites.
One is the consequence of excavations at the site, not only the struc-
tural excavation for bridge foundations, but cuts in the natural banks
for detour route or contractor's access to foundation operations in the
channel. Because of these excavations and the uncertainty of timing
and extent, planning of protection may be indefinite or deferred. For
example, if the contractor breaks down and clears 300 ft of bank, it may
be better to protect the new slope (including transitions at each end)
than to attempt restoration of the natural bank. If this possibility is
foreseen, conventional protection may be included in the plans with
expectation of a change order substituting a new design, or protection
may be excluded from plans and money for the work held in the con-
tingent fund.
The uncertainty of timing of bridge foundation operations may re-
quire special provision for the hazard of flood damage during the con-
tract period, especially if contract work will be suspended during a
flood season. The provision may be in the form of temporary protection
work, or 2-stage construction of permanent work, or positive definition
of contractor's responsibility for preservation or restoration of essen-
tial features of the natural banks.
Another principle is a product of conflict between bridge substruc-
ture and an enveloping revetment. The leading example is the first bent
from an open-end abutment sheathed by rock slope protection. If the
stone is placed after the bridge is built, its unbalanced lateral pressure
may deflect the bent; the hazard is worsened by Method B placement
because of impact of rolling stones on the base of the bent. On the
other hand, if the stone is placed first, portions must be displaced for
structure excavation, or piling must be driven thru the stone mass.
Two common solutions have been noted: (1) for light riprap and
H-piles (Fig. 308), drive the piling thru the stone; and (2) for con-
crete piling, place the stone afterwards by Method A, terraced at the
bent to equalize pressures (Fig. 309). Other expedients are: (3)
lengthen the end span, or (4) use sacked-concrete revetment (Fig. 310).
The relative cost of bridges and channel work warrants economic
study of alternative combinations. Consider, for example, an open-end
abutment, 20 ft high for a bridge 30 ft wide for which two alternatives
are proposed: sacked concrete on 1.5:1 slope or light rock slope pro-
tection on 2:1 slope, costing respectively $80 and $30 per lineal foot.
The 2:1 slope adds 10 ft of bridge at each end, costing $120 per lineal
foot of embankment and more than offsetting the apparent saving in
cost of revetment. This principle usually warrants warping of 2:1 side
slopes of approach embankment to 1.5:1 end slopes under major
bridges.
The high unit cost of bridges had compelled a carefully balanced pro-
portioning of waterway and clearances, with increased importance for
wider or parallel structures. Success of a "precise" design depends on
integrity and stability of the perimeter of the waterway. Hence a more
252
FIGURE 310.
Blue Tent Cr. IN-Teh-3-C
Use of sacked concrete adjacent to bridge bents and on slope.
expensive type of protection may be warranted at the abutments, not
only because of acceleration of the stream thru the constriction at the
bridge but also because of the more serious consequences of failure.
The principle can be and probably has been abused by selection of
sacked-concrete slope protection without analysis of alternatives. The
opinion has been expressed for some sites that sacked concrete was used
to cover stable slopes with little or no hazard of erosion.
The reference above to serious consequences of failure should be
emphasized as another principle in the planning of protection near
bridges. Floods which destroy shoulders or one lane of highways parallel
to the stream, leaving an impaired but traversable facility, frequently
cut all lanes of some bridge approach, temporarily blocking the route.
This hazard warrants coordinated planning for strategic crossings,
generally by joint action of District and Bridge Department, as recited
in Chapter IX.
Dune
Characteristic hazards are related to the poor erosion resistance of
dune materials. Wind, rain, and flowing water all erode dune sands
with ease and the lack of control can be detrimental and a constant
maintenance problem.
Protective methods, depending on activity of the dune, could be slope
stabilization by revetment, or wind control by baffles. With varying
degrees of success, installations of oil treatment, plantings, and retreat
have been tried. The stability of the dune is of importance in selecting
a treatment; that is, if the dune area is not active or progressive, a semi-
permanent correction can be undertaken, but if the dune is active and
moving continually, permanency is practically impossible unless steps
are taken to control the dune at its source to windward.
Limited control of an active dune, to minimize deposit of sand on the
travelled way, may be gained by baffles inducing deposit short of the
highway at a point from which it can be periodically removed. This
combination of cheap protection and steady maintenance may be much
cheaper than heroic measures required to anchor the entire dune.
Roadside and Intercepting Ditches
The comments offered under the heading "Artificial Channels and
Ditches" are applicable insofar as need for protection is concerned.
Other factors may be influential in selection of type of protection.
One such factor is facility for roadside maintenance. Periodic control
of vegetation in and near roadside ditches by cutting, scraping, burn-
ing, or chemicals might be hampered by irregular or vulnerable revet-
ment or check structures. In other locations controlled vegetation may
be ideal protection by itself.
Another factor is esthetics. Roadside ditches are usually visible to the
travelling public. If landscaping or its equivalent is a desirable quality,
the ditches and protection thereof should present an acceptable appear-
ance.
COSTS
Unit cost of bank and shore protection systems and devices have been
compiled for a period of 35 years as a guide to future designs and
estimates. Presentation of the results will be prefaced with comment
pertinent to the reliability of the data and appropriate limitations for
its use.
Records
Much of the early construction was undertaken by day labor and
cost as recorded did not include overheads. Fortunately, however, many
of these projects covered a single type of structure. In later construc-
tion, undertaken under contract, the overhead is included, but inclusion
of bank protection as a minor part of large projects often led to erratic
pricing.
It is well known that unit prices tend to be high on items constructed
early in the contract, or for which quantities may overrun the estimate,
and vice versa for items constructed late or underrunning in quantity.
Errors of this kind are largely compensated by averaging a large num-
ber of bids. On the other hand, bank protection built as a part of a large
project may not be charged with its full share of overhead, equipment
and move-in-move-out costs, and this error may be large and uncom-
pensated in averages.
Cost of stone is extremely sensitive to location. Variables are length
of haul, efficiency of the quarry in producing acceptable sizes, royalty
to the quarry, tolerance of extra-legal loads, necessity for stockpiling
and rehandling. On some projects the stone is available in roadway ex-
cavation. In one fortuitous location, float stone was dozed from an
alluvial terrace with side compensation from its owner. As a measure
of this variability, recent bids on stone have ranged from $1.60 to $20
per ton.
Paradoxically, cost of stone is not very sensitive to size. Quarrying
produces a wide range of sizes. If only a light riprap is specified, the
large stones have to be broken by spot blasting. If heavy riprap is
required, the run of the quarry may be usable without reblasting. With
Method A placement, one 8-ton stone can be set quicker than two 4-ton
stones.
Inflation
The tabulation will show inflation of costs by factors ranging from
2 to 6, the greater factors being applicable to types using manual labor
and not adaptable to mechanization. Timber and metal have increased
much more than stone and concrete. These trends have been very influ-
ential in recent planning and should be watched in future planning.
To some extent also the data (Table 9) reflects the types of devices
favored in different eras and the periods of greatest activity during and
following flood years. Considering the wide variation of site conditions,
its use should be limited to preliminary comparisons of alternatives in
reconnaissance studies.
255
TABLE 9. HISTORICAL AND CURRENT COSTS OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND
MATERIALS FOR MEDIAN CONDITIONS
Material
Stone__
Stone
Stone, grouted
Rubble masonry...
Concrete, sacked. _
Concrete, broken, .
Concrete crib
Slope paving, 4-in._
Slope paving, 6-in.-
Slope paving
Gunite facing
Gunite facing, 2-in.
Asphalt surfacing..
Mattress, rock
Fence, light
heavy
double
triple
Piles, furnish, UT_
Piles, furnish, TT_
Piles, drive
Pile bents
Tetrahedrons, RC_
Tetrahedrons, steel
Tetrahedrons, steel
Jacks
I'nit
cy
ton
cy
cy
cy
cy
ftÂ»
ft'
ft>
cy
cy
ft.Â»
ton
ftâ–
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
r:i
ft
7-ton
30-ft
18-ft
15-ft
Average dollar-per-unit price by periods
1928-32
1(1
4
0.22
0.28
16
0.15
0.25
0. 1
2
I
112
150
100
1937-40
0.2
3
s
12
0.2
0.7
20
150
22
1945-50
25
28
Estimated
1953-58
1960-61
7
8
4.5
5
13
15
40
45
33
39
8
10
6
7
0.6
0.8
37
42
45
52
6.5
7.5
0.7
3
8
15
25
40
0.8
1
2
2.5
65
75
45
55
460
650
400
65
90
Reconnaissance Estimates
Tables 10-13 have been prepared to adapt the data to reconnaissance
studies by reducing unit costs to a square foot of horizontal projection,
that is, to the cost per lineal foot of bank for each foot of height to be
protected.
Unit costs on this basis are comparable for preliminary selection of
one or two protective devices or systems, provided, of course, that con-
sideration is limited to devices suited to the hazard. Thus for a partic-
ular situation the following might first be judged suitable; second,
compared by areal prices; and third, disposed of by a decision:
Alternative device Cost Decision
Rock slope protection, JT, Method B $1.65 Possible
Grouted-rock slope protection, light 1.95 Reject
Sacked concrete 2.05 Reject
2-pile bent retard 1.25 Probable
The same unit costs can also be used for gross estimates of costs. Thus
if the height to be protected was 40 ft, the cost per lineal foot would
be $50 to $66 for the favored devices, and if 500 ft of bank was threat-
ened, the gross cost would be of the magnitude of $25,000 to $33,000.
It should be noted in Tables 10, 11 and 12 that costs are shown for
both 1.5:1 and 2:1 slopes. The flatter slope costs 20-25% extra and is
seldom warranted, but the comparison is presented for emphasis. Occa-
sional warrants will be met, however, in shore protection where lighter
TABLE 10. RECONNAISANCE COST FACTORS FOR ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
Armor thickness
Cost in dollars per
Placement
Weight
Price
lineal foot, per foot
of height
method
class
Normal
Horizontal
per ton
Wc
T
1.5:1
2:1
1.5:1
2:1
A
8T
8.40
15.12
18.78
6.00
5.25
6.20
4T
6.67
12.00
14.91
5.75
4.00
4.95
2T
5.29
9.54
11.83
5.50
3.05
3.80
1T
4.20
7.56
9.39
5.25
2.30
2.85
HT
3.33
6.00
7.45
5.00
1.75
2.15
B
1T
5.25
9.45
11.74
4.00
2.20
2.75
HT
4.17
7.50
9.32
3.75
1.65
2.05
HT
3.31
5.96
7.40
3.50
1.20
1.50
Light
2.44
4.40
5.46
3.25
.83
1.02
Facing
1.76
3.17
3.93
3.00
.55
.68
Basis: T = \i \/Wc, plus 25% for Method B; net weight = 115 pcf
(s.g. = 2.65; 80% voids); 1960-61 prices.
Not included: toe trench, backing, long haul.
TABLE 11. RECONNAISSANCE COST FACTORS FOR GROUTED-ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION
Weight
class
Median
weight
Normal
thickness
Horizontal
thickness
Cost in dollars per
foot, per foot of
height
Stone
Grout
1.5:1
2:1
1.5:1
2:1
Wc
T
G
^T
1,000
3.33
1.50
6.00
7.45
3.33
4.15
MT
500
2.65
1.17
4.77
5.93
2.65
3.30
Light
200
1.95
.83
3.51
4.36
1.95
2.42
Facing , , .
75
1.41
.67
2.54
3.15
1.41
1.75
Cobble
25
.98
.50
1.76
2.19
.98
1.22
Basis: T = % ^Wc; G from Table 5; 1960-61 price = $15 per cy.
Not included: toe trench. Assumed: no backing; short haul.
stone is stable on the natter slopes, and on stream banks of low repose
because of poor or saturated soils.
Table 13 for retards is quite speculative on the effective height of
protection, further reducing the accuracy of unit cost. Effective height
is defined as the vertical distance between maximum permissible scour
level and the stage of high water for which the retard is still effective.
Post fences are not designed for scour and light fences will not with-
stand overtopping, but heavy and multiple fences will be quite effective
in a 5-ft overrun, and poised rock fill of the latter gives security
against shallow scour.
TABLE 12. RECONNAISSANCE COST FACTORS FOR DENSE REVETMENT
Revetment type
Bid items
Unit
Price
Coat in dollars per foot,
per foot of height
2:1
Sacked concrete
Slope paving, 4-in ..
Slope paving, 6-in ..
Gunite facing, 2-in .
Asphalt facing, 2-in .
Asphalt facing, 4-in .
Asphalt, 4-in w/wire
'â– y
cy
c.v
sf
T
T
4.-|
40
0.50
7.50
7.50
2.05
1.00
1.33
.90
.14
.28
.40
*2.45
1.24
1.65
1.12
.175
.85
.50
* All headers.
Not included: toe trench, backing, weepers, cut-offs.
TABLE 13. RECONNAISSANCE COST FACTORS FOR RETARDS
Protected front
Cost in dollars per
foot, per foot of
protected height
Retard device
Unit
Price
Length
Height
Fence, light
ft
3
4
10
15
30
40
20
18
30
10
.75
1.50
1.67
1.25
1.40
Fence, heavy __
ft
15
25
300
450
400
400
650
90
Fence, double . â–
ft
2-pile bent -
ea
8
8
20
18
30
20
ea
Tetrahedron, RC
20-ft
1.00
Tetrahedron, steel -
18-ft
1.24
.72
.45
Tetrahedron, steel..
30-ft
Jack, steel ._ . _
15-ft
Basis: Length is spacing of units. Height for fences and piles includes
penetration allowed for scour; for all devices it includes overtopping
for which unit is effective.
Pile bents are designed for a deeper scour and higher overrun. For
example one long retard on the Eel River near Pepperwood projected
20 ft but was very effective when overtopped 20 ft and could have
withstood a 5-ft scour, all at a cost of $45 per lineal foot or $1 per
foot of effective height. Figures in the table are more conservative.
Tetrahedra and jacks subside in scour and retain some effectiveness
when overtopped. However the top structure is not as resistive as the
base, nor as closed as pile bents, so effective height has been discounted
to the actual height of tetrahedra and two-thirds height for jacks.
No attempt has been made to tabulate similar factors for jetties,
groins and baffles, because length of structure is not ipso facto the same
as the length of the bank. Comparisons of these alternatives should be
made on a system basis rather than a unit basis. That is, a system or
pattern of these off-bank devices should be compared in cost with a
system of revetment and/or retards, using Table 9 alone or in combina-
tion with Tables 10-13.
_EMPTY_
VIII
MAINTENANCE OF BANK PROTECTION DEVICES
Bank-protection devices constructed along highway embankments,
shore lines, stream banks or in streambeds require varying degrees of
maintenance depending upon type, location and degree and frequency
of exposure to attack by stream flow or wave action. Maintenance
personnel should acquaint themselves with the intended function of
each installation, be aware of those in critical locations, and distinguish
between permanent and expendable installations.
INSPECTION
It is the duty of maintenance personnel as representatives of the re-
sponsible agency to inspect such installations after exposure to high
water or severe wave action and to make such repairs or improvements
as may be within the scope of maintenance responsibility or to report
observations for appropriate action leading to the required repair or
improvement. Protective devices installed along river channels should
be thoroughly inspected during the first low-water period following the
spring runoff or flood stage, and the need for repair, strengthening or
extension determined to permit completion of required work before
the next high-water period. Subsequent inspection during the dry
season should be made to check earlier observations.
Inspection of protective devices exposed to direct attack of ocean
waves or currents should be made at low tide following any period of
severe wave action. Inspection should also be made during periods of
extreme low tide in the winter months, as such inspection may disclose
conditions requiring repair or improvement which may not be visible
after beach deposits have reformed following the winter season. It is
the tendency of ocean currents along the California coast to degrade
sand beaches during the winter months and to reform them during the
summer months.
OFF-SITE PROCEDURE
Conditions may require Highway employees to enter upon private
property to maintain and repair drainage conduits and bank-protection
devices. A legal opinion on this subject states that except in cases of
emergency, "Before entering upon private property to maintain or
repair culverts, or other structures or appurtenances, employees should
obtain the property owner's consent whenever practical, and in no
event should employees ever enter private property after an owner
thereof has expressed opposition to such entry.''
(259)
Consent may be obtained by a simple document such as the following:
"Date:
"I hereby grant permission to the State of California and
its authorized employees to enter upon only so much of my
property as may be necessary to maintain and repair drain-
age conduits, or other structures or appurtenances, located
within the highway right of way, or on an easement appurte-
nant thereto.
"This permission shall continue in effect until revoked by
me or my successors.
(Signature)
Procedures to be followed in the maintenance of protective devices
as given below are general in application and may vary somewhat with
the type of protection, age of the installation, location of use and pos-
sibility of future need.
ARMOR
Rigid (Sacked concrete; slope paving; grouted rock)
The effectiveness of these rigid types of protection, which do not
adjust to local movement, may be impaired by any action which may
rupture the surface. Such breakage or misalignment of surface may
result from removal of foundation support by subsidence, undermining,
outward displacement by hydrostatic pressure, slide action, or erosion
of supporting embankment at the ends. Steps should be taken to
reestablish support by backfilling, construction of suitable under-
pinning and foundation protection. Undercut end sections should be
backfilled and further protected by substantial ties into the bank or
by extension of facing up or down stream to solid anchorage. See
Figures 311-317.
To prevent damage by hydrostatic pressure resulting from high-
water stages or natural seepage behind solid type facings, weep holes
should be reopened if flow is impaired or new holes drilled if seepage
is evident. See Figure 318. Cracks in the surface of rigid armor should
be filled with mortar or suitable asphalt sealing material to prevent
loss of supporting embankment material. Coarse brush and trees (Fig.
319) should not be allowed to grow in joints or so close to the edges of
the structure that roots may break or dislodge the surface when subject
to severe wind or wave action.
Asphalt slope paving which may be laid on slopes not previously
sterilized to prevent plant growth may be damaged or destroyed by
such growth subsequent to paving. See Figure 320. Growth through
asphaltic materials should be eradicated by chemical means, the pro-
truding growth removed and the surface patched.
261
(B)
FIGURE 311.
(A) Failure of concrete slope paving; (B) displacement of slab by underflow.
FIGURE 312. Cache Cr. IIl-Yol-50-A

Eroded embankment at downstream end of sacked-concrete slope protection.
262
FIGURE 313. San Lorenzo Cr. IV-Ala-5-B FIGURE 314. Santa Ynez R. V-SB-2-D
Undermined grouted-rock slope protection. Embankment scour at end of sacked-concrete slope
protection.
FIGURE 315.
(A) Undermined sacked-concrete slope protection and erosion by eddy. (B) Deterioration of sacked concrete
from insufficient grout in mix.
263
264
Flexible (Articulated blocks; mattresses; broken concrete; wire-mesh
netting)
Flexible armor of the above-listed types is by virtue of form less
susceptible to damage by distortion and is actually intended to continue
to function after moderate displacement. See Figure 321 and 322. Re-
establishment of continuity of the device after displacement is desir-
able, and construction of such additional protection to safeguard the
investment in the protective device should be taken commensurate with
the value of the structure. Maintenance of wire-mesh netting and
similar devices may consist of replacement of broken tie wires, redriv-
ing or replacement of displaced anchor pins, and the general restora-
tion of the integrity of the structure by replacing weak or damaged
areas or closing gaps between the netting and adjacent structures
(Fig. 323).
Rock-and-wire mattress construction is generally placed at the base
of some other type of slope protection (Fig. 324), generally of the rigid
type, when resistance of foundation to erosion is questionable and a
safeguard against undermining is warranted. Being capable of con-
siderable adjustment downward as the supporting bed material is re-
moved by erosion, the maintenance objective throughout the economic
life of the rock-and-wire mattress should be to keep it intact as long as
it remains exposed. Replacement of broken tie wires or the addition of
wire lacing to insure retention of the rock fill within the wire envelope
and the replacement of broken anchor cables as downward adustment
takes place, may prolong the effectiveness of the installation (Fig. 325).
Willow mattresses may be considered of short effective life and not
requiring replacement in kind. If replacement appears necessary,
quality of device should be upgraded.
FIGURE 321. Pacoima Wash. VII-LA-9-LA

Articulated block mattress used as toe protection for concrete slope protection.
MAINTENANCE OP BANK PROTECTION DEVICES
265
266
(A) Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-A (B) Eel R. I-Hum-1-D

FIGURE 324.
Rock-and-wire mattress placed at toe of (A) sacked concrete slope protection and (B) rock
slope protection.
(B) Eel R. I-Hum-1-E

FIGURE 325.
(A) Separation of otherwise intact elements of a rock-and-wire mattress installation.
(B) Mattress conformed to under scour but remained intact.
267
Self-Adjusting (Rock slope protection; precast units)
Although rock slope protection and broken concrete may be used
when settlement and displacement are anticipated, effectiveness will be
impaired by thinning of the protective layer, lowering of the effective
elevation of the armor or by enlargement of interstices which allows
displacement and loss of backing material. See Figures 326-328. Restor-
ation of rock slope protection to designed top elevation, equivalent
thickness and reduction of voids in facing should be considered a
maintenance function.
To avoid deep or costly toe trench excavation, excess rock may be
placed at the toe of an armored slope at the time of initial installation.
Such material is intended to displace downward as undermining occurs,
and replacement of this material to the original constructed section is
generally not required. Restoration of facing to designed elevation and
approximate designed slope should be undertaken in kind or better, if
severe erosion is the cause of the loss. Extensive upgrading in size of
material applied during restoration may be warranted when failures
occur at points of concentrated attack.
FIGURE 326. West Walker R. IX-Mno-23-K

Rock slope protection partially removed and highway
shoulder attacked.
FIGURE 327. N. of Sea Cliff VII-Ven-2-F FIGURE 328. N. of Sea Cliff VII-Ven-2-F
Adjustment of rock slope protection with Displacement of rock slope protection,
loss of backing material.
268
RETARDS
These permeable devices (Fig. 329-332) are generally constructed
parallel to the embankment to afford protection by reduction of riparian
stream velocity and by the deposition of material behind the structures.
Height of such devices on streams carrying quantities of drift may be
intentionally reduced to permit large drift during high-water stages to
pass over the structures without striking them or becoming entangled.
As the lines of fence, piling or pile bents derive effectiveness in part
from the presence of wire to trap small drift and thus by partial ob-
struction decrease velocity of water through and behind the device, re-
placement of down, broken or missing wires or mesh is desirable main-
tenance.
FIGURE 330. Tres Pinos Cr. V-SBt-119-E

Triple row of jacks as retard for bank
protection.
FIGURE 329. Salinas R. V-Mon-2-D

Railroad rail tetrahedron retard. Note light
drift accumulation and deposition inside
the retard.
FIGURE 331. Coyote Cr. VII-Ora-171-B
Heavy double pipe-and-wire fence retard
showing good performance characteristics
of induced deposition.
FIGURE 332. Guyama R. VII-Ven-138-E
Single fence retard constructed of timber
pile and wire mesh.
MAINTENANCE OF HANK PROTECTION DEVICES
269
Timber pile retards may be constructed of untreated piling and
timber to effect a degree of protection to an otherwise unprotected sec-
tion of embankment until vegetation may establish itself and afford
adequate protection, or until the point of attack shifts to another loca-
tion. See Figure 333. The continued need for a structure at a location
should determine the extent of repairs to or replacement of broken
or missing piling, bracing, wales and wire mesh. Condition of piling at
ground line may not justify repair of the superstructure. The effect
upon downstream bridges, dams and navigation of aged and rotted tim-
ber revetments which may be torn loose and carried downstream during
periods of high water may justify dismantling, destruction or secure
anchorage inland. Large timbers or trees which may lodge in retard
framework and protrude into the stream and which may tend to rack
the structure during high water should be removed (Fig. 334).
'i
sâ– Â£Â£ â€”
WsSkjLr
(A)
ClearCr. ll-Sha-3-A' (B)
FIGURE 333.
Untreated timber pile retards. (B) Note bar and growth of vegetation.
FIGURE 334. Pepperwood-Eel R. I-Hum-1-D
Damaged timber pile retard. Maintenance would include replacement of missing part and
perhaps additional braces.
270
Retards in the form of tetrahedrons and jacks likewise serve to retard
the riparian velocity of the stream and are subject to settlement, disin-
tegration of rails, cables and wires, and possible ultimate burial (Fig.
335). They are generally considered expendable. No major maintenance
is required except to guard against theft of material. Appropriate
property-ownership signs should be posted and maintained on such
structures, especially those at remote locations where ownership may
not be readily associated with the facility being protected. The expense
of raising sunken structures is generally not warranted, although such
buried structures may continue to serve a function in a buried condi-
tion. If frequency of attack is such as to rapidly bury the structures
and prevent development of supplemental defenses such as brush or
tree growth in sufficient time to afford desired protection, replacement
in kind may be in order.
FIGURE 335. Colorado R. XI-Riv-64-F

Settlement of 30-ft tetrahedrons does not impair their effectiveness as evidenced by deposition.
JETTIES
Impermeable structures of concrete, timber or steel or prismatic log
or timber cribs, are generally of massive design and so constructed as
to require little if any structure maintenance. They may be endangered
by undermining of foundation or recession of embankment. Conditions
at each structure should be ascertained after each exposure to high
water or strong wave action.
Jetties composed of rock may suffer damage by settlement or lateral
displacement requiring reconstruction to original grade.
Dikes of earth may be expected to offer less resistance to erosion and
replacement in kind is subject to economic considerations (Fig. 336).
The maintenance of permeable jetties composed of timber-braced
piling, steel or timber jacks, and steel or concrete tetrahedrons, par-
allels that previously discussed for similar construction under retards.
Stream currents may tend to displace down stream the outermost
elements of lines of jacks or tetrahedrons set in projecting lines from
the bank. Individual jacks or tetrahedrons displaced downstream may
cause undesirable current deflection or eddies. Preservation is essential
271
FIGURE 336. E. of Indio XI-Riv-64-H

Erosion of training dike in desert location.
FIGURE 337.
Car bodies used as embankment protection.
for such elements, even in buried condition, in approximately their
designed locations by cables along the line of the structure and from
the outermost elements upstream to solid anchorage.
Auto frames and similar material deposited to retard bank erosion
are expendable and require no maintenance other than duplication of
sunken or buried units, if economically justified (Fig. 337). A shifting
of a mass of such material to a position in the channel where it may
cause detrimental erosion would warrant removal of the obstruction.
GROINS
Structures composed of steel, concrete and timber sheet piling and
cells or cribs of steel or concrete, are generally of substantial design
requiring no maintenance short of reconstruction. Fill material lost
from cell or crib types should be replaced. Damaged or lost areas of
concrete grout or asphalt surfacing which may serve as an armor for
the rock-mound type of groin should be restored.
BULKHEADS
Substantial initial design and construction of bulkheads composed of
timber, concrete, or steel, generally reduce possible future maintenance
to a minimum. Partial or complete failure of such structures may be
attributed to loss of foundation support, erosion of natural banks
adjoining the structure, or loss of fill material, if of the open crib type.
Cleaning of weeds, dry brush and rubbish from the base of timber-pile
or timber-crib types of protection to establish a firebreak may be con-
sidered justified in certain locations, especially if timber is treated
and installation is considered permanent. See Figures 338-342.
BAFFLES
Loss of foundation by undermining should be expected to be the
greatest source of trouble experienced in the maintenance of check
dams of rock or concrete. Extension of footings in the ease of concrete
structures and replacement of rock to designed grade in the case of
unmortared dams are essential maintenance. (Fig. 343).
272
SBs?
FIGURE 338. Smith R. I-DN-1-C

Fill material washed from behind logcrib type
bulkhead.
FIGURE 339. Aqua Hedionda Lagoon XI-SD-2-B

Embankment lost and timber bulkhead damaged
from erosion.
FIGURE 341. Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-F

Concrete-crib type bulkhead.
FIGURE 340. Russian R. IV-Son-104-A

Failure of steel-and-timber bulkhead.
FIGURE 342. VII-Ven-2-D
Steel sheet-pile bulkhead seawall.
273
(E) Los Gatos Cr. IV-SCI-5-LGts

FIGURE 343.
Check dams: (A) Timber and steel rail, (B) steel sheet pile, (C) concrete with rock-
studded apron for energy dissipation, (D) typical flow (E) raised bars to decrease
velocity after drop.
274
Wire-bound rock sausages by the very nature of their design are in-
tended to tolerate moderate distortion and settlement without loss of
effectiveness. The service life of such installations may be prolonged
by timely maintenance in the form of lacing together of gaps in the
wire envelope.
Double or multiple lines of fence constructed of wire mesh on steel
rails or posts and filled with alternate layers of brush and rock are
generally designed to allow the brush and rock to drop and fill any
undercut cavity under the device during periods of high water. In
heavy-duty installations, especially those of the double rail-and-wire
type, additional wire mesh is placed at the bottom at time of construc-
tion and designed to unfold along the outer row of rails at locations
where excessive undercutting may occur. As the function of the rock
and brush filling of such devices is to displace downward to fill scour
holes and save the structure and any embankment behind it, renewal
of the alternate layers of brush and rock as disintegration or settlement
takes place is an essential maintenance operation. Replacement of
broken tie wires to restore integrity of the structure is also warranted.
See Figures 344-348.
FIGURE 344. St. Helena Cr.

Rock-filled double fence baffle upstream from bridge abutments.
l-Lak-49-B
275
FIGURE 345.
Heavy double fence filled with brush and broken concrete. Note end section with
broken concrete for anchor.
276
IX
COORDINATION
Authorization of the Joint Departmental Committee on Bank Pro-
tection in 1939 and the Joint Bank Protection Committee in 1949 rec-
ognized in each case the interest of four headquarters departments in
the field of bank protection. These departments are Bridge, Construc-
tion, Design (Survey and Plans in 1938) and Maintenance.
The memorandum of November 15, 19â– 49 engaging cooperation be-
tween the Committee and each of the District Engineers recognized
the further interest of the 11 highway districts. Added later because
of interest in particular phases of bank protection were the Materials
and Research Department (consultant on tests for durability of stone),
the Roadside Development Section (on definition of the field of erosion
control by vegetation) and the Specifications Section (on revision of
Standard Specifications for slope protection).
Coordination of these 18 components within the Division of High-
ways had developed efficiently and this final chapter will review and
record the fact of coordination rather than any proposal for change.
Comment will be added on coordination of the Division and its compo-
nents with other agencies.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Bank and shore protection cannot be appended to a highway con-
struction contract without consideration of contingent and frequently
complicated construction problems. Guidance of design by views and
opinions of construction personnel may avoid or simplify such prob-
lems.
As one example, rock slope protection might require stone of un-
usual weight or density, introducing questions of: (1) quarry location
and development; (2) restrictions on long haul, such as route, load
limit, or seasonal use; (3) facility for weighing, loads or individual
stones; (4) scheduling, if partially completed work will be exposed
to hazard; (5) accessibility of placement site; or (6) possible conflict
with other contracts, at placement site or at quarry.
DISTRICT AND BRIDGE
Bank protection near bridges may serve any of these purposes: (1)
prevent underscour of bridge foundations, (2) prevent erosion of ap-
proach embankment, (3) armor a dike funneling a stream into a re-
stricted waterway, or (4) protect riparian property from consequences
of the restriction. Concurrent interest of District and Bridge Depart-
ment has devised a rational division of responsibility with appropriate
coordinating procedure.
10â€”30166
(277 )
The Bridge Department assumes responsibility for (1) security of
abutment foundations, and may plan revetment around an approach
embankment because of shallow footings within the embankment. On
the other hand, if abutment is supported by long piling or rock foot-
ing, responsibility for (2) the approach embankment is in the District,
and the Bridge Department will ask the District what protection
should be shown on bridge plans.
The other two purposes (3) and (4) usually derive from alternative
bridge waterways with indirect bearing on security of roadway em-
bankments. Accordingly the protection will be initiated by the Bridge
Department and submitted to the District for review.
For existing bridges, with or without appurtenant bank protection,
the periodic inspection of the structure by engineers of the Bridge
Maintenance Section includes noteworthy observation and comment on
condition of stream banks. Recommendations to the District are lim-
ited to remedial work appropriate to the security of the bridge. Other
new hazards or deficiencies are reported for information of the Dis-
trict, which initiates repair according to its judgment and discretion.
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
Upon completion of construction, the Highway Superintendent or
others who may be responsible for the periodic inspection and main-
tenance of bank protection structures should accompany construction
representatives on the final inspection of such devices. Maintenance
personnel should be informed of the intended function of the installa-
tion, whether it be considered temporary, expendable or permanent,
and the effort, if any, to be expended to preserve, rebuild or extend
the installation. The Highway District Engineer at the time of com-
pletion of the structure should determine the degree of permanency
to be considered for each bank-protection structure.
"As Built" plans and a copy of the final report with photographs
should be furnished to all personnel responsible for the periodic inspec-
tion and maintenance of bank-protection devices. Any additional data
such as depth of foundations, position and elevation of bench marks
to which plan elevations are referenced, test borings which may give
type and locations of underlying foundations and pile penetrations
will aid in selection of required repair procedure. Right-of-way limits
as related to bank-protection devices should be definitely established
on plans. Location of easements obtained for the purpose of mainte-
nance should be indicated for subsequent use by field forces.
A method of permanent identification and reference in the field of
bank-protection structures adjacent to the roadway or on channels
remote from the highway right of way should be selected and appro-
priate markers installed during the initial construction phase. Such
identification using posts or limits markers similar to those used to
identify culverts or underground drainage structures would aid in
the orderly required inspection of the protective devices. A numbering
system similar to that used in identifying bridge structures would
facilitate reporting and record keeping.
COORDINATION 279
Identification of installation by markers adjacent to the roadway
should serve to acquaint new maintenance personnel and others with
all elements of the roadway structure, aid in locating and inspecting
threatened areas at night and during periods of emergency, and pro-
mote vigilance in guarding such structures from theft, damage or
relocation by others.
MAINTENANCE AND DESIGN
Designers should anticipate need for access by maintenance forces
to bank-protection facilities expected to require inspection and repair.
Provision should be made in right-of-way fences for locked gates at
access points. Roads of sufficient width, alignment and grade to admit
repair equipment, with little or no advance preparation especially dur-
ing threatening periods of high water, should be provided as part
of the initial construction. "Where possible, right of way or easements
should be obtained for such service roads during the right-of-way
acquisition stage.
OTHER AGENCIES
Because of mutual interest or conflicting rights, the Division of High-
ways negotiates construction, operation and maintenance of bank and
shore protection with many other public agencies. These may be desig-
nated according to their rights or interests as (1) regulatory, (2) co-
operative, (3) proprietary and (4) initiatory.
Regulatory agencies are those charged by law with the supervision
of waterways for specified purposes, such as navigation, flood control
or conservation. Negotiations with State and federal agencies may be
conducted or completed thru the Headquarters office, but are usually
initiated and developed informally by the District. The District con-
ducts all phases of negotiation with local agencies. In any case, the
Division obtains a permit (usually written) before proceeding with
the work.
Cooperative agencies are those participating in the cost of bank or
shore protection, either as principal seeking contribution of highway
funds, or as sponsor contributing to the cost of a highway project.
Negotiations consider absolute and relative benefits to both Highway
and Agency, and the ratio of benefit to cost. Consideration may be
given informally to several alternative plans, during which any tenta-
tive division of cost is hypothetical and without commitment. The final
"cooperative agreement" may be drafted in the District, but requires
approval and execution in the Headquarters office. Unless the work is
a necessary part of an authorized highway improvement, any contri-
bution of highway funds in excess of $5000 requires a vote of the Com-
mission.
Proprietary agencies are those holding or administering public lands
and improvements thereon which are or may be affected by bank pro-
tection, and over which rights of way must be acquired. Unless such
agencies recognize correlative benefits and become "cooperative agen-
cies", negotiation is limited to acquisition of an easement. This may
be an easement to construct, or to construct and maintain. Its legal form
may depend on formal procedure of the particular public agency,
particularly if the lands are held in trust for a specified purpose.
Initiatory agencies are those charged by law with responsibility for
flood control generally or protection of public lands, which initiate
projects for bank or shore protection. Their projects may require from
Highways as little as continuance of revetment under an existing
bridge to as much as a major relocation of an existing highway
around a proposed reservoir. Consent of Highways may issue as a
simple encroachment permit for the revetment or as a complicated
agreement for the relocation. If Highways recognizes correlative bene-
fits, the project may become "cooperative".
APPENDIX
A. REFERENCE BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. DEFINITIONS
C. PRIOR REPORTS
D. AUTHORIZATIONS AND CORRESPONDENCE
E. PATENTS
F. INDEX OF PHOTOGRAPHS
(281 )
_EMPTY_
APPENDIX A
REFERENCE BIBLIOGRAPHY
(See page 292 for abbreviations)
[I] * Ahmad, Mushtaq â€” Experiments on
design and behaviour of spur dikes;
IAHR Proc. 1953, p. 145
[2] AREA Committee on Rivers and
Harbors â€” Bank protection; AREA
Bulletin, v. 31, p. 1331 (1930)
[3]* Arthur, H. G. â€” Earthfill dams;
USBR publ. Design of small dams,
Chap.V (1960)
[4]* ASCE Committee of the Construc-
tion Division on Flood Controlâ€”
Construction plant and methods for
flood control on lower Mississippi
River and similar streams; ASCE
Manual of Engineering Practice No.
12 (1936)
[5]* ASCE Subcommittee on Slope Pro-
tection of the Committee on Earth
Dams of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Division â€” Review of
slope protection methods; Proc.
ASCE June 1948 and discussion
through May 1949
[6] Asphalt Forumâ€”Asphaltic concrete
channel protection; v. 7, No. 2
(1944)
[7] â€”Lining the Rio Hondo
river channel with asphaltic con-
crete; v. 8, No. 3 (1945)
[8]* Ayers, James R. â€” Seawalls and
breakwater; Cstl Eng, Proc. 1st
Conf. (1950)
[8a]* Barsdale, R. W.â€”Bank protection on
Central Valley streams, California;
ASCE Proc. v. 86, WW 4 (1960)
[9] Bascom, Willardâ€”Beaches ; Sc Am,
v. 203, n. 2, p. 81 (1960)
[10]* Banders, M. L. â€” Unusual drainage
features on the Angeles Crest High-
way ; CHPW, Apr. 1939
[II] * Beach Erosion Boardâ€”Manual of
procedure on beach erosion studies
(1939)
[12]* â€”Shore protection plan-
ning and design; TR4 (1954)
[13] Bessom, F. S. Jr.â€”Asphalt revet-
ments tested bv floods of two sea-
sons; WCN v. 14, p. 128 (1939)
[14]* Bigelow, H. B., and Edmondson,
W. T.â€”Wind waves at sea, breakers
and surf; Navy H.O. Pub 602
(1947)
[15]* Blench, T. â€” Regime behaviour of
canals and rivers; Butterworth
(1957)
[16]* Blume, J. A. and Keith, J. M.â€”
Rincon offshore island and open
causeway; ASCE Proc. v. 85, WW3,
p. 61 (1959)
[17] Boase, A. J.â€”Shore protection by
permeable groins; S & B, July 1939,
p. 105
[18]* Borland, W. M., and Miller, C. R.â€”
Sediment problems of the lower Col-
orado Rivers; ASCE Proc. v. 86
HY4 (1960)
[19]* Bowers, H. Danaâ€”Erosion control
on California State Highways; CDH
Bulletin (1949)
[20]* Brater, E. F.â€”Low cost shore pro-
tection used on the Great Lakes;
Cstl Eng, 4th Conf, p. 214 (1953)
[21]* Bretschneider, Charles L.â€”Field in-
vestigation of wave energy loss in
shallow water ocean waves; BEB
TM 46 (1954)
[22]* â€” Generation of wind
waves over a shallow bottom; BEB
TM 51 (1954)
[23]* â€”Revised wave forecast-
ing relationships; Cstl Eng, Proc,
2nd Conf (1951)
[24]* Brown, Earl I. â€” Beach erosion
studies; ASCE Trans, v. 105 p. 869
(1940)
[25] Bruun, Perâ€”Stability of beaches;
S&B Apr. 1955
[26]* â€”Coast erosion and the
development of beach profiles; BEB
TM 44 (1954)
[27] Bryan, Kennerleyâ€”Jetties of 5 to
10-ton precast blocks built in Flor-
ida; EN-R, v. 97, p. 1030 (1926)
* Available in Bridge Department Library ; all others abstracted for file of Committee.
( 283 )
[28] California Department of Water Resourcesâ€”Final Reports of District Engineers :
1938 Oct 14 Santa Barbara County levee revetment
1930 Mar 10 Santa Ynez River, Cantlay Cut, pile fence
Mar 21 Santa Paula Creek, grouted riprap
Mar 31 San Antonio Wash, asphaltic slope paving
Mar 31 San Gabriel River, asphaltic slope paving
Apr 4 Santa Ana River, riprapped levee
May 4 Santa Ana River, levee and fence
Jul 10 Paeoima Wash, gunite slope paving
1940 Feb 7 San Jacinto River, double rail fence
Feb 27 San Luis Rey River, double fence
Apr 8 Los Angeles River, sheet pile and asphaltic slope paving
Apr 12 Santa Monica Canyon, double fence and groins
Apr 12 Sawtelle-Westwood Channel, timber bulkhead
Apr 18 Santa Ana River, rock-faced levee
Apr 19 Edgar Canyon, rock mattress
Apr 2"> San Jacinto River, rail fence
Apr 30 Brea Creek, RC lining
May 1 Lytle Creek, post fence
May 3 Cucamonga ("reek, rail fence and groins
May 6 San Antonio Creek, rail fence
May 17 Santa Ana River, masonry walls
May 17 Turner Avenue Ditch, rail fence
May 20 Santa Ana River, Colton, rail fence
May 21 Eaton Wash, double pipe fence
May 22 City Creek, double rail fence and basket
May 23 Twin Creek, rail fences
Jun 0 Wilson Creek, rail fence and basket
â– Tun 0 Cajon Creek, triple rail fence and baskets
Jun 0 Warm Creek, double rail fence and basket
Jun 7 Cucamonga Creek, rail fence
Jun 11 Mojave River, Victorville, rail fence
Jun 12 City Creek, rail fence
Jun 17 Mojave River, Apple Valley, rail fence
Jun 18 Mojave River, Helendale, rail fence
Jun 18 Mojave River, Hinckley, rail fence
Jun 19 Lytle Creek, Colton, rail fence
Jul 24 Eaton Wash, levees. groins, wire revetment
Jul 25 Sierra Madre Wash, masonry walls
Jul 31 Sierra Madre, rubble lining
Aug 1 Big Tujunga Wash, fence, mattress, slope paving
Aug 2 Rio Hondo, Timber pile fence
Aug 8 Warm Creek, RC walls
Sep 30 Twin Creek, double rail fence and basket
Oct 4 Lytle Creek, pile and rail fence
Dec 20 Murrieta Creek, articulated block
1941 Feb 5 Lytle Creek, rail fence
Mar 11 Los Angeles River, pile bulkhead, rail fence
Mar 14 Santa Susana Creek, double rail fence
Mar 15 Santa Anita Wash, rail fence
1945 Feb 6 Santa Anita Wash and Arroyo Seco
1946 Feb 16 Santa Clara River, pile fence and riprap
1947 Dec 2 San Juan Creek, asphaltic slope paving, sheet piling
1948 Oct 8 Redondo Seawall, 6-15-ton stone
1949 Mar 1 Eel River, permeable jetty at Dyerville
BIBLIOGRAPHY
285
California Division of Highwaysâ€”Interim Reports of Joint Bank Protection Committee
1949 Oct 26 VII-Ven-60-A Construction summary, 1925-41
Nov 4, 22 VII-Ven-60-A Point Mugu to Sycamore
1950 Aug 11 VIII-Riv-26-C,D Whitewater River riprap
Nov 8 I-DN-l-E Burman No. 2 Slide
Storm damage, Smith River
Merced River Flood damage
Heavy rock design
Kern River hazard
Groin at Sta 310
Waddell Muff stone decay
West Walker River damage
Thornton Bluff retreat
North Yuba River washouts
West Walker damage repair
Abstract, BEB report of 9-1-50
Abstract, BEB report of 2-1-51
Bay shore hazard negligible
Bay shore hazard light
San Mateo-Hayward approach study
Merced River contract review
Quarry disapproved
San Mateo-Hayward approach study
Extra heavy rock specifications
Quarry review
Shively Bluff, grouted rock
Damage survey, Mugu coast
Bay shore south of Ashby
Bay shore north of Ashby
San Mateo-Hayward approach review
Lexington Dam Spillway
Lexington Spillway extension
Jan Jacinto overflow
Research on tetrapods
Santa Clara River field review
Santa Clara River plan
Smith River, Burman No. 2
Bay shore hazard light
Punta Gorda coast
Punta Gorda to Rincon
San Mateo-Hayward shore protection
Sespe Creek crossing
Riprap specifications, standard
King City retard fence
Pepperwood retard
Stephens Grove damage
Bull Creek riprap and cribs
Pitas Point coast
Burman No. 2 review
Smith River repairs
Stephens Grove retard
Abstract, Army slope protection
Smith River overflow
Big Lagoon causeway
San Diego River
Palm Canyon Wash
Mojave-Victorville dikes
1951 Jan
9 I-DN-1-C,D,E
Jan
16 X-Mpa-18-E,H
Feb
19 VII-Ven-2-F,G
Feb
20 VI-Fre-41-E,F
Feb
20 VII-LA-G0-LA
Mar
26 IV-SCr-56-C
Apr
9 IX-Mno-23-K
Apr
10 IV-SM-56-E
Apr
20 III-Sie-25-A.B
May
1 IX-Mno-23-K
May
25 VII-LA,Ven-60
May
25 VII-Ven-2,60
Sep
18 IV-Ala-69-Emv
Oct
3 IV-Mrn-69-A
Oct
26 IV-SM-105-B
Oct
29 X-Mpa-18-E-H
1952 Jan 9
, 29 VII-Ven-60-A
Feb
6 IV-SM-105-B
Mar
11 VII-Ven-60-A
Apr 2
, 10 VII-Ven-60-A
May
16 I-Hum-1-D
Oct
3 VII-Ven-60-A
1952 Nov
3 IV-Ala-69-Oak.Emv
Nov
14 IV-Ala-69-Emv,Ber
Nov
14 IV-SM-105-B
Dec
24 IV-SC1-5-C
1953 Feb
27 IV-SC1-5-C
Apr
13 VIII-Riv-78 C,D
Apr
20
May
27 VII-Ven-79-C
Jun
26 VII-Ven-79-C
Aug
7 I-DN-l-E
Aug
20 IV-Ala-69-Oak
Aug
27 VII-Ven-2-F,G
1953 Nov
2 VII-Ven-2-F,G,H
Nov
3 IV-SM-105-B
Nov
20 VII-Ven-79-B,Fil
1954 Feb
4
Feb
5 V-Mon-2-F
Feb
15 I-Hum-1-D
Feb
15 I-Hum-1-C
Feb
15 I-Hum-Park
Feb
18 VII-Ven-2-D,E
Feb
19 I-DN-l-E
Mar
30 I-DN-1-C,I)
May
20 I-Hum-1-C
Jun
11
Sep
10 I-DN-71-A
Sep
21 I-Hum-1-J
Oct
27 XI-SD-12-A
1955 Jan
7 VIII-Riv-187-C
Feb
2 VIII-SBd-31-D
286
1955
Feb
16 VII-Ven-2-FGH
Jun
9 V-Mon-56-J
Sep
30 XI-SD-2-A
Nov
1 III-Nev-38-B
Nov
4
Nov
4 I-Lak-15-A
Nov
4 I-Men-1-F
Nov
4 I-Men-1-F,G
1056 Jan
17 VI-Tul-129-B,C
Jan
23 IV-SC1-32-D
Feb
27 I-Men-1-G
Mar
28 VI-Tul-10-E,F
Apr
12 II-Tri-20-A
Jun
26 I-Hum-I-F
Jun
27 V-SBt-22-A
Jun
27 X-Mpa-18-G,H
Jul
24 VI-Fre-41-E,F
Aug
7 XI-SD-12-A
Oct
3 I-Hum-1-D
Oct
11 VII-LA-60-LA
Dec
11 III-Sie-25-A
1957
Mar
1 III-Col-1117
Apr
9 III-Nev.-38-B
Jun
12 V-Mon-2-I
Aug
7 IV-SM-105-B
Aug
12 IV-Son-1-B
Sep
16 III-Yol-6-B
1957
Oct
3 XI-SD-12-A
Nov
6 I-Hum-1-D
1958
Mar
5 I-Hum-1-F
Mar
24 VII-Ven-2-E,H
Apr
14 XI-SD-2-D
Apr
15 VII-Ven-60-A
Jun
4 II-Sha-3-A
Sep
16 XI-SD-2-A
1959
Jun
19 I-Hum-1-C
Nov
19 I-Hum-1-A
1960
Mar
16 V-Mon-56-I
Jul
25 I-Hum-1-C
Jul
28 I-Hum-1-C
Sep
26 I-Men-56-G
Punta Gorda construction review
Elkhorn Slu bulkhead
Del Mar Bluff, proposed
Truckee River near Farad
Design guide, rock protection
Scott Creek construction review
Outlet Creek construction review
Outlet and Long Valley plans
Tule River jack plan
Uvas Creek channel training
Outlet Creek, Arnold channel
Kaweah River retreat
Vitzthum bluff
Fortuna riverside bypass
San Benito River retard
Merced River repairs
S Fk Kings River
San Diego River
Dyerville confluence jetties
Groins Sta 310-340
N Tuba River
Stony Creek, double fence
Truckee River channel shift
Salinas River at Bradley
Bayshore, temporary protection
Russian River at Healdsburg
Yolo By-pass causeway
San Diego River training
Dyerville jetty construction
Sandy Prairie retard plan
Shore protection performance
San Onofre bluff
Proposed location to seaward
Clear Creek retard
Encinitas bluff
Williams bluff, grouted rock
Hartsook channel change
Shore and dune at Seaside
Williams bluff, revision
Bull Creek road protection
Shore protection at Juan Creek
[30]* California Division of Highwaysâ€”
Structures, miscellaneous; Mainte-
nance Manual, 1938, chap. 16, or
1949, chap. 18.
[31]* â€”Drainage structures, bank
protection and retaining walls ; Main-
tenance Manual, 5th ed., chap. XIV
(1958)
[32]* â€”Standard specifications,
1960
[33]* â€”Bridge planning and de-
sign manual, v. 2, 1956
[34]* â€”Planning manual of in-
structions, part 7, 1959
[35]* California Highway Commissionâ€”
Third biennial report (1921-22)
[36]* â€”Fifth biennial report
(1925-26)
[37]* â€”Sixth biennial report
(1927-28)
[38] * California Highways and Public
Worksâ€”Jenner Jetty defies ocean
storms; Sep. 1941, p. 17
[39]* â€”How State Highway
forces met emergency following dam
disaster; Apr. 1928
[40]* â€”Tetrahedrons training the
Colorado to prevent flood damage at
Ehrenberg; June, 1932
[41]* â€”Burning of the Minnie A.
Caine; Apr. 1940
[42]* California State Water Pollution
Control Boardâ€”Oceanographic sur-
vey of the continental shelf area of
Southern California (1959)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
287
[43]* Carlson, Enos J.â€”Gravel blanket
required to prevent wave erosion;
ASCE Proc. v. 85 HY5 (1959)
[44] Cash, A. Ross, and Pirkey, F. Câ€”
Prestressed concrete pile groin at
Seal Beach; S&B, December, 1959
[45]* Chase, Waldo H.â€”Redwood timber
deflector built as bank protection on
Eel River; CHPW, May, 1941
[46]* Child, C. F.â€”Concrete riprap bank
protection ; CHPW, Jan. 1940
[47] Christison, W. E â€” Asphaltic paving
used on flood control revetments â€¢
WCN, v. 12, p. 224 (1937)
[48] â€”Use of asphalt revetments
extended after flood test: WCN
Dec. 1938
[49] Civil Engineeringâ€”Beach erosion in
Southern California; Dec. 193G n
808
[62] >
[63]
[64]
[66]
[67]
â€” Cooperative study of
Humboldt Bay (Buhne Point) ;
Beach erosion control report, 1956
â€”Levee strengthening and
bank protection, right bank, Sacra-
mento River on Grand Island; SP
1812 (1953)
â€”Levee construction and
bank protection, east levee, Sacra-
mento River, Georgiana Slough to
Freeport; SP 1844 (1954)
[fi5] â€”Bank protection, right
and left banks, Sacramento River
between Miles 92.7 and 99.9; SP
1845 (1954)
â€”Normal bank protection,
right and left banks, Sacramento
River, Mile 103.8 to 129.5; SP 1855
(1954)
â€”Bank restoration and stone
protection along Yuba River: SP
1983 (1955)
t68l â€”Bank protection and stone
protection, right and left banks,
J3t8aS)nearRUbkeBend:SP
[50]* Coastal Engineeringâ€”Proceedings of
First (and Second, Third, Fourth,
Fifth) Conference (1950-1954)
[51] Concrete Highways and Public Im-
provementsâ€”Sacked concrete riprap
protects California stream banks;
Mar.-Apr. 1940
[52] Construction Methodsâ€”River revet-
ment uses pre-cast tetrahedrons, v.
16, p. 50 (1934)
[53]* Corning, L. H.â€”Concrete shore pro-
tection structures; S&B Oct. 1944
[54]* Corps of Engineersâ€”Beach erosion
studies; Manual EM 1110-2-3300,
(1957)
[55]* â€”Beach erosion control re-
port, Point Mugu to San Pedro
breakwater (1950)
[56]* â€”Beach erosion control re-
port, Carpinteria to Point Mugu
(1951)
l"7]* â€”Beach erosion control re-
port, Oceanside, Ocean Beach, Im-
perial Beach, Coronado (1955)
t58] â€”Bank protection and
closure at Antelope Creek along Sac-
ramento River near Red Bluff; SP
1463 (1950)
t59] â€”Bank protection, Ryer
Island and Egbert Tract, Sacramento
River Deep Water Ship Channel
near Rio Vista; SP 1662 (1952)
[60] â€”Levee construction, bank
protection and road surfacing, left
bank, Sacramento River near Free-
port; SP 1704 (1952)
[61] â€”Levee enlargement and
protection, right bank, Sacramento
River and Sutter Slough on Merritt
Island; SP 1803 (1953)
l"9! â€”Bank protection and levee
construction, right bank, Sacramento
River at Howell's Landing; SP 2506
(1958)
[7Â°J â€”Bank protection and levee
construction critical locations, Sac-
ramento River; SP 2600 (1959)
^71J â€”Bank protection and levee
construction, right and left banks
Sacramento River and Three-Mile
Slough ; SP 2601 (1959)
[72]* Cortelyou, S. V.-Groyne system
adopted in widening State's most
congested coast link CHPW, April
[73]* Cozzens, H. F.â€”Steel rails for bank
protection on Salinas River- Civ
Eng, Mar. 1946
[74]* Cuellar, Marcial P.â€”Annotated bib-
liography on tsunamis ; BEB, TM 30
(1953)
[75] Dakcrs, Johnâ€”Dunes created by
erection of zigzag snow fences weath-
ering second winter since hurricane;
S&B, January 1940
[76]* Danel, P., Chapus, E., and Dhaille,
R.â€”Tetrapods and other precast
blocks for breakwaters; ASCE Proc
v. 86 WW3 (1960)
[77]* Danel, Pierreâ€”Tetrapods; Cstl Eng
Proc, 4th Conf., p. 390 (1953)
[78]* Davis, Arthur P.â€”Flood problems in
the arid region; ASCE Trans
LXXXV p. 1483 (1922)
â€¢Available in Bridge Department Library; all others abstracted for file of Committee.
288
[79]* Deignan, John E.â€”Breakwater at
Crescent City; ASCE Proc. v. 85,
WW3, p. 167 (1959)
[80]* Disney, L. P.â€”Tide heights along
the coasts of the United States;
ASCE Proc. v. 81,n. 666 (1955)
[81]* Dunham, James W.â€”Refraction and
diffraction diagrams; Cstl Eng, Proc.
1st Conf., Chap. 4 (1950)
[82] Eaton, E. C.â€”Los Angeles County
flood control district; WCN, v. 2,
p. 29 (1927)
[83]* Eaton, Richard O.â€”Littoral proc-
esses on sandy coasts; Cstl Eng,
Proc. 1st Conf., Chap. 15 (1950)
[84]* Edminster, Frank C.â€”Streambank
plantings for erosion control in the
northeast; SCS Leaflet 258 (1949)
[85]* Elliott, S. F., and May, R. R.â€”
Bank protection for new river chan-
nel; EN-R, v. 125, p. 829 (1940)
[86] Engineering and Contractingâ€”Meth-
ods of protecting river banks from
erosion; v. 68, p. 213 (1929)
[87] â€”Steel current retards in-
stalled at Ottumwa, Iowa; v. 68, p.
363 (1929)
[88] Engineering Newsâ€”San Francisco
shore protection; Sept. 16, 1915, p.
571
[89]* Engineering News-Record'â€”Asphalt
mat revetment; v. 112, p. 825 and
v. 113, p. 5 (1934)
[90] â€”Effective river control by
concrete tetrahedrons; Oct. 3, 1935
[91]* â€”The tetrapod ; science de-
velops a jetty block ; Jan. 8, 1953
[92]* â€”Tetrapod forms now on
market; Feb. 28, 1957
[93]* â€”Pyramids form flexible
retaining walls; Oct. 7, 1954
[94]* â€”Gabion bank protection;
Aug. 23, 1956
[95]* â€”Beach-protection work on
California coast roads; v. 114, p. 253
(1935)
[96]* â€”Tetrapods challenged by
new tribar shape; July 3, 1958, p. 36
[97]* â€”Man-made island for oil
drilling; May 8, 1958, p. 31
[98]* â€”Test linings placed in
small canals; v. 148, p. 74 (1948)
[99]* Timber deflectors prevent bank
scour; v. 127, p. 154 (1941)
[100]* â€”Jack-type jetties protect
levies; Jan. 21, 1954
[101] â€”Concrete-skeleton tetrahe-
drons prevent bank erosion during
floods; v. 100, p. 752 (1928)
* Available in Bridge Department Library ; all
[102]* Ewing, M. A.â€”Bridge maintenance
practice on California highway sys-
tem; CHPW July-Aug. 1945, p. 17
[103]* Fleming, Richard W., and Bates,
Charles C.â€”Engineering application
of sea and swell data; Cstl Eng,
Proc. 1st Conf., Chap. 9.
[104]* Flinseh, Haroldâ€”Effect of waves on
a sand beach; IAHR Proc. 1953, p.
231
[105]* Friedkin, J. F.â€”Laboratory study
of the meandering of alluvial rivers;
WXS Bull., 1945
[106]* Gaillard, D. D.â€”Wave action in re-
lation to engineering structures; En-
gineer School, C of E, 1904
[107] Gelineau, V.â€”Timber groins for
beach protection; E&C, v. 69, p. 433
(1930)
[108]* Gilland, Morris W.â€”Articulated con-
crete revetment construction; EN-R,
Dec. 25, 1930
[109]* Gouda, M. A.â€”Hydrodynamic wave
pressure on breakwaters; ASCE
Proc. v. 86 WW1, p. 13 (1960)
[110] Graf, John A., and Flertzheim, H.
A., Jr.â€”Four-legged rocks ; PRB,
Dec. 1956
[111]* Grover, Nathan C.â€”Standing waves
in rivers; ASCE, Trans. LXXXV
p. 1400 (1922)
[112]* Grunsky, C. E.â€”Some factors af-
fecting the problem of flood control;
ASCE, Trans. LXXXV p. 1488
(1922)
[113]* Hall, Jay V., Jr., and Watts, George
M.â€”Laboratory investigation of the
vertical rise of solitary waves on
impermeable slopes; BEB, TM33
(1953)
[114]* Hall, Jay V., Jr., and Watts, Geo.
M.â€”Beach rehabilitation and nour-
ishment; ASCE Trans. v. 122, p.
155 (1957)
[115]* Halton, G. R.â€”Report on condition
of groins at Castle Rock; CDH File
GI 6909
[116]* Haselwood, F. W.â€”Acres of con-
crete riprap and cribs placed to pro-
tect Trinity River banks; CHPW
Mar. 1941
[117]* Hayami, S., Ishihara, T., and Iwaga-
ki, Y.â€”Some studies on beach ero-
sions ; Disaster Prevention Research
Institute Kyoto University, Bulle-
tin 5 (1953)
[118]* Hedar, Per Andersâ€”Design of rock-
fill breakwaters; IAHR Proc. 1953,
p. 241
others abstracted for file of Committee.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
289
[119]* Henning, Lee R.â€”Concrete lining
for river channel; WCN, Feb. 1958,
p. 31
[120] Horton, Donald F.â€”Design and con-
struction of groins; Cstl Eng, Proc.
1st Conf., Chap. 27 (1950)
[121]* Horton, Jerome S.â€”Trees and shrubs
for erosion control in Southern Cali-
fornia mountains; Bull., California
Division of Forestry, 1949
[122]* Hudson, R. Y.â€”Laboratory investi-
gation of rubble-mound breakwaters;
ASCE Proc. v. 85, WW3, p. 93
(1959)
[123]* â€”Wave forces on break-
waters ; ASCE Trans, v. 118, p. 653
(1953)
[124] Hudson, R. Y., and Jackson, R. A.â€”
Stability of rubble-mound break-
waters; WXS, TM 2-365 (1953)
[125] â€”Design of tetrapod cover
layer for a rubble-mound break-
water; WXS, TM 2-413 (1955)
[126] â€”Design of tribar and
tetrapod cover layers for rubble-
mound breakwaters; WXS, TM
2-296 (1959)
[127]* Hunt, Ira A., Jr.â€”Design of sea-
walls and breakwaters; ASCE Proc.
v. 85, WW3, p. 123 (1959)
[128]* Hydrographic Office, US Navy-
Atlas of surface currents, northeast-
ern Pacific Ocean; HO Publ 570
(1947)
[129]* â€”Sea and swell charts,
northeastern Pacific Ocean; HO
Misc 10,712-D (1944)
[130] Ippen, A. T., and Knapp, R. T â€”
Study of high-velocity flow in curved
channels of rectangular cross-section ;
AGU, Trans. 17th Annual (1936)
[131]* Ippen, A. T., and Verma, R. P.â€”
Motion of discrete particles along the
bed of a turbulent stream; IAHR,
Proc. 153, p. 7
[132]* Iribarren, R. C.â€”Una formula para
el calculo de los diques de escellera
(1938) ; (A formula for the calcu-
lation of rock-fill dikes), BEB Bulle-
tin, v. 3, n. 1
[133] Iribarren, R. C, and Nogales, Câ€”
Generalization of the formula for
calculation of rock-fill dikes and veri-
fication of its coefficients (1950) ;
BEB Bull. v. 5, n. 1
[134]* â€”New confirmation of the
formula for the calculation of rock
fill dikes; Cstl Eng, Proc. 3rd
Conf., p. 185 (1952)
[135]* Jepson, Hans G.â€”Prevention and
control of gullies; SCS Farmers'
Bull. 1813 (1939)
[136] Jewell, Henry H.â€”Rock riprap re-
places porous concrete slope protec-
tion at Snntee-Cooper project; Civ
Eng v. 18, p. 3 (1948)
[137]* .lobes, J. B., and Douma, J. H.â€”
Test theoretical losses in open chan-
nel flow; Civ Eng v. 12, p. 613
(1942)
[138]* Johnson, J. W.â€”Research on waves,
surf and relnted problems; US Navy
publ. HE-116-274 (1948)
[139]* â€”Supply and loss of sand
to the coast; ASCE, Proc. v. 85
WW3 p. 227 (1959)
[1401* Johnson, J. W., O'Brien, M. P., and
Isaacs, J. D.â€”Graphical construc-
tion of wave refraction diagrams;
U.S. Navy HO, 1948
[141]* Johnson, R. J. and Weymouth, O. F.
â€”Alternatives to stone in break-
water construction; ASCE Proc. v.
82, WW4
[142] * Johnston, Wm.â€”Consolidation of
rock embankment to prevent wave
erosion; Roads and Bridges, Sep.
1945
[143]* Kaplan, Kenneth, and Pape, Henry
E.. Jr.â€”Design of breakwaters;
Cstl Eng Proc. 1st Conf., chap. 24
(1950)
[144] Kelton, Edwin C.â€”Report on sur-
vey, flood control, Tia Juana River ;
CE publ. D 103.2 L8797551 (1941)
[145]* Kenyon, Edgar O, Jr.â€”History of
ocean outlets, Los Angeles County;
Cstl Eng Proc. 1st Conf., chap. 31
(1950)
[146]* Kesseli, J. E., and Beaty, C. B.â€”
Desert flood conditions in the White
Mountains of California and Ne-
vada; US Army, QM Corps TR
EP-108 (1959)
[147]* Krumbein, W. C.â€”Shore processes
and beach characteristics; BEB,
TM3 (1944)
[148]* â€” Littoral processes in
lakes; Cstl Eng Proc. 1st Conf.,
chap. 15 (1950)
[149] â€”Statistical significance of
beach sampling; BEB, TM 50
(1954)
[150] Larkin, T. B.â€”Asphalt mattress for
flood control; Civ Eng v. 3, p. 475
(1933)
[151] Lauritzen, C. W., and Haws, F. W.
â€”Asphalt-burlap linings for canals
and reservoirs; Agr Eng, v. 40, p.
340 (1959)
290
[152]* Leeds, Charles T.â€”Beach erosion
studies (discussion) ; ASCE Trans.
v. 105, p. 905 (1940)
[153] Leypoldt, Harryâ€”Shore line forma-
tion by currents; S&B Jan. 1941,
p. 14
[154]* Li, Huonâ€”Stability of oscillatory
laminar flow along a wall; BEB
TM 47 (1954)
[155]* Lipp, Morris N.â€”Some practical
facts about beach erosion in Flor-
ida; ASCE Proc. v. 79, n. 238
(1953)
[156]* â€”Beach protection creates
legal problems; ASCE Proc. v. 81,
n. 631 (1955)
[157] â– â€”Some data on beach pro-
tection works; Civ Eng v. 6, pp.
291, 531 (1936)
[158]* MacCarny, It. C, and Fuchs, R. A.
â€”Wave forces on piles, a diffraction
theory; BEB TM 69 (1954)
[159]* Mason, Martin A.â€”Transformation
of waves in shallow water; Cstl
Eng, Proc. 1st Conf., chap. 3
(1950)
[160]* Matthes, Gerard H.â€”Floods on
small streams caused by rainfall of
the cloudburst tvpe; ASCE Trans
LXXXV p. 1388 (1922)
[161]* Matthews, A. O.â€”Beach protection
in Florida; Florida water survey
and research Paper No. 8 (1952)
[162]* McEwen, George F.â€”Destructive
high waves along the Southern Cali-
fornia coast; S&B, Apr. 1935
[163]* Meyers, It. Câ€”Piru Creek forced to
zoom 60 feet out of huge new chan-
nel ; CHPW, Jan.-Feb. 1933
[164]* Miller, I). L., and Clark, R. A.â€”
Flood studies; CSBR publ. Design
of small dams, chap. II (1960)
[165]* Minikin, R. R.â€”Fundamentals of
coast erosion and defence ; Cstl Eng
Proc. 5th Conf. p. 448 (1954)
[166]* Mockmore, C. A.â€”Flow around
bends in stable channels; ASCE
Trans. v. 109, p. 593 (1943)
[167]* Molitor, David A.â€”Wave pressures
on seaI-walls and breakwaters;
ASCE Trans. v. 100, p. 984 (1935)
[168]* Morison, Jack R., and Crooke,
R. C.â€”Mechanics of deep water,
shallow water, and breaking waves ;
BEB TM 40 (1953)
[169]* Nagai, Shositiroâ€”Arrangement of
groins on a sandy beach; ASCE
Proc. v. 82 WW4, p. 1063 (1956)
[170]* Nagai, S., and Kubo, H.â€”Motion of
sand particles between groins;
ASCE Proc. v. 84 WW5, n. 1876
(1958)
[171]* National Resources Committeeâ€”
Low dams; GPO (1939)
[172] New Jersey Board of Commerce and
Navigationâ€”Report on the erosion
and protection of the New Jersey
Beaches; (1924)
[173]* Newton, C. T.â€”Beach erosion con-
trol report on cooperative study of
Orange County; C of E, (1959)
[174]* O'Brien, John T.â€”Studies of the
use of pervious fence for streambank
revetment; USSCS Report A-70.1
(1951)
[175]* O'Shaughnessy, M. M.â€”Ocean Beach
Esplanade, San Francisco; ASCE
Trans. v. 87, p. 492 (1924)
[176]* Pacific Road Builderâ€”Ventura rip-
rap job ; May, 1955
[177]* Palmer, Robert Q.â€”Breakwaters in
the Hawaiian Islands; ASCE Proc.
v. 86 WW2, p. 39 (1960)
[178J* Parker, F. Y.â€”Less-used and ex-
perimental bank revetment struc-
tures; EN-R v. 107, p. 301 (1931)
[179]* Parsons, D. A.â€”Effects of flood flow
on channel boundaries; ASCE Proc.
v. 86 IIY4, p. 21 (1960)
[ISO] Pickett, A. B.â€”Uncompacted mass
asphalt paving for river banks and
levees; Civ Eng v. 16, p. 451 (1946)
[181]* Pope. C. S.â€”Road protection on
the Pacific coast shore line; ASCE
Trans. v. 98, p. 484 (1933)
[182]* â€”Protection against the
forces of nature in California high-
way construction ; CHPW July-Aug.
1930
[183]* Portland Cement Associationâ€”Con-
crete shore protection (1939)
[184]* â€”Concrete structures for
flood control; (1946)
[185]* Posey, C. J.â€”Flood-erosion protec-
tion for highway fill; ASCE Trans.
v. 122, p. 531 (1957)
[186]* â€”Rock sausages provide
economical protection against ero-
sion ; EN-R, May 13, 1954, p. 45
[187]* Putnam, J. A.â€”Estimating storm-
wave conditions in San Francisco
Bay; AGU v. 28, n. 2, p. 271 (1947)
[188] Railway Ageâ€”Taking threat out of
a river; v. 95, p. 282 (1932)
[189]* Rector, Ralph L.â€”Laboratory study
of equilibrium profiles of beaches;
BEB TM 41 (1954)
[190]* Redden, L. Râ€” Eel River training
jetties at Shively bluffs combat
floods; CHPW Nov-Dec, 1945
[191]* â€”Interesting job, Fresh-
water Lagoon; CHPW Mar-Apr,
1949
HIIW.IOGRAPIIY
291
[102]* Ree, W. O., and rainier, V. J â€”
Flow of water in channels protected
by vegetative linings; USSCS TB
967 (194!))
[193]* Rice, W. A.â€”Realignment of Rus-
sian River highway Hearing comple-
tion; CHPW July, 1939
[194]* Ripley, Henry C.â€”Beach erosion;
its causes and cure; ASCE Trans.
v. 87, p. 589 (1924)
[195] Roads and Streetsâ€”Bank protection
work; v. 68, p. 338
[196]* Rowe. R. Robinsonâ€”Economics of
bank-protection structures to pre-
vent erosion; Better Roads, v. 23,
p. 23 (1953)
[197]* â€”Reconnaissance and study
of Freshwater Spit; I-Hum-1-J open
file, California Division of High-
ways (1943)
[198]* Rowe, R. R., Thomas, R. L., Tilton,
G. A., and Woodin, C. P.â€”Califor-
nia culvert practice; CDH 1944,
1955
[199] t Rowe, R. S â€”Bibliography of rivers,
harbors and related fields in hydrau-
lic engineering ; 1953
[200]* Savage, Rudolph R. â€” Laboratory
study of wave energy losses; BEB
TM 31 (1953)
T201]* â€”Wave run-up on rough-
ened and permeable slopes; ASCE
Proc. v. 84, WW3 (1958)
[202] Saville, Thorndike Jr.â€”Laboratory
data on wave run-up and overtop-
ping on shore structures; BEB TM
64 (1955)
[203]* â€”Wave run-up on shore
structures; ASCE Trans. v. 123, p.
139 (1958)
[204]* Saville, T. Jr., and Caldwell, J. M.
â€”Accuracy of hydrographic survey-
ing in and near the surf zone ; BEB
TM 32 (1953)
[205]* Schijf, J. Bâ€” Generalities of coastal
processes and protection; ASCE
Proc. v. 85 WW1 (1959)
[206] Scott, E. Tâ€”The 6-legged tetrahe-
dron; R&S v. 68, p. 225 (1928)
[207]* â€”The six-legged tetrahe-
dron ; CHPW, Apr 1928
[20S]* Scott, Theodoreâ€”Sand movement by
waves; BEB TM 48 (1954)
[209]* Shepard, F. P., and Grant, U. S.,
IVâ€”Wave erosion along the South-
ern California coast; Geological So-
ciety of America, Bull. v. 58, p. 919
(1947)
[210]* Silvester, Richardâ€”Engineering as-
pects of coastal sediment movement;
ASCE Proc. v. 85 WW3 p. 11
(1959)
[211 | Smith, Lloyd B.â€”Erosion of stream
banks; Kan. Eng. Soc, Proc. 1929
[212] Smith, Vincent B.â€”Army, Navy re-
lease new data on chemical soiI-sta-
bilization ; EX-R v. 144, Mar 11,
1950
[213]* Southwest Builder and Contractorâ€”
Redondo breakwater extension to
halt erosion, storm damage; Oct 12,
1956
[214]* â€”Tetrapod face for an arti-
ficial island; July 12, 1957, p. 16
[215]* â€”Tetrapods easily weather
the winter; Aug. 8, 1958, p. 37
[215a]* Steinberg, Israel H.â€”Russian River
channel works; ASCE Proc. v. 86,
WW4, p. 17 (1960)
[216]* Sverdrup, II. U., and Munk, W. H.
â€”Wind, sea, and swell; theory of re-
lations for forecasting; Navy HO
Publ (501 (1947)
[217]* Thatcher, J. Râ€”Twelve-ton tetra-
hedrons close cofferdam for McNary
powerhouse and spillway; Civ Eng
v. 21, p. 337 (1951)
[218]* Tibbetts, F. Hâ€” Flood control on
alluvial rivers; EN R v. 107, p. 606
(1931)
[219]* Tilton, G. A. Jr.â€”Bank protection
and revetment as viewed in the light
of the unprecedented storms in Cali-
fornia during the winter of 1937-38 ;
CHPW July 1939
[220]* â€”Bank protection by fence
types, tetrahedrons and jackstraws;
CHPW Aug 1939
[221]* â€”Seven types of bank pro-
tection used for highway along Santa
Clara River; CHPW May 1942
[222] â€”Seven types of river pro-
tection work for highway on Santa
Clara River; SWB Jun 5, 1942,
p. 32
[2231* â€”New combination bank
protection constructed on Eel River
near Dyerville; CHPW v. 21, Jan
1943
[224|* Tison, L.J.â€”Erosion autour de piles
de ponts en riviere; Annales des
Travaux Publics de Belgique, Dec
1940, p. 813
[225]* Towl, Roy N.â€”Missouri River bank
protection at Omaha ; ASCE Trans.
v. 85, p. 1482 (1922)
t California State Library.
292
[238] * â€”Laboratory investigations
of the effectiveness of various pro-
posed types of revetment; Paper 12,
part 2, July 1933
[239]* Watts. George Mâ€” Laboratory study
of effect of varying wave periods on
beach profiles; BEB TM 53 (1954)
[240]* Webb, Spencer E.â€”River control in
the Palo Verde Valley; EN-R Aug.
11, 1927
[241]* Weber, Harrisonâ€”Precast concrete
block groin ; S&B v. 21, Apr. 1953
[242]* Western Construction â€” Dredging
operation saves shoreline ; May 1954
[243]* Whitmore, C. H. â€” Fighting floods
with sacked concrete; CHPW liar.-
Apr. 1929
[244] â€” Fighting floods with
sacked concrete; Concrete v. 35, p.
20, September 1929
[245]* Whittemore, Geo. F., and Finch, H.
A.â€”Concrete blocks replace stone in
jetties battered by the sea ; EN-R, v.
115, p. 192 (1935)
[246]* Wiegel. R. L., and Johnson, J. W.â€”
Elements of wave theory ; Cstl. Eng.
Proc. 1st Conf., chap. 2 (1950)
[247]* Wiegel, Robert L.â€”Gravity waves;
Tables of functions; Council on
Wave Research, Engineering Foun-
dation (1954)
[248]* â€”Sand bypassing at Santa
Barbara; ASCE Proc. v. 85 WW2
(1959)
[249]* Withycombe, E. â€” Unpublished re-
ports in Appendix C
[250]* Young, J. C. â€” Economics of self-
protection of highways against flood
damage; ASCE Proc. v. 82 n. 1075
(1956)
P-
PRB
Proc.
R&S
S&B
Sc Am
SP
SWB
TB
TM
Tit
Trans.
usscs
WCN
WSP
WXS
number
page
Pacific Road Builder
Proceedings
Roads and Streets
Shore and Beach
Scientific American
Special Publication
Southwest Builder and Contractor
Technical Bulletin
Technical Memorandum
Technical Report
Transactions
Soil Conservation Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture
volume
Western Construction News
Water Supply Paper
Waterways Experiment Station,
Corps of Engineers
[226]* Trask, Parker D., and Scott, Theo-
doreâ€”Bore hole studies of the nat-
urally impounded fill at Santa Bar-
bara; BEB TM 49 (1954)
[227]* United Nationsâ€”River training and
bank protection; Flood control series
4, p. 9 (1953)
[228]* US Geological Surveyâ€”Surface wa-
ter supply of the United States.
Parts IX, X, XI; WSP, annual
[229]* Van Asbeck, W. F.â€”Bitumen in
coastal engineering ; Cstl Eng, Proc.
5th Conf., p. 587 (1954)
[230] Van Orman, Clare K.â€”Prevention
of bank caving by deflecting river
current; E&C v. 68, p. 123 (1929)
[231] â€”Theory and practice in
the design of permeable jetties ; Kan.
Eng. Soc. Proc. 1931, p. 6
[232] Waterways Experiment Stationâ€”
Wave and surge action, Long Beach
Harbor; TM 2-265 (1949)
[233] â€”Model study of wave and
surge action ; Naval Operating Base,
Terminal Island, San Pedro; TM
2-237 (1947)
[234]* â€”Wave and surge action,
Monterey Harbor; TM 2-301 (1949)
[235] â€”Slope protection for earth
dams (1949)
[236] â€”Principles of similitude
for wave action; Hydraulics Bull.,
v. 4, n. 1 (1941)
[237]* â€”Full-scale experiments to
determine method for protection of
railroad embankments subject to
overflow; Paper 12, part 1, July
1933
ABBREVIATIONS
AGU American Geophysical Union
AREA American Railway Engineering
Association
ASCE American Society of Civil En-
gineers
BEB Beach Erosion Board, Corps of
Engineers
Bull. Bulletin
CDH California Division of Highways
chap. chapter
CHPW California Highways and Public
Works
Civ Eng Civil Engineering
C of E Corps of Engineers
Conf. Conference
Cstl Eng Coastal Engineering
E&C Engineering and Contracting
EN-R Engineering News-Record
GPO Government Printing Office
HO Hydrographic Office, U.S. Navy
IAHR International Association for Hy-
draulic Research
APPENDIX B
DEFINITIONS
This chapter defines terms peculiar to the field of bank protection and some
ordinary terms having a special meaning herein. Derived forms will not be
defined separately if the meaning should be clear from the basic form, just as
alluvial and alluviation are implicit after alluvium is defined.
Accretion. Outward growth of bank or
shore by sedimentation.
Aggradation. Upgrading of a stream bed by
sedimentation.
Air-blown. Deposited by mixing and blasting
with air, as concrete (gunite) and asphalt.
Alluvium. Deposit of stream-borne materials
in and along a channel.
Apron. Lining of bed of channel upstream
or downstream from a lined or restricted
waterway.
Armor. Artificial surfacing of bed, banks.
shore or embankment to resist erosion or
scour.
Arroyo. Waterway of ephemeral stream
deeply carved in rock or ancient alluvium.
Articulated. Made flexible by hinging, par-
ticularly of small rigid slabs adapted to
revetment.
Avulsion. Sudden shift in location of a
channel.
Backwater. Ponding of a stream above an
unnatural constriction; the incremental
depth caused thereby.
Baffle. A pier, vane, sill, fence, wall or
mound built on the bed of a stream to
parry, deflect, check or disturb the flow,
or to float on the surface to deflect or
dampen cross currents or waves.
Bank. Lateral boundary of a stream, espe-
cially between low and high water marks.
Bank, Left (Right). The bank on the left
(right) side of a channel looking down-
stream.
Bank protection. In a narrow sense, revet-
ment or other armor stabilizing a bank
against erosion ; more generally, any means
to accomplish the purpose, including de-
vices deflecting the forces of erosion away
from the bank.
Bar. An elongated deposit of alluvium within
a channel or across its mouth.
Barrier. A low dam or rack built to control
flow of debris.
Basin. (1) The surface of the area tributary
to a stream or lake; (2) space above or
below ground capable of retaining or de-
taining water or debris.
Bay. An indentation of bank or shore, in-
cluding erosional cuts and slipouts, not
necessarily large.
Beach. Detrital deposit on a shore washed
by waves ; the area so covered with detri-
tus.
Bed. The earth below any body of water,
limited laterally by bank or shore.
Bed load. Detritus transported along the bed
of a stream by rolling, sliding, gliding or
saltation ; expressed by size of particle or
rate of transport.
Berm. A bench or terrace between two
slopes.
Block. Precast prismatic unit for riprap
structure.
Boil. Turbulent break in a water surface by
upwelling.
Boom. Floating log or similar element de-
signed to dampen surface waves or con-
trol the movement of drift.
Bore. A transient solitary wave in a narrow
or converging channel advancing with a
steep turbulent front; product of flash
floods or incoming tides.
Boulder. Largest rock transported by a
stream or rolled in the surf; arbitrarily
heavier than 5O lb. and larger than 8-in.
Breaker. Wave broken on the crest because
of grounding on a shoal.
Breakwater. Any structure designed to dam-
pen surface waves or exclude them from
harbors and other shelters.
Bulkhead. A steep or vertical structure sup-
porting natural or artificial embankment.
Buoyancy. Uplift on a submerged body,
equal to the weight of water displaced.
Canal. An artificial open channel.
Canyon. A deep gorge or ravine; also the
submarine counterpart.
Cap. Top layer of stone protective works.
Capillary. Nature of water lifted by surface
tension in pervious soil above ground
water.
Causeway. A raised embankment or trestle
over swamp or overflow areas.
Cavitation. Erosion by suction, especially in
the partial vacuum of a diverging jet.
Celerity. Velocity of a moving wave, as dis-
tinguished from velocity of particles oscil-
lating in the wave.
Cell. An open-top box of timber or concrete,
placed in water and ballasted with stone,
as a shore protection.
( 293 )
294
Channel. The space above the bed and be-
tween banks occupied by a stream.
Check. A sill or weir in a channel to control
stage or velocity.
Cloudburst. Rain storm of great intensity,
usually over a small area for a short
duration.
Coast. As a combining form, upcoast is
northerly and doivncoast southerly.
Cobble. Rock smaller than boulder and larger
than gravel; arbitrarily 1 to 50 lb., or 2
to 8 in. in diameter.
Cone. Physiographic form of detrital deposits
washed from a gorge channel onto an open
plain ; a debris cone, also called an allu-
vial fan.
Confluence. The convergence of two streams
of comparable size into a single channel.
Constriction. An obstruction narrowing a
waterway.
Control. (1) A waterway section flowing at
minimum specific energy so as to govern
the regime of approaching or retreating
stream; (2) for flood, erosion, debris, etc.,
remedial means or procedure restricting
damage to toleration.
Conveyance. Relative capacity of a channel,
measured by QA/S.
Core. Central zone of dike, levee, rock groin,
jetty, etc.
Corrasion. Erosion or scour by abrasion in
flowing water.
Corrosion. Erosion by chemical action.
Creek. A small stream, usually active.
Crest. (1) Peak of a wave or a flood, or (2)
top of a levee, dam, weir, spillway or other
water barrier or control.
Crib. An open-frame structure loaded with
earth or stone ballast to act as a baffle in
bank protection.
Critical. A condition of flow (and corres-
ponding depth, slope and velocity) for
which the specific energy is a minimum.
Current. Flow of water, both as a phenom-
enon and as a vector. Usually qualified by
adjectives like downward, littoral, tidal,
etc. to show relation to a pattern of move-
ment.
Debris. Drift and detritus carried or de-
posited by a stream.
Degradation. Downgrading of a stream bed
by scour.
Delta. System of channels thru an alluvial
plain at the mouth of a stream.
Density Current. A gravitational flow of
one liquid or gas thru another of different
density with little or no diffusion.
Deposit. An earth mass of particles settled
or stranded from moving water or wind.
Depth. Vertical distance, (1) from surface
to bed of a body of water, (2) from crest
or crown to invert of a conduit.
Detritus. Mineral burden of a stream, rang-
ing from the finest clays to the largest
boulders.
Dike. An embankment outside a channel to
restrict overflow.
Ditch. Small artificial channel, usually un-
lined.
Discharge. The flow of a stream in unit
time, usually expressed in sec.-ft. (cubic
feet per second).
Dissipate. Expend or scatter harmlessly, as
of energy of moving water.
Diversion. (1) Draft of water from one
channel to another; (2) interception of
runoff by works which discharge it thru
unnatural channels.
Drain. Conduit intercepting and discharging
surplus ground or surface water.
Drainage. Removal of surplus water. The
basin (or its area) tributary to a stream.
Drawdown. Depression of a water surface
by acceleration of flow toward a drop or
free outfall.
Drift. (1) Floating or non-mineral burden
of a stream, or (2) deviation from a nor-
mal course in a cross current, as in lit-
toral drift (q.v.).
Drop. Controlled fall in a stream to dissi-
pate energy.
Ebb. Palling stage or outward flow, espe-
cially of tides.
Eddy. Rotational flow around a vertical
axis.
Embankment. Earth structure above natural
ground.
Embayment. Indentation of bank or shore,
particularly by progressive erosion.
Energy. Potential or kinetic, the latter being
expressed in the same unit (feet) as the
former.
Entrance. The upstream approach transi-
tion to a constricted waterway.
Ephemeral. Of brief duration, as the flow
of a stream in an arid region.
Erosion. Wearing away of land by physical
and chemical action in moving water or
air.
Estuary. A deep or submerged valley at the
mouth of a stream.
Facing. The outer layer of slope revetment.
Fan. Synonymous with cone(q.v.) but some-
times used to emphasize definition of radial
channels.
Fence. Mesh attached to a row of posts;
often in double row, enclosing a space
partially filled with rock, brush or other
local materials.
DEFINITIONS
295
Fetch. Length of water surface exposed to
wind during generation of waves.
Filter. Layer of even-graded rock between
rock riprap and backfill soil to prevent ex-
trusion of the soil thru the riprap.
Flood. Relatively high water, tidal or fluvial.
Flood, n-year. Flow of a stream equalled or
exceeded, on the average once in n years.
Flood waters. Stream waters which have
escaped from a watercourse and run wild
over lands outside the normal and over-
flow channels.
Flow. Movement of water, measured and un-
measured.
Flow, Steady. Flow at constant discharge.
Flow, Unsteady. Flow on rising or falling
stages.
Flow, Varied. Flow in a channel with vari-
able section.
Foreshore. The sloping beach between high
and low-water marks.
Freeboard. Marginal provision for waves,
surges and other contingencies, above a
design stage.
Friction. Energy-dissipating conflict among
turbulent water particles disturbed by ir-
regularities of channel surface.
Gabion. A basket or cage filled with earth
or stone and placed as, or as part of,
a bank-protection structure.
Gorge. A narrow deep channel with steep
or vertical banks.
Grade. Elevation of bed or invert of channel.
Gradient. The slope of a grade line.
Gravel. Detrius larger than sand and smaller
than cobble, arbitrarily ranging in diam-
eter from 0.2 to 2 in.
Groin. A bank or shore-protection structure
in the form of a barrier oblique to pri-
mary motion of water, designed to control
movement of bed material.
Grouted. Bonded together with an inlay or
overlay of cement mortar.
Gulch. A relatively young but welI-defined
erosional channel; a sharply cut ravine.
Gully. Diminutive of gulch ; a similar chan-
nel thru agricultural land.
Head. Energy expressed as potential, usu-
ally in feet. A measure of static or dy-
namic activity of water, especially in its
conversion to kinetic form.
Hazard. Unmeasured risk of accidental dam-
age.
High water. Maximum flood stage of stream
or lake; periodic crest stage of tide. His-
toric HW is stage recorded or otherwise
known. Design HW is stage adopted for
design, usually based on empirical fre-
quency of recurrence.
Hydraulic. Pertaining to water in motion
and the mechanics of the motion.
Hydrographic. Pertaining to the measure-
ment or study of bodies of water and asso-
ciated terrain.
Hydrologic. Pertaining to the cyclic phe-
nomena of waters of the earthâ€”succes-
sively as precipitation, runoff, storage and
evaporation, and quantitatively as to dis-
tribution and concentration.
Hydrostatic. Pertaining to pressure by and
within water due to gravitation acting
thru depth.
Impinge. To strike and attack directly, as
in curvilinear flow where the current does
not follow the curve but continues on
tangent into the bank on the outside of a
bend in the channel.
Isohyet. Line on a map connecting points
of equal precipitation.
Isovel. Line on a diagram of a channel or
channel section connecting points of equal
velocity.
Jack, (or Jackstraw.) Bank protection ele-
ment consisting of wire or cable strung on
3 mutually perpendicular struts.
Jam. Wedged collection of drift in a con-
striction of a channel, such as a gorge or
a bridge opening.
Jet. An effluent stream from a restricted
channel, including a fast current thru a
slower stream.
Jetty. An elongate artificial obstruction pro-
jecting into a stream or the sea from bank
or shore to control shoaling and scour by
deflection of strength of currents and
waves.
Jump. Sudden transition from supercritical
flow to the complementary subcritical flow,
conserving momentum and dissipating en-
ergy ; the hydraulic jump.
Kolk. Rotational flow about a horizontal
axis, induced by a reef and breaking the
surface in a boil.
Lake. A water-filled basin with restricted or
no outlet. Includes reservoirs, tidal ponds
and playas.
Levee. An embankment on or along the bank
of a stream or lake to protect outer low-
lands from inundation.
Lining. Protective cover of the perimeter of
a channel.
Littoral. Pertaining to or along the shore,
particularly to describe currents, deposits
and drift.
Littoral drift. Accumulation or movement
of foreshore detritus along the shore, by
littoral currents or the run up and down
of oblique waves.
296
Marginal. Within a borderland area; more
general and extensive than riparian.
Marsh. Marine area inundated by salt water.
Mattress. Bank-protection structure consist-
ing of a broad flat cage or network filled
with stone and other local materials.
Mature. Classification for streams which
have established flat gradients not subject
to further scour.
Mean depth. For a stream at any stage, the
wetted normal section divided by the sur-
face width. Hydraulic mean depth.
Meander. Indirect or devious alignment of
channels in erodible, alluvial valleys of a
mature stream.
Mean velocity. For a stream at any stage,
the discharge divided by area of the wetted
normal section.
Mesh. Woven wire or other filaments used
alone as revetment, or as retainer or con-
tainer of masses of gravel or cobble.
Netting. Mesh-like material of cables tied at
contact points, used as a retardant revet-
ment.
Outfall. Discharge or point of discharge of
a culvert or other closed conduit.
Outwash. Debris transported from a re-
stricted channel to an unrestricted area
where it is deposited to form an alluvial
or debris cone or fan.
Overflow. Discharge of a stream outside its
banks; the parallel channel carrying such
discharge.
Overland. Flow of surface waters before
reaching a natural watercourse.
Peak. Maximum momentary stage or dis-
charge of a stream in flood.
Pebble. Stone $-3 in. in diameter, including
coarse gravel and small cobble.
Perennial. Lasting thruout the year, as for
continually flowing streams.
Permeable. Open to the passage of fluids, as
for (1) pervious soils and (2) bank-pro-
tection structures.
Pier. Vertical support of a structure stand-
ing in a stream or other body of water.
Used in a general sense to include bents
and abutments.
Piling. Structural members driven in beds of
streams and other bodies of water and
grouped in bents or sheets.
Playa. Bed of a dry lake.
Plunge. Flow with a strong downward com-
ponent, as in outfall drops, overbank falls,
and surf attack on a beach.
Potamology. The hydrology of streams.
Pothole. BowI-like excavation in a stream
bed caused by corrasion in an eddy.
Precipitation. Discharge of atmospheric
moisture as rain, snow or hail, measured
in depth of fall or in terms of intensity
of fall in unit time.
Probability. The chance of occurrence or re-
currence of a specified event within a unit
of time, commonly expressed in 3 ways.
Thus a 10-yr flood has a chance of 0.1
per yr and is also called a 10%â€”chance
flood.
Protection. See Bank Protection.
Quicksand. Sand saturated and buoyed by
upwelling water so as to lose inter-particle
bearing pressure and its supporting
strength.
Rack. An open upright structure, as a debris
rack.
Rainwash. The creep of soil lubricated by
rain.
Range. Difference between extremes, as for
stream or tide stage.
Rapids. Swift turbulent flow in a rough
steep reach.
Ravine. Watercourse larger than a gully,
smaller than a valley, and less bold in
relief than a gulch or arroyo.
Reach. A length of a stream suitable for
description or analysis as a unit.
Recession. Retreat of shore or bank by prog-
ressive erosion.
Reciprocative. Alternating in direction, as
tidal flow.
Reef. Generally, any solid projection from
the bed of a stream or other body of water.
Regimen. The characteristic behavior of a
stream during ordinary cycles of flow.
Regulation. Control of flow of a stream by
storage or diversion.
Repose. The stable slope of a bank or em-
bankment, expressed as an angle or the
ratio of horizontal to vertical projection.
Restriction. Artificial or natural control
against widening of a channel, with or
without construction.
Retard. Bank-protection structure designed
to check the riparian velocity and induce
silting or accretion.
Retrogression. Reversal of stream grading,
i.e., aggradation after degradation or vice
versa.
Revetment. Bank protection by armor, that
is, by facing of bank or embankment with
erosion resistant material.
Riffle. A shallow rapids in an open channel
over a reef.
Rill. A small erosional channel, usually in
parallel where surface waters run on steep
unprotected soils.
DEFINITIONS
297
Rip. Concentrated seaward current returning
temporary accumulation of incoming wave
or tide.
Riparian. Pertaining to or along the banks
of a stream.
Riprap. Cobbles, boulders, broken stone or
other hard materials dumped or placed as
bank or shore protection.
River. A large stream, usually active when
any streams are flowing in the region.
Rock. (1) Cobble, boulder or quarry stone
as a construction material; (2) hard
natural mineral, in formation or in piles
of talus or detritus.
Rubble. Rough irregular water-worn rock
fragments of random size.
Runoff. That part of precipitation which
reaches a stream or drain, expressed either
as a depth or as a proportional part of
precipitation.
Saltation. Bed load transport by leaps or
bounds.
Sand. Granular soil or detritus coarser than
silt and finer than gravel, ranging in diam-
eter from 0.002 to 0.2 in.
Sausage. A gabion shaped like a sausage,
used as a baffle.
Scour. Wearing of the bed of the stream,
by entrainment of alluvium and corrasion
of native rock.
Sea. Ocean or other body of water larger
than a lake; state of agitation of any
large body of water.
Seawall. Bulkhead or other steep continuous
structure along and protecting the shore.
Second-foot. Unit of discharge, equal to one
cubic foot of liquid per second.
Sedimentation. Gravitational deposit of
transported material in flowing or standing
water.
Seepage. Percolation of underground water
thru the banks and into a stream or other
body of water.
Seiche. Resonant oscillation of a large body
of water due to transient variation of at-
mospheric pressure.
Shingle. Beach or stream bed cover of flat
pebbles or small cobbles in a thin and
fairly uniform layer.
Shoal. A shallow region in flowing or stand-
ing water, especially if made shallow by
deposition.
Shore. Beach or bank between high and low-
water marks on lake or tidewater; also
combining form in backshore, foreshore,
onshore, offshore, longshore and nearshore.
Silt. Detritus carried in suspension or de-
posited by flowing water, ranging in diam-
eter from .0002 to .002 in.
Slide. Gravitational movement of unstable
mass of earth (and associated organic
matter) onto the highway.
Slipout. Gravitational movement of unstable
mass of highway embankment or stream
bank.
Slope. (1) Gradient of a stream; (2) in-
clination of the face of an embankment,
expressed as the ratio of horizontal to
vertical projection ; or (3) the face of an
inclined embankment.
Slough. (1) (Slu) a side or overflow chan-
nel in which water occasionally is stag-
nant or slack; also a waterway in a tidal
marsh; (2) (sluf) slide or slipout of a
thin mantle of earth, especially in a series
of small movements.
Spur. A dike anchored to higher ground at
one end and exposed to current at the
other.
Stage. Elevation of water surface above an
arbitrary datum, such as bed level, low
water, mean sea level, or mean lower low
water.
Stage, Flood. Stage at which banks overflow
or damage begins or is threatened. Some-
times established as an arbitrary plane of
reference.
Stone. Rock or rock-like material; a par-
ticle of such material, in any size from
pebble to the largest quarried blocks.
Storage. Detention or retention of water for
future flow, naturally in channel and mar-
ginal soils or artificially in reservoirs.
Storm. Intense or prolonged rain or wind.
Strand. (1) Lodge on bars, banks, or over-
flow plain, as for drift; (2) bar of sedi-
ment connecting two regions of higher
ground.
Stream. Liquid flowing in a watercourse or
conduit, ranging in size from small creeks
to large rivers.
Stream waters. Flow in a natural water-
course.
Strength. The swiftest part of a stream, or
its velocity.
Subsidence. General lowering of land sur-
face by consolidation or removal of under-
lying soil.
Surf. The breaking of waves and swell on the
foreshore and offshore shoals.
Surface waters. Water from rain, snow
melt, or springs standing or flowing on
the surface of the ground before and until
concentration in a natural watercourse.
Surge. A sudden swelling of discharge in
unsteady flow.
Swamp. An area of shallow pondage or sat-
urated surface, the water being fresh or
acidic and the area usually covered with
rank vegetation.
298
Swell. Waves generated by a distant storm,
usually regular and fully harmonic.
Talus. Detritus from a steep hill or cliff
standing at repose along the toe.
Terrace. Berm or bench-like earth embank-
ment, with a nearly level plain bounded
by rising and falling slopes.
Tetrahedron. Bank protection element, bas-
ically composed of 6 steel or concrete
struts joined like the edges of a triangular
pyramid, together with subdividing struts
and tie wires or cables.
Tetrapod. Bank protection element, precast
of concrete, consisting of 4 legs joined at
a central block, each leg making an angle
of 109.5Â° with the other three, like rays
from the center of a tetrahedron to the
center of each face.
Texture. Arrangement and interconnection
of surface and near-surface particles of
terrain or channel perimeter.
Thread. The central element of a current,
continuous along a stream.
Tide. Alternate rise and fall of the ocean
and connecting bodies of water due to
solar and lunar attraction.
Topping. The top layer on horizontal revet-
ments or rock structures; also capping or
cap stones.
Training. Control of direction of currents.
Transient. Of passing duration.
Transition. A relatively short reach or con-
duit leading from one waterway section to
another of different width, shape or slope.
Transport. To carry solid material in a
streamâ€”in solution, suspension, saltation,
or entrainment.
Trough. Space between wave crests and the
water surface below it.
Turbidity. Roiled by fine visible material in
suspension.
Turbulence. Agitation of flowing water by
cross currents and eddies, particularly
small-scale agitation derived from bound-
ary roughness.
Undercut. Erosion of the lower part of a
steep bank so as to compromise stability
of the upper part.
Undertow. Current outward from a wave-
swept shore carrying solid particles swept
or scoured from the beach or foreshore.
Uplift. Upward hydrostatic pressure on base
of an impervious structure.
Velocity. The rate of motion of objects or
particles, or of a stream of particles. Not
celerity (q.v.).
Wash. Flood plain or active channel of an
ephemeral stream, usually in recent allu-
vium.
Water. Chemical water plus materials trans-
ported in solution or suspension.
Watercourse. A channel with bed and banks
which discharges water continuously or
whenever seasonal streams are active in
the region.
Watershed. The land surface tributary to a
specified point on a stream.
Water table. The upper surface of the zone
of soil saturation.
Waterway. (1) A navigable inland body of
water, or (2) the section under a bridge
available for the passage of water.
Wave. (1) An oscillatory movement of
water on or near the surface of standing
water in which a succession of crests and
troughs advance while particles of water
follow cyclic paths without advancing, (2)
motion of water in a flowing stream so as
to develop the surficial appearance of a
wave.
Wave height. Elevation of crest above pre-
ceding trough.
Wave length. Normal spacing of successive
crests.
Wave period. Time interval between pas-
sage of successive crests.
Wave, standing. Wave (2) above at a point
of deceleration or diverging flow not quite
producing a jump (q.v.).
Wave, flood. The sudden rise of water sur-
face upon the approach of a flood crest,
particularly if the celerity of the crest
exceeds the mean velocity of the stream.
Weep. Hole in wall, invert, apron, lining
or other solid structure to relieve pressure
of ground water.
Weir. A low overflow dam or sill for meas-
uring, diverting, or checking flow.
Well. (1) Artificial excavation for with-
drawal of water from underground stor-
age, or (2) upward component of velocity
in a stream.
Windbreak. Barrier fence or trees to break
or deflect the velocity of wind.
Windwave. A wave generated and propelled
by wind blowing along the water surface.
Young. Immature, said of a stream on a
steep gradient actively scouring its bed
toward a more stable grade.
APPENDIX C
PRIOR REPORTS
Flood Control Measures
March 15, 1927
Mr. Pope:
In the absence of Mr. Court Eaton, Mr. F. C. McMillan of the Los
Angeles Flood Control Commission gave me considerable of his time
and furnished me with the information the department had available
pertaining to the measures they have undertaken in the protection of
stream banks against flood waters.
The methods they have employed are namely, (1) concrete slope pave-
ment, 6-in. thickness (2) riprap, 3-ft thickness (3) wire mattress with
rock filler (4) wooden piling with wire fencing (5) iron pipe with wire
fencing and (6) wire fencing staked to slope.
Concrete slope paving, the most expensive of all methods has been
used but very little by the Commission. With what experience they have
had it has been demonstrated that the wall must be carried a con-
siderable depth below creek bed and the safest procedure is to backfill
this excavation for footing or apron with huge boulders or riprap ma-
terial. When a section of concrete slope paving fails it is a total loss as
there is no salvage value. The fragments do not protect even the toe of
the slope.
One project is being laid out for this year's construction, where the
stream bed is a mixture of sand and gravel using the material from
the footing excavation to make concrete. The material will be screened
with a portable plant and stockpiled alongside the trench and a mixer
will follow this operation. It is not considered advisable to make the
mixture leaner than a 1:2.5: 5 or richer than a 1:2:4. The cost of con-
crete slope paving varies with local conditions. All materials are usually
imported. Where the project is easily accessible the cost will run ap-
proximately $0.40 a sq ft.
Considerable riprap has been laid in the vicinity of Long Beach in
the Los Angeles River. The stream bed and banks consisted of sand
entirely. Granite blocks of from a cubic yard in size down to chips were
unloaded on the slope from standard gauge railroad cars traveling
along the top of bank. Temporary track was laid on the top of bank
on both sides of the river and is yet in place. No attempt was made to
place these blocks in any regular manner and can not really be classed
as riprap.
This type of protection was insisted upon by the Federal Government
in their cooperation agreement with the Commission.
The toe of the rock slope is gradually sinking out of sight in the sand
and the Commission anticipates that considerable replacement will be
necessary in the near future.
The cost of this type will depend entirely upon the accessibility of the
project. For the sake of comparison an estimate of cost has been pre-
pared. Quarrying and loading $0.50 T, freight $0.50 T, unloading
$0.20, trucking $0.65, unloading and placing, $0.50 T; total $2.35. A
square foot of this construction would cost $0.35 or $3.15 per eu yd in
place.
(299)
The wire mattress with roek filler is considered by the Commission,
the best type of protection yet developed. These mats are constructed in
4- and 8-in. thicknesses to suit the conditions encountered. Elwood
fencing Type "F" is used exclusively in this construction. A section of
wire is laid on the prepared slope and tie wires of No. 10 galvanized are
laced to the mesh and bent up vertically; the wire mesh is then covered
with cobble stones to the desired thickness. A section of wire is placed
over the top and lashed down with the tie wires, the sides are lashed to
the side of the mesh underneath encasing the stone in a continuous
cover or sling of wire mesh, the sections are then wired together on all
sides and the slope is covered with a monolithic flexible blanket of
wire and rock.
Early experiments with this type developed failures from many
sourees. The first attempt was made with a blanket on a 2 :1 slope with
the blanket ending at the intersection with the stream bed. Undermin-
ing of this construction allowed the entire thing to slide into the stream
but it held together longitudinally and piled up at the toe of the slope
preventing a deep scour. A heavy parapet was then constructed on top
of the bank above the next mat constructed consisting of layer upon
layer of the same type of blanket, all lashed together. It was hoped this
added weight would prevent the mat from sliding down the slope but
scour again took place and overturned the entire mat and parapet.
Pictures of this condition were furnished by Mr. McMillan. The mat
was again held intact and protected the toe of slope. A new slope mat
was constructed upon the wreckage and lashed to the previous work.
The next experiment was to place a considerable length of apron from
the toe of the 2 :1 slope out over the bed of the stream. This overcame
the difficulty with scour as the apron will drop down when the material
is washed from under it and retard the erosion at the toe of slope. The
mats as now constructed are lashed to iron pipe driven into the top of
the bank at about 6-ft intervals and no parapet is necessary.
Where rock is available in the stream bed, the wire-and-rock mats in
8-in. thickness are constructed for $0.22 per sq ft. Projects have been
constructed by the Commission in localities where rock had to be im-
ported and a 4-in. mattress constructed for the same price. Oversize
cobbles from commercial gravel plants were used in these cases.
The Commission considers the 4-in. mattress sufficient for the smaller
streams.
Wooden piling with wire fencing is one of the earliest types of pro-
tection used by the Commission and many miles are now in service.
Piling are 40 ft in length and driven to within 4 ft of the stream bed
at 8 to 12-ft intervals. Elwood fencing, 58 in. in height is used exclu-
sively by the commission in this type.
Pilings are driven in single or double lines according to the size of
the stream. Where double lines are driven the two lines are spaced
6 to 8 ft apart and the piling staggered. Whatever is available in the
way of driftwood or brush is used as a filler between the double lines.
Many instances were noted where drift had broken this type of
construction and apparently the yearly maintenance would be heavy
if properly taken care of. Breaks are very frequent where a change
in direction of the channel throws the full force of the stream onto
PRIOR REPORTS 301
the protection. On straight alignment, this method of protection seems
to work very well.
The commission does not attempt this means of protection in their
present work in locations subject to scour, as previous experience dem-
onstrated the force of the stream would merely undermine the wire
mesh and render the protection useless.
The cost of this type of construction is $2.00 per lin-ft for single
line.
Pipe-and-wire construction is used almost entirely in the smaller
streams or where piling cannot be driven in the larger waterways. It is
constructed in single and double rows. The pipes are driven at 12-ft
intervals and in double lines are spaced 3 to 6 ft apart with the posts
staggered. Elwood fencing 48 in. in height is used in this construction.
The same faults appear with this construction as with the pile-and-wire
type. An instance was inspected in Verdugo "Wash through the Oak-
mont Country Club north of Glendale where the force of the stream
washed under the wire, softened the bank to the extent of sliding and
overturned the entire protection. The type in this case was double row
pipe-and-wire with brush filler.
The cost of this type is $0.40 a lin-ft for a single row.
Pipe-and-wire is often used as a temporary measure to stop a break
in a large stream. Between the two rows of pipe, a sling is made of
wire into which sand bags are placed. The wire is laced together over
the tops of the bags forming a continuous casing or sausage of sand
bags the full length of the break which is fastened at the two ends
only. As scour takes place, the casing sinks and adjusts itself to the
new contour and new casings are placed over the settled sections. In
this manner, the sand bags are protected and never entirely lost when
a scour takes place.
Wire fencing staked to the slope has been used a limited extent in
protecting bank slopes where the force of the stream is not too. severe
and scour unlikely. This consists of a layer of chicken wire covered
with Elwood fencing. A scour at the toe renders this type useless and
really the only value of this type is to prevent erosion.
No cost data was available on this construction.
The conclusions that I have drawn from inspection of these different
types are that for insured protection, three types only are adapted
â€”some form of concrete slope paving, a heavy riprap or rock slope, or
a wire-and-rock mattress. Of the three, I believe the wire-and-rock
mattress the most favorable as with proper construction, failure by
scour is practically impossible. The estimated life of this type is 20
yr, but the examples at hand are no more than one quarter of this
age. The maintenance of this type would, no doubt, in later years, bring
the total cost to as much or more than either of the other two types.
The flexibility of the mattress lends itself to preventing complete
failures, and the fact that additional construction may be tied on at any
point makes the question of maintenance comparatively simple. As has
been previously stated, this type is economical only where rock is
available in the stream bed, but the method of protection is suitable
under all conditions.
Riprap or rocked slope is suitable where footings are unstable as it
is a flexible cover and can be added to as settlement takes place.
Concrete paving is suitable only where footings are stable and the
danger of deep scour negligible. Failure of this type required entire
renewal.
The pile-and-wire and pipe-and-wire construction are suitable in con-
fining a stream of water, having an inclination to spread out over a
large area, to a narrower channel where alignment is comparatively
straight. All points of contact with the direct force of the stream should
receive one of the three heavier types of protection. The life of these
two types being approximately 10 yr.
The wired slope construction, I do not believe, would be of any value
in our protection measures.
The most important consideration to be given in flood control meas-
ures is to maintain the channel free from obstructions. Vegetation and
brush within the channel should be cleared away yearly. Recent floods
within the territory under the supervision of the commission demon-
strated that structure spans of less than 50 ft. in length were con-
siderably more likely to obstruct driftwood than those of greater
length. Often, serious scours and breaks are the results of such
obstructions to the channel.
E. WlTHYCOMBE
The report includes photos, not published, with captions as follows:
1. Break in double row of pile-and-wire protection in San Gabriel River at Valley
Boulevard, El Monte.
2. Outlet to break shown in 1 at Valley Boulevard, El Monte. Note header-bank
protection constructed of 2 rows Elwood wire filled with salvaged pieces of pave-
ment and supported on concrete piles.
3. 8-in. mat construction in San (Jabriel River at Foothill Boulevard.
4. Latest type wire-and-roek mat construction, San Gabriel River at Foothill Boule-
vard. Illustrating the mat adapting itself to a scour at the toe of slope.
5. Riprap along Los Angeles River between Long Beach and Wilmington.
6. Wire'mat construction in San Gabriel River showing temporary protection at
point of failure.
7. Wire mat construction in San Gabriel River after failure. Temporary protection
in place on top of slope.
8. Failure in wire mat construction San Gabriel River showing the faulty design
in earlier mats. Reason for failure quite evident due to undermining of the toe
and overturning.
!). Rock-and-wire mat in San (Jabriel River overturned. Sausage hanging together
and preventing a deep scour. Sand bags incased in wire mesh placed as tempo-
rary protection.
PRIOR REPORTS 303
Gunite Slope Protection
March 30, 1927
Mr. Pope :
Had the opportunity on March 18 to visit some work of Gunite slope
protection in company with Mr. Morris B. Value, President of the
Southern California Gunite Co. This organization, with headquarters
in Santa Paula, has performed some interesting work in this locality.
A cut bank standing on \: 1 slope back of the water supply reservoir
for Santa Paula gave considerable trouble from erosion. This slope was
paved with 2-in. Gunite with a surface ditch over the top of slope
treated likewise. The work was completed in 1922 and is in excellent
shape at present.
Near Bardsdale, on the property of Mr. LeBard, a storm ditch drain-
ing a considerable area of rolling land was giving trouble each year
from scour. Cobble stone boulders were hauled from the Santa Clara
river and placed as riprap on the slope. This did not prove satisfactory
due to scouring under the protection. A contract then was made with
the Gunite concern to replace the stone and shoot the entire cross sec-
tion. Picture No. 1 * from Mr. Value's files gives a view of the rock
replaced and ready for Gunite. No. 2 * shows the completed ditch with
temporary spreaders near the top of the slopes to hold the cross-sec-
tion until freshly built banks have reached compaction. Near this loca-
tion the spreaders were omitted and upon irrigating the adjacent
orange grove, water escaped and ran along the top of the wall. The
concentrated weight pushed the wall bodily into the ditch breaking
it into about 20-ft sections. Repairs were made by removing the em-
bankment, jacking the sections bodily back into place, shooting with a
third coat of Gunite and again backfilling. No portion of the wall was
lost in the operation. In the foreground of No. 2 is shown a water main
crossing the ditch which has been wrapped with wire mesh encased
in Gunite and bonded to the walls of the ditch.
Picture 3 * gives a view of the ditch with spreaders removed. The
dimension of this ditch is 4-ft depth and 4-ft bottom. Placing of rock,
not including cost of material was $0.025 per sq ft and two coats of
Gunite over the sides and floor cost $0.15 per sq ft.
A drainage ditch was in progress of Guniting along the county high-
way between Ventura and Santa Paula. Picture No. 4 * shows a portion
of this ditch with first coat applied. In the foreground is shown the
method of constructing a headwall. Precast concrete blocks are laid
up in mortar in the shape desired and are then shot with Gunite along
the cross section of the ditch making the entire construction monolithic.
Such ditch work is constructed by hand shaping the dirt slopes to
the cross-section desired, fastening the wire mesh to wooden stakes
driven in the slope to within ^ in. of the surface and shooting with
two coats of Gunite. Enough time is allowed for the first coat to thor-
oughly dry before applying the second coat. Bach coat is broomed with
a stable broom shortly after being laid to remove all loose particles and
roughen the surface. Each application is supposedly 1 in. in thickness.
The wire reinforcement used is an electrically welded wire mesh of
about 14 ga and 2.5-in. centers.
* Not published.
The contract price for this class of work, including the reinforce-
ment but exclusive of grading, is $0.15 per sq ft.
In conclusion, I would like to call attention to the comparison of
cost of Gunite ditches with numerous gutters and surface ditches con-
structed of concrete along state highways in the past. A ditch built of
concrete with 4-in. sides and floor slab costs $0.276 per sq ft at pre-
vailing prices as compared to $0.15 for Gunite. Where the ditch is re-
moved from traffic, Gunite apparently is equally as serviceable as con-
crete.
E. WlTHYCOMBE
PRIOR REPORTS 305
Revetment and Bank Protection Inspection
Subsequent to March, 1938,
Floods in Southern California
June 9, 1938
Mr. T. H. Dennis, Maintenance Engineer
Mr. R. M. Gillis, Construction Engineer
Mr. F. W. Paniiorkt, Bridge Engineer
Mr. F. J. Grumm, Engineer Surveys and Plans
Gentlemen :
Pursuant to Mr. Dennis' original suggestion, there is submitted
herein a report on the performance, service, and relative merits of
various types of revetment and bank protection that were subjected to
the severe flood of December, 1937, in Northern California and the
March, 1938, flood in Southern California. The following departmental
personnel participated in the field inspection, completed March 30.
C. F. Woodin, Asst. Maintenance Engineer,
R. L. Thomas, Asst. Engineer Surveys and Plans,
R. A. Wagner, Asst. Engineer, Bridge Department,
G. A. Tilton, Jr., Asst. Construction Engineer.
The above committee was assisted by A. N. George, District Construc-
tion Engineer, District VII, and R. L. Young, District Construction
Engineer, District VIII.
The following report is arranged with general observations and rec-
ommendations preceding the detail of types which in turn are arranged
in the order of typical sections, photographs, and comments. Rainfall,
runoff, and miscellaneous data conclude the report as an appendix.*
SCOPE OF REPORT
The intent of this report is to record observations and point out
salient engineering principles involved, as well as general suggestions
for the improvement and efficiency of revetment and bank protection
on State highway projects. Because of the many variables involved, it
is not the intent of the committee that this report cover specific details
of structural design or recommendations for installations at specific
locations.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
(1) With but few exceptions, failure or partial failure of all types
of revetment or bank protection, other than rotted timber piling, can be
attributed to undercutting or scouring of the toe or base by high-veloc-
ity current.
(2) No one type of revetment or bank protection can be pointed out
as giving one hundred percent service under the severe test of the
unprecedented runoff, whether designed and constructed by federal,
state, city, or county authority, or by public utility or other private
parties. Runoff for major streams varied as much as two to eight times
previously recorded maxima. (See tabuation in appendix*.)
* Not published.
(3) In the ease or complete failures or partial failures, it is particu-
larly noteworthy that in nearly every ease protective installations re-
turned their worth in -preventing, delaying, or minimizing damage, even
though completely lost in the end.
(4) It was especially noticeable that types standing up successfully
on tangents each side of a curve would frequently develop a weakness
at or near the lower end of the curve where the impinging force of the
deflecting current causes damaging scour on the outer bank. The point
of greatest scour appears to be where the tangent of a stream centerline
above a bend is extended downstream to an intersection with the outer
bank.
(5) Much damage to bank protection and revetment can be directly
attributed to excessive scour induced by increased velocities from
stream restrictions, such as jutting dykes, heavy growth of trees, bridge
piers, abutments, and encroaching bridge approach fills.
(6) Extensive failure of bank protection occurred along river-level
road locations paralleling high-velocity mountain streams where selected
bank-run rock excavation containing excessive fines was depended upon
for protection.
(7) The various types of revetment and bank protection inspected
are here grouped into four classifications, and listed according to adapt-
ability to location and in the order of apparent service rendered.
Class "A"â€”Revetment or Facing Types
A-l Clean graded rock riprap
A-2 Sack concrete (Northern California)
A-3 Grouted cobble facing
A-4 Flexible rock-and-wire mattress
A-5 Gunite facing with articulated aprons
A-6 Keinforced concrete slope paving
A-7 Asphalt revetment
A-8 Hand-placed rock facing
A-9 Selected bank-run rock excavation
Class "B"â€”Fence Types
B-l Double row of steel rail, cable, and wire mesh (brush-and-rock
fill)
B-2 Double row of heavy or light pipe and wire mesh (brush-and-
rock fill)
B-3 Single row of light pipe and wire mesh
B-4 Double or single row of timber piling and wire mesh. Timber
bulkheads.
Class "C"-Rectifying or Adjusting Types
C-l Steel tetrahedronsâ€”cable connected
C-2 Concrete tetrahedronsâ€”cable connected
PRIOR REPORTS 307
Class "D"â€”Emergency Use and Miscellaneous Types
D-l Steel jackstrawsâ€”cable connected
D-2 Old automobilesâ€”cable connected
D-3 Wire mesh revetment
D-4 Miscellaneous types
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) For Class "A" types of revetment or facing, carry the toe or
bottom to a solid foundation or otherwise protect the toe or bottom
against scour by means suggested under each particular type.
(2) Increase depth and strengthen all designs against scour and
impact of debris at points of impingement on the outer side of curves
over that required for tangent designs.
(3) Increase or strengthen all designs against scour at points where
the stream is restricted by obstructions or opposite the side entrance or
confluence of major streams.
(4) For fence types placed at toes of slopes, it is recommended that
backstays extending into the embankment at regular intervals be
included as an integral part of the design. For the prevention of back
scour occurring from over-topping flood waters, stubs, consisting of a
section similar in design to the main fence, should be placed in lieu
of the backstays.
For the same reasons, consideration should be given to counterforting
toe walls and to placing intermediate vertical stub walls at uniform
intervals in the sack concrete type of protection.
(5) It is recommended that more consideration be given to studies
of the hydraulic properties of stream flows, particularly the effect of
velocities on various types of protection.
(6) Although it is recognized that to design and construct ade-
quately for the extreme 40 to 75 yr. flood is a moot economic question
weighing upon the importance of traffic interruption and investment
involved, it is recommended that greater consideration be given to
raising the factor of safety in important cases.
A-l CLEAN GRADED ROCK RIPRAP
The Los Angeles County Flood Control considers this type of revet-
ment to be the least vulnerable and most effective type, provided it
is not overtopped. It is the most costly of all types.
(a) Locations Selected for Inspection and Comment
San Gabriel River, about f mi upstream from Anaheim-Telegraph
Road, VII-LA-116-A. Rock riprap has been placed on the east side or
outside bank of the curve on a prepared levee. Channel is sand and
siltâ€”mean velocity approximately 16 fpsâ€”estimated discharge 35,000
sec-ft (Fig. 349).
Los Angeles River just below the confluence of Rio Hondo and Los
Angeles Rivers. Rock has been placed on existing levees on both sides
of the river. Channel is sand and siltâ€”grade approximately .0028â€”
mean velocity approximately 15 fpsâ€”estimated discharge 68,000 sec-
ft (Fig. 350).
308
FIGURE 349. Rock riprap revetment on the east bank of San Gabriel River about three-
quarter miles upstream from Anaheim-Telegraph Road, VII-LA-166-A.
^^>â€”Sloughing riprap
/f
FIGURE 350. Rock riprap on west bank of Los Angeles River below Imperial Highway
Bridge (County) and just below confluence of Los Angeles River and Rio Hondo.
Note sloughing of riprap.
(b) Service and Adaptability
Graded rock riprap is suitable for bank protection on streams with
sand-silt stream beds where solid foundation is not available, and at
places where the toe requires wet excavation.
Experience indicates that rock riprap should be founded in a toe
trench below anticipated scour. At times of excessive local scour, clean
rock riprap will tend to settle without serious damage to the bank or
levee and can be repaired readily with additional material dumped
from the top of the bank at nominal cost. Note settlement of riprap
on Los Angeles River (Fig. 350).
Its flexibility and ability to resist displacement due to the inter-
locking of the individual pieces make it especially valuable where em-
bankments are subjected to impact from debris-laden flood waters.
PRIOR REPORTS
309
For protection at bridge heads and wing walls, rock riprap should
be adequately founded in a toe trench. On Piru Creek near Fillmore,
Ven-79-C, rock of cubic yard size dumped by the Southern Pacific
Railroad at a bridge head without a toe trench was readily transported
downstream (Fig. 358).
Clean graded rock riprap is not to be confused with the inferior
selected bank-run rock excavation containing excessive fines.
Economic selection of this type depends primarily upon reasonable
cost of quarry rock and importance of the location.
15'
5'-6"
TYPICAL SECTION in use by
Los Angeles County Flood Control District
Not less than 6!i T per lin-ft of levee. Hard sound rock weighing not less than 160 lb per cu ft.
Grading:
2 to 3 T rock - not more than 5%.
Vi to 2 T rock - not less than 80%.
1 lb to % T rock - not more than 15%.
Not more than 3% dust and earth.
C.H.C. Grading:
5 T rock - not more than 25%.
2Yi T rock - not more than 50%.
Yz T rock - not more than 75%.
Normal Range rn Cost:
6.5 T c- $2.25 = $14.63 per lin-ft = $0,304 per sq ft = S 77.246 per mi
6.5 Ts 3.00 = 19.50 per lin-ft = 0.406 per sq ft = 102.960 per mi
CLEAN GRADED ROCK RIPRAP
CLASS A-l
FIGURE 351. Detail of rock riprap.
11â€”30166
A-2 SACK CONCRETE
Although sack concrete was not encountered in the Southern Cali-
fornia survey, it is presented herein on account of its unusual success
as evidenced during the December, 1937, flood in Northern California.
(a) Locations Inspected Subsequent to the December 10-11, 1937
Flood in Northern California
I-Lak-15-C, along Grizzly Creek
I-Hum-1-D, Shively Bluff
I-Hum-1-F, Van Duzen Bridgeâ€”south approach
VI-Ker-141-A, fills at Bridge 50-63
The economic selection of sack concrete revetment is dependent upon
availability of local materials.
Ease of repair, ease of construction, interlocking action of the sack
units, and adaptability to any reasonable slope are its principal ad-
vantages over other types.
Compared to homogeneous types of slope paving, sack concrete has
the advantage of resisting complete failure even though a portion has
been undermined. Repairs are readily made by filling the gap with
additional sacks of newly made concrete or by deepening the footings
in the same manner.
Sack concrete is adaptable to locations where a 1:1 slope causes less
restriction of the channel, particularly where fills extend into the wa-
terway at bridge heads. Successful installations have been made in
District I where it was necessary to place the lower courses under
water.
It is felt that scour may be localized through the inclusion of stub
walls of sack concrete extending into the embankment to a depth of
approximately 4 to 6 ft and spaced at intervals of 50 to 80 ft.
Placing of sack concrete on 1:1 fill slopes is not recommended for
unlimited heights, nor for any height, unless the fill is compacted and
the angle of internal friction does not exceed 45 deg. If the fill is lightly
compacted or end-dumped, not less than a If: 1 slope, nor a slope
steeper than the angle of repose of the fill material should be used.
In District I successful installations have been laid up on compara-
tively high 1:1 slopes using the bank-run gravel proportioned with
cement at the rate of 4 sacks to the cu yd of concrete.
In District VI installations have been laid up on 1^:1 slopes using
silty sand proportioned with cement at the rate of 3 sacks to the cu yd
of concrete.
For comparative purposes it is interesting to note that cement stabi-
lization of local roadbed materials on Route 139 and Route 33 in Kern
County runs 2.43 and 1.7 sacks per cu yd, respectively.
In order to obtain the maximum contact surface between sack layers,
the amount of concrete in each sack should be restricted somewhat be-
low the capacity of the sack. Experience in District I indicates that the
best bond can be obtained by lapping sacks half their width, which
approximates a 1:1 finished slope.
PRIOR REPORTS
311
Both cement sacks and burlap sacks have been successfully usedâ€”
any sack that will permit a mulch to form on the outside of the sack
for bonding with the contact tier of sacks should prove satisfactory.
Secondhand sacks reduce the cost appreciably. Joints between sacks
should be staggered on each tier. Tiers should be constructed to a true
slope by means of a slope board. Curing is accomplished by a light
sprinkling or covering with earth.
FIGURE 352. Sack concrete at the south approach to the Van Duzen River Bridge,
l-Hum-l-F, placed on 1:1 slope.
312
FIGURE 353. Sack concrete revetment placed at 1 Vi:l slope at abutments to Bridge No.
50-63, VI-Ker-141-A. (3-sack sandy silt).
FIGURE 354. Sack concrete revetment placed on IV4:1 slope, l-Lak-15-C.

PRIOR REPORTS
313
314
Prepared embonkment
Place bottom
sacks tronsversely
SECTION
-Place every other end
sack tronsversely
Longitudinal sacks
ELEVATION VIEW
Not less thon 1 : 1 slope if compacted fill.
Not less thon l!i : 1 slope if uncompacted fill.
Normal Ronge in Cost:
S8. to $10 per cu yd
$0.30 to 50.40 per sq ft
FIGURE 357. Detail of sacked concrete.
SACK CONCRETE
CLASS A-2
PRIOR REPORTS
315
A-3 GROUTED COBBLE FACING
(1) Locations Selected for Inspection and Comment
Piru Creek east of Fillmore, VII-Ven-79-Câ€”both sides of levee at an
old washout faced with grouted cobble stones.
Whitewater River, VIII-Riv-26-D.
(2) Service and Adaptability
The first installation was very successful, even though it was over-
topped by flood waters. At the Whitewater River, heavy boulders
battered the protection work until failure resulted along one-half its
length. No data available on cost or typical section or depth below the
creek bed.
Where boulders and sand for mortar are available and the stream bed
is more or less confined and not subject to deep scour, the grouted
cobble type of revetment could well compare favorably in cost with
other types, particularly where it is desirable to use as much labor as
possible as on relief work or on prison labor projects.
Attention is directed to the carrying capacity of the high velocity
current in Piru Creek as evidenced by the large cubic-yard-size granite
rock transported downstream from the Southern Pacific Railroad
bridge head (Fig. 358).
FIGURE 358. Grouted cobble facing on both sides of an old break in levee on Piru Creek
east of Fillmore, VII-Ven-78-C, was overtopped in March flood without damage.
316
FIGURE 359. Grouted cobble facingâ€”Whitewater River, VIII-Riv-26-D, portion overtopped in

March flood and failed due to heavy impact. (East side looking downstream).
FIGURE 360. Grouted cobble facingâ€”Whitewater River, VIII-Riv-26-D, portion overtopped in

March flood without serious damage.
PRIOR REPORTS 317
A-4 FLEXIBLE ROCK-AND-WIRE MATTRESS
Next to graded rock riprap, this type is considered the least vulner-
able revetment in use in Southern California and has proven to be the
cheapest of the major installations that are subject to severe scour,
according to the Los Angeles Flood Control. Installations that have
been in service from 13 to 15 yr show no surface evidence of corrosion
of the wire mesh.
San Gabriel River above Azusa where the river emerges from the can-
yon, VII-LA-62-A. Installation is on the easterly bank. Figures 361
and 362 show the manner in which the flexible mat adjusts itself to
the scoured section when undercut. This revetment installation was
topped by the March flood and suffered little damageâ€”discharge ap-
proximately 43,000 sec-ft.
San Gabriel River at Foothill Boulevard, VII-LA-9-G (Fig. 363).
Discharge approximately 43,000 sec-ftâ€”mean velocity 17 fps.
San Gabriel River at Bonita Avenue (county road) below divergence
of San Gabriel River into two separate streams, the Rio Hondo and
San Gabriel Rivers (Fig. 364).
(b) Costs
This type has been constructed by the Los Angeles County Flood
Control at a cost of $0.23 per sq ft with cheap labor and local materials.
Assuming a 10-ft and 15-ft height of protected levee with a 20-ft
mat and a cost of $0.25 per sq ft, other unit costs are as follows:
10-ft heightâ€”
42.36 sq ft per lin-ft at
$0.25 = $10.49 per lin-ft or $55,387 per mi.
54.9 sq ft per lin-ft at
$0.25 = $13.72 per lin-ft or $72,442 per mi.
(c) Adaptability
This type of revetment is best adapted to vulnerable places in
spreading streams of moderate to high velocities subject to scour.
Undercutting the front of the toe mat permits the flexible mattress to
adjust itself to a scoured section and retard further undermining.
Economic selection depends mainly upon availability of selected rock
filling and likelihood of corrosion of the galvanized wire mesh as might
be encountered near the ocean.
Large boulders near the outer edge of the toe mat should be removed.
Experience with this type indicates that large rocks hold up the mat
and permit undercutting to progress to a greater depth (Fig. 371).
318
FIGURE 361. Rock-and-wire mattress on San Gabriel River at point where river emerges
from the canyon, VII-LA-62-A; this section was overtopped in the March, 1938 flood. Mattress
adjusted to scour at front of toe mat.
FIGURE 362. End view of rock-and-wire mattress on San Gabriel River where river emerges
from canyon (8 in. thickness). This section was overtopped in the March, 1938 flood.
PRIOR REPORTS
319
FIGURE 364. Rock-and-wire mattress on San Gabriel River at Bonita Avenue (County road).
End of permanent installation. River immediately spreads below this point.
320
Settlement of mottress Xx N 'V^.J

os scour takes place i**-^
\'
34" fencing â€” j |
-Staples of 4 strands of No 14 wire, 8" Â± c to c 34" fencing
1st Stage
- 58" J-fencing
34" fencing
34" fencinc
ii
2nd Stage
msmsmmm
3rd Stage
ASSEMBLY STAGES
11
-58" fencing
Average Cost FLEXIBLE WIRE-AND-ROCK MATTRESS
$0.23 to SO 25 per sq ft CLASS A-4
FIGURE 365. Flexible wire-and-rock mattress details.
PRIOR REPORTS 321
A-5 GUNITE FACING
The Los Angeles County Flood Control places Gunite facing third on
the list of their successful major types.
(a) Locations Inspected
San Gabriel Kiver about \ mi downstream from Firestone Boule-
vard, VII-LA-174-B, on long radius curve (Figs. 366-367).
San Gabriel River at Orangethorpe Avenue Bridge (county road)
on tangent (Figs. 368-369).
San Gabriel River at Center Street Bridge (county road) on tan-
gent (Fig. 370).
Stream bed on above San Gabriel River sections consists of sand and
silt.
Pacoima Creek at southerly limits of San Fernando, VII-LA-4 (Fig.
371), approximate discharge 2,400 sec-ft; stream bed consists of gravel
and boulders.
(b) Costs
Los Angeles County Flood Control costs for 2-in. thickness of gunite
runs around $0.15 per sq ft and $0.23 per sq ft for the apron blocks
3-in. thick.
Assuming 10-ft and 15-ft heights of gunite above the stream bed
and 20-ft width of apron, costs are estimated as follows: (4-in. gunite
and 6-in. toe wall reduced to equivalent 2-in. thickness of gunite for
estimating purposes.)
Gunite 28.5 x $0.15 = $4.28 per lin-ft
Apron 20 x $0.23 = $4.60 per lin-ft
Total $8.88 = $48,886 per mi.
15-ft heigb.1^-
Gunite 37.5 x $0.15 = $5.62 per lin ft
Apron 20 x $0.23 = $4.60 per lin-ft
Total $10.22 = $64,416 per mi.
(c) Service and Adaptability
Gunite facing as used by the Los Angeles County Flood Control has
given satisfactory service where streams of comparatively low veloci-
ties (10 to 15 fps) are confined to well established channels.
Two types of flexible concrete aprons are used to retard scour; pre-
cast articulated blocks and separated blocks poured on continuous wire
mesh.
Advantages of the gunite revetment seem to lie in the low cost. At
points of impingement as on the outer side of curves, consideration
should be given to strengthening the design to resist the greater scour
induced by centrifugal force of the current. Note failure at end of out-
side curve and failure where velocity is increased by restriction of
channel by a bridge (Fig. 368).
322
Failures of this type are due to undercutting where aprons have
been rolled away. The type is comparatively light in design and ap-
parently has little resistance to progressive failure. Large boulders
hold up the flexible apron and permit scour to undermine and damage
the gunite facing.
Its use for highway and bridge protection is not generally recom-
mended.
High water â€”
FIGURE 366. Gunite facing (2-4 in.), San Gabriel River, about one-half mile downstream
from Firestone Boulevard, VII-LA-174-B. Note incipient failure in foreground
from undercutting.
FIGURE 367. Gunite facing (2-4 in.), San Gabriel River, about one-half mile downstream
from Firestone Boulevard, VII-LA-174-B. Note break in foreground at end of curve. Temporary
repairs made with earth-filled sacks and "baby" tetrahedrons. (Looking upstream).
PRIOR REPORTS
323
FIGURE 368. Gunite facing (2-4 in.), San Gabriel River at Orangethorpe Avenue (county
road). Failure caused by undermining from increased velocity due to restriction
of channel by bridge.
FIGURE 369. Gunite facing (2-4 in.)/ San Gabriel River at Orangethorpe Avenue (county
road). Flexible apron constructed of separated concrete blocks cast on wire mesh.
324
FIGURE 370. San Gabriel River north of Center Street (county). Partial failure of articulated
block apron and gunite facing.
PRIOR REPORTS
325
FIGURE 371. Gunite facing with articulated concrete block apron, VII-LA-4-SFr, Pacoima
Creek at south limits of San Fernando. Note effect of large boulders holding up apron.
326
%" bars-
Exponsion loints
at 30' intervals
Flexible concrete mattress or apron-
Average Cost:
2" gunite - $0.15 per sq ft
3" articulated aprons â€” 0.23 per sq ft
GUNITE FACING
CLASS A-5
FIGURE 372. Detail of air-blown mortar slope paving.
PRIOR REPORTS 327
A-6 REINFORCED CONCRETE SLOPE PAVING
All the locations noted below, where failure occurred, are State
highway installations constructed with cutoff walls or extension of the
slab 4 to 12 ft below stream bed.
Easterly approach to Santa Ana River Bridge, VIII-SBd-26-E, 4-in.
reinforced concrete slope paving on tangent (Fig. 373).
Piru Gorge, VII-LA-4-I, approximate Station 130Â±, 6 to 12-in.
thickness reinforced concrete slope paving along channel (Figs. 374-
375).
Piru Creek, VII-LA-4-I, Station 31 Â±, southerly approach to bridge,
6-in. reinforced concrete slope paving (Fig. 378).
Piru Creek, VII-LA-4-I, Station 45Â±, reinforced concrete slope
paved wings at end of channel change (Fig. 379).
Lak-15-C, failed slope paving temporarily repaired with sack con-
crete (Fig. 377).
Reinforced concrete slope paving of adequate design is a satisfactory
type of revetment where materials are available at reasonable cost.
The majority of failures noted were due to scouring or undercutting
of the toe. In one case (Fig. 378) failure may have been assisted by a
sloughing of unstable embankment that became saturated through lack
of weep holes in the slope paving. Other failures occurred when the
flood waters washed out the embankment beyond the limits of the slope
paving. Disintegration then progressed behind the protection, resulting
in its complete collapse.
All slope paving should be founded on a firm foundation below
anticipated scour or supported on pilesâ€”either timber piles, sheet pil-
ing, or a combination of both in severe cases.
Weep holes should be provided at the base of all slope paving to
relieve hydrostatic pressure. In general, 4-in. thickness seems to be
adequate. It is recommended that consideration be given to more ade-
quate keys, anchors, or tie-backs into the bank to prevent slippingâ€”
intermediate keys at intervals, in addition to the top key, are sug-
gested.
328
FIGURE 373. Four in, reinforced concrete slope paving at easterly approach to Santa Ana
River Bridge, VIII-SBd-26-E, near Colton.
PRIOR REPORTS
329
m
i^T A
FIGURE 374. Failure of 6 to 12 in. reinforced concrete slope paving in Piru Gorge,
V1I-LA-4-I, Station 137Â±. (Looking downstream).
FIGURE 375. Failure of 6 to 12 in. reinforced concrete slope paving in Piru Gorge
VII-LA-4-l, Station 137Â±. (Looking upstream).
330
FIGURE 376. Failure of 6 to 12 in. reinforced concrete slope paving in Piru Gorge,
VII-LA-4-l, Station 137Â±.
FIGURE 377. Failed concrete slope paving, l-Lak-15-C, temporarily repaired

with sack concrete.
PRIOR REPORTS
331
^-Remains of RC slope paving
FIGURE 378. Failure of 6 in. reinforced concrete slope paving at southerly approach to
Piru Creek Bridge, VII-LA-4-l, Station 31 Â±.
FIGURE 379. Failure of reinforced concrete slope paving wings at channel change spillway,
VII-LA-4-l, Station 45Â±.
332
V Voriable
This section
remained intact
20' piles, 10' c. to c.
Normal Ronge in Cost:
SECTIONS used at Sonta Ana River Bridge
VIII-SBd-26-E
$16 to $20 per cy of concrete
in place including steel, equal
to on average of $0.22 per sq
ft for 4" thickness ond $0.33
per sq ft for 6" thickness.
FIGURE 380. Reinforced concrete slope paving details.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLOPE PAVING
CLASS A-6
PRIOR REPORTS
333
A-7 ASPHALT REVETMENT
One installation of asphalt revetment was located and inspected on
San Jose Creek west of Workman Mill Road in Los Angeles County
(Fig. 381). This installation has been in service since January, 1937.
It appears to have performed satisfactorily and due to its low cost of
approximately $0.13 per sq. ft. warrants further experimentation.
The revetment consists of 3 in. of hot premix, reinforced with woven
wire fencing, anchored to the prepared slope with 2-in. pipe driven
on 5-ft. centers. The toe is protected against scour by a flexible rein-
forced asphalt mattress of 2-in. thickness extending into the stream in
a similar manner to the rock-and-wire mattress described under Class
A-4 revetment. The mattress is made up of 10 x 20-ft slabs overlapping
the downstream slab 5 ft. Wire mesh reinforcing is continuous from
top of slope to the outer edge of the toe mattress. Heavy building paper
was laid between the flexible toe slabs so that each slab could conform
to scour independently of the other slabs. Rolling was done with a
350-lb hand roller operated by cable from a truck-mounted power
winch on top of the bank.
The asphalt mixture consisted of Â£-in. maximum size aggregates and
7.8 percent of 50-60 penetration asphalt.
The only weakness observed in the above installation was the inade-
quacy of the 5-ft center to center pipe anchors. Keys or overlapping
slabs on the slope are suggested for consideration in future experi-
mental installations.
This type has not progressed beyond the experimental stage and
until its service life has been determined, it is recommended that its
use be limited to experimental installations.
FIGURE 381. Asphalt revetment on San Jose Creek west of Workman Mill Road in
Los Angeles County.
334
A-8 HAND-PLACED ROCK FACING
This type of revetment has been used extensively by the U. S.
Engineers on the Los Angeles River.
Los Angeles River at Verdugo Wash (Figs. 382-383). Estimated
velocity 24 fps; approximate discharge 68,000 sec-ft.
(b) Typical Section
Rock is one-man size laid by hand on a prepared 3:1 slope. No
information on depth or type of toe treatment. The thickness of rock
facing appears to be about 12 to 16 in.
(c) Cost
$0.30 to $0.40 per sq ft according to the best information that could
be obtained from the U. S. Engineers.
(d) Service and Adaptability
Numerous failures were notedâ€”particularly where the channel was
on curvature and where the stream velocity was increased by reason
of entering streams.
Once a weakness develops in this type, it is evident that progressive
failure is rapid.
Economic selection depends upon cheap labor and availability of
reasonable cost rock. It was probably used on the Los Angeles River in
order to utilize W.P.A. labor.
FIGURE 382. Hand-placed revetment along westerly bank of Los Angeles River laid on
3:1 slope. Undamaged section on tangent.
PRIOR REPORTS
335
â–
383. Hand-placed revetment along westerly bank of Los Angeles River laid on
3:1 slope. Damaged section at junction with Verdugo Creek.
A-9 SELECTED BANK-RUN ROCK EXCAVATION
For the past few years, particularly on river-level grades in moun-
tainous areas, dependence has been placed on selected bank-run rock
excavation for bank protection. Under normal conditions it usually
proved adequate, but under extreme flood conditions and resultant
high stream velocities, extensive failures have occurred. Excessive fines
in the selected rock excavation, almost regardless of size of the rock,
seem to cause lubrication and initial movement of the larger rock. With
the fines washed out, a rougher surface is exposed to the current with
resultant transfer of energy to the larger rock. This in turn further
accelerates the initial movement, ending in partial or total failure of
the embankment.
Available data indicates that the diameters of bodies which can be
moved by the pressure of a current vary as the square of the velocity,
and that their weights vary as the sixth power of the velocity.
It should be possible, from a study of stream velocities and a study
of the character and size of available rock, to roughly predetermine the
vulnerability of slopes already constructed or to be constructed.
It was noted during the northern inspection that wherever clean,
hard, well-founded riprap was subjected to high velocities, it proved
to be highly effective even though overtopped (Figs. 384-385).
The individual size of riprap (above a definite minimum weight or
diameter) does not appear to be as important as the grading, hard-
ness, or foundation.
Recommendations
Wherever it is intended to utilize selected rock excavation for bank
protection, it is recommended that the same be covered by a grading
specification and construction procedure and separate payment be
provided therefor.
It is also recommended, where selected bank-run excavation is used
for riprap, that study be given to the effect of jutting rock points in
channels. In many cases, damage to the road from eddying above and
below jutting rocks could have been prevented by their removal (Figs.
374,375,386).
336
FIGURE 384. Selected bank-run rock excavation, Vl-Fre-41-E, Kings River. Note success of
clean riprap opposite rock point in the foreground and failure of embankment in the back-
ground constructed of rock containing an excess of finesâ€”water over grade.
FIGURE 385. Selected bank-run rock excavation, IX-Mno-23-K, Walker River. Typical success
of clean riprap, toe of which is well founded on stable baseâ€”water over grade.
PRIOR REPORTS 337
B-l DOUBLE ROW STEEL RAIL, CABLE AND WIRE MESH
(Brush-and-Rock Fill)
(a) Locations Selected for Inspection and Study
VII-Ora-43-B, two locations along the Santa Ana River in vicinity
of Station 300 and Station 145 (Figs. 387-393). Discharge approx-
imately 108,000 sec-ft.
(b) Costs
Costs from 1935 to 1937 ran from $3.30 per lin-ft to $4.25 per lin-ft,
but due to a rise in the price of steel rails, it is probable that the
cost of this type, if built at present would run around $6.00 to $6.50
per lin-ft.
(c) Service and Adaptability
This type is adaptable to tangent locations under fairly severe con-
ditions, but on points of stream impingement and at locations where
protection was overtopped by flood waters, it has proven vulnerable.
On both of the above-listed Santa Ana River installations, the fence
was undermined at various places and tipped over toward the stream
side, while on the lower section (Sta. 140-150) several hundred feet
of iron rail fence were completely washed out. It might be added also
that at both these locations the protection work and embankment en-
croached upon a former river channel location. On the upper section
(Sta. 200), steel rails were snapped off by the force of floating debris
(Fig. 391).
Tipping of the undermined fence was accelerated by the movement
of the saturated embankment and assisted further by the heavy rock
filling within the fence. There is evidence to indicate that the heavy
rock filling tends to tip the fence outward when undermined.
Wherever this type is considered economical under moderately severe
conditions, it is recommended that a secondary defense of a single row
of rail and wire mesh be built above and tied to the lower installation.
For greater stability, the upper fence should in turn be anchored into
the embankment. It is recommended that the center of gravity of the
portion above scour be kept as low as possible, preferably by distrib-
uting rock between layers of brush.
District VII is experimenting with a basket rock-and-brush fill that
is planned to automatically adjust itself to the scour more readilyâ€”it
is too early to comment on its use.
Maintenance operations should include the refilling with brush and
rocks when the existing filler has settled to any extent.
338
PRIOR REPORTS
339
FIGURE 389. Steel rail, cable and wire mesh,â€”brush-and-rock fill, VII-Ora-43-B, approxi-
mate Station 300, Santa Ana River. Note loss of embankment beginning at
the end of protection.
340
FIGURE 391. Steel rail, cable and wire mesh,â€”brush-and-rock fill, VII-
Ora-43-B, approximate Station 300, Santa Ana River. Note broken rails.
PRIOR REPORTS
341
FIGURE 392. Steel rail, cable and wire mesh,â€”brush-and-rock fill, VII-Ora-43-B, Station
140-150, Santa Ana River.
FIGURE 393. Looking downstream. Station 153 + 50, Ora-43-B, 1,250 ft. of double row steel
rail, cable and wire mesh entirely wiped out.
12â€”30166
DOUBLE ROW STEEL RAIL,

CABLE AND WIRE MESH
CLASS B-l
FIGURE 394. Detail of heavy double rail-and-wire-mesh fence.
I'RIOR REPORTS 343
B-2 DOUBLE ROW, HEAVY AND LIGHT STEEL
PIPE AND WIRE MESH
(a) Locations Observed for Discussion
Heavy type, VII-Ora-2-D, easterly bank of Santa Ana River above
Chapman Avenue Bridge (Figs. 395-396).
Light type, Castaic Creek, easterly bank above bridge, VII-LA-4-A
(Figs. 397-398).
Light type, VII-LA-4-G, Station 83 Â±, both banks of Palomas Wash
above bridge (Figs. 399-400).
Light type, VII-LA-4-J, Station 131 Â±, Alamo Creek, westerly bank
(Fig. 401).
Light type. VIII-SBd-19-A, San Antonio Wash (Figs. 405-406).
Heavy tvpe, VII-Ven-155-C, opposite Fillmore on Santa Clara River
(Figs. 402-404).
(b) Typical Designs
The heavy type on VII-Ora-2-D was constructed in 1928 of double
rows of 20-ft 3^-in. heavy galvanized pipe driven to 14-ft penetration.
Rows are 6 ft apart and pipe are spaced 6 ft center to center with
58-in. Type "I" Elwood fencing on both sides. Space between rows
was filled with brush and rock.
Another heavy type, near Fillmore on VII-Ven-155-C, was inspected
that was not filled with either brush or rock, and consists of 4- and 6-in.
heavy pipe on 10-ft centers filled with concrete and driven to 14 to
18-ft penetration. Rows are 8 ft apart.
The latter installations are set at spurs, 60 deg from the downstream
bank to deflect the current.
The lighter types consist of l1/^ to 21/^-in. pipe and wire mesh, spaced
from 18 in. to 5 ft apart and filled with brush and rock. In general, the
pipe is driven to a depth equal to one-half the total length of pipe.
(c) Costs
The heavy type on VII-Ora-2-D, Santa Ana River, constructed in
1928 cost $3.90 per ft.
The lighter types cost from $1.75 to $3.50 per lin-ft.
(d) Service and Adaptability
The same conditions prevail for the heavy and light pipe-and-wire
mesh type that apply to the heavy steel rail type used by District VII.
They are recommended for smaller streams with moderate velocities
in more or less confined channels.
(e) Recommendations
With the rise in cost of steel rail, it appears advisable to give further
consideration to the use of 4 and 6-in. concrete-filled pipe, set either
as spurs or parallel to the bank, or in the more severe cases a combina-
tion of the two.
FIGURE 395. Double row (heavy) steel pipe- FIGURE 396. See Figure 395.
and-wire fence,â€”brush-and-rock filled, dam-
aged but not failed. VII-Ora-2-D, Santa Ana
River at Chapman Avenue Bridge.
FIGURE 397. Double row (light) pipe-and-wire fence,â€”brush-and-rock fill, VII-LA-4-A,

Castaic Bridge.
PRIOR REPORTS
345
FIGURE 398. Double row (light) pipe-and-wire fence,â€”brush-and-rock fill, VII-LA-4-A, Castaic
Bridge. Note complete loss of protection in foreground.
FIGURE 399. Double row (light) pipe-and-wire fence,-brush-and-rock fill, VII-LA-4-G, Palomas
Wash, Station 83 + 20.
13â€”30166
346
FIGURE 401. Double row (light) pipe-and-wire fence,â€”brush-and-rock fill, VII-LA-4-J, Station
131, Alamo Creek.
PRIOR REPORTS
347
FIGURE 402. Double row (heavy) pipe-and-wire fence,â€”no brush or rock fill, VII-Ven-155-C,
opposite Fillmore on the Santa Clara River. Four and six in. pipe filled with concrete.
FIGURE 403. Double row (heavy) pipe-and-wire mesh protection opposite Fillmore on the
Santa Clara River, VI l-Ven-155-C. Four and six in. pipe filled with concrete, set as spurs 60Â°
from lower bank, not filled with brush or rock. Note scour at end of spur, 8 to 10 ft deep.
FIGURE 404. Double row (heavy) pipe-and-wire mesh protection opposite Fillmore on the
Santa Clara River, VII-Ven-155-C. Four and six in. pipe filled with concrete, set as spurs 60Â°
from lower bank, not filled with brush or rock. Note how stream has been forced to
follow end of spurs.
348
FIGURE 405. VIII-SBd-19-A, San Antonio Wash.
FIGURE 406. Light type of double pipe-and-wire fence, 18 in. apart without brush fill,
washed out as shown in above photo, VIII-SBd-19-A, San Antonio Wash.
PRIOR REPORTS
349
All connections welded. 4" ond 6'i Steel-pipe Pile

16' to 18' penetration
HEAVY TYPE
Santa Clara River Deflector Installation
DOUBLE ROW HEAVY AND LIGHT STEEL PIPE AND.WIRE
CLASS B-2
FIGURE 407. Details of heavy and light pipe-and-wire-mesh fence.
B-3 SINGLE ROW PIPE AND WIRE MESH
This is the lightest type of all bank protection observed and is adapt-
able to low velocity currents and stable channels on tangent. This type
has been modified to use timber posts as shown in Figures 410 and 411.
(a) Locations Inspected
Santa Ana River, Talbert Avenue (County), Orange County, and
San Gabriel River, Carson Avenue Bridge, VII-LA-178-A (Figs. 410-
415).
B-4 TIMBER PILING AND WIRE MESH, TIMBER
PILE BULKHEAD
Timber piling, timber piling and wire mesh, or timber bulkhead type
of bank protection has probably been used over a long period at more
widely scattered locations throughout the State than any other type.
Single row untreated timber pile and wire mesh, San Gabriel River
downstream from Covina Avenue Bridge, VII-LA-26-B (Figs. 411-412).
Double row treated timber pile and wire mesh on Santa Clara River,
VII-LA-79-C, east of Piru (Fig. 415).
Salinas River, V-Mon-2-F, west of King City.
Timber pile bulkhead, north of Santa Ana River Bridge, VIII-SBd-
26-A (Figs. 413-414).
Untreated Douglas fir or pine timber piling is not recommended for
use in alternately wet and dry locations. Practically all such installation
inspected that have been in use for a period of years show signs of
rotting. Under arid conditions redwood piling is likewise not recom-
mended.
If timber piling is to be used, only treated timber piling or sound
redwood piling at suitable locations is recommended. Although it ap-
pears to be of minor importance, the fire hazard of any type of exten-
sive timber protection has been pointed out by the Los Angeles County
Flood Control and others as a matter to be considered. Various instal-
lations have been lost in countryside fires and from fires started by
itinerants.
The timber pile bulkhead type is not recommended for general use.
PRIOR REPORTS
351
FIGURE 408. Single timber-and-wire-mesh fence downstream from Carson Avenue Bridge,
VII-LA-178-A, San Gabriel River.
FIGURE 409. Single timber-post and wire-mesh on west bank of Santa Ana River, Talbert
Avenue Bridge (Orange County) upstream.
352
FIGURE 410. Single timber-post and wire-mesh on west bonk of Santa Ana River, Talbert
Avenue Bridge (Orange County), downstream. Note temporary repair where river broke
through the westerly bank during the March, 1938 flood.
FIGURE 411. Single untreated timber-pile and wire-mesh (wire mesh on one side only),
Vtl-LA-26-B, San Gabriel River downstream from Covina Avenue Bridge. Note rotted
condition of pile at ground level.
PRIOR REPORTS
353
FIGURE 412. Single untreated timber-pile and wire-mesh (wire mesh on

one side only), VII-LA-26-B, San Gabriel River downstream from Covina
Avenue Bridge.
FIGURE 413. Timber-pile bulkhead north of Santa Ana River Bridge, Vlll-SBd-26-A.
FIGURE 415. Double row treated timber-piling and wire-mesh, VII-LA-79-C, Santa Clara River.
PRIOR REPORTS
355
SECTION - DOUBLE ROW

Installed on Santo Clara River near Fillmore
Type " I " fencing
on bonk side
42" wire mesh
Type "F" fencing

on stream side
SECTION - SINGLE ROW
Used by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
TIMBER PILING AND WIRE MESH
CLASS B-4
FIGURE 416. Details of single and double timber-piling-and wire-mesh fence.
356
C-l STEEL TETRAHEDRONS
(a) Locations Selected for Inspection and Study
West bank of Santa Clara River above highwav bridge on Route
VII-Ven-2-C, near Oxnard (Figs. 417-419).
Westerly bank of Santa Clara River opposite Fillmore, Vll-Ven-
155-C (Figs. 420-421).
Westerly bank of Salinas River upstream from Soledad bridge, V-
SLO-2-D (Figs. 422-424).
Steel tetrahedrons evidenced satisfactory service wherever en-
countered such as to warrant further experimental installations.
The steel tetrahedron is particularly adaptable to spreading streams
with sand-silt beds that are subject to great scour.
Its principal function seems to lie in the collection of light drift and
retardation of the stream velocity sufficiently to cause deposition of ma-
terial on the bank side.
Material so deposited tends to concentrate and define the stream
channel at the end of the tetrahedrons, and deflection of the current
to the opposite bank was not particularly noticeable.
Proper design involves the following points:
(1) Open face of cables or wire sufficient to collect light drift and
permit a retarded flow of water through the tetrahedron. If flow is
restricted too much, there will be a fatal tendency to induce excessive
scour under the units.
(2) Light weight to minimize settlement into the sand-silt stream
bed.
(3) Flexible longitudinal tie to permit adjustment in position.
(4) Adequate anchorage at each end.
Installations arranged as spurs or jetties are generally recommended
over parallel installations, although a combination of both may be
necessary in some cases.
Photographs taken by District VII at flood stage show extremely
rough water outside the limits of the tetrahedrons, while inside the
units the water was quite smooth.
Individual units range in cost from $60 to $70 each.
PRIOR REPORTS
357
FIGURE 417. Steel tetrahedrons installed to protect the northerly end of state highway
bridge, VII-Ven-2-C, Santa Clara River.
FIGURE 418. Although nearly buried, steel tetrahedrons are still effective.
VII-Ven-2-C, Santa Clara River.
FIGURE 419. Although nearly buried, steel tetrahedrons are still effective.
VII-Ven-2-C, Santa Clara River.
358
FIGURE 420. Steel tetrahedrons on Santa Clara River near Fillmore, VII-Ven-155-C,
installed to protect private property.
FIGURE 421. Steel tetrahedrons on Santa Clara River near Fillmore, VII-Ven-155-C, installed
to protect private property. Note deposition back of steel tetrahedrons and definition
of water's edge at end of outer unit.
FIGURE 422. Steel tetrahedron installation on San Mateo Creek about 2 mi above bridge on
XI-SD-2-D.
PRIOR REPORTS
359
360
PLAN
ELEVATION
Tetrahedron Installation on Santa Clara River near Fillmore
Cost: STEEL TETRAHEDRONS
S60 to $70 per unit CLASS C-l
FIGURE 425. Steel tetrahedron jetty layout.
PRIOR REPORTS
361
C-2 REINFORCED CONCRETE TETRAHEDRONS
Concrete tetrahedrons are not recommended for use. They are more
costly than the steel type and demonstration on the Santa Clara River
indicates that in sand-silt stream beds they are likely to settle below
the stream bed and become ineffective.
In 1928, a string of concrete tetrahedrons 600 ft long, consisting of
30 units, was installed on the Santa Clara River. Today, only units
near the bank are visible (Figs. 426-427).
Each unit weighs seven tons and costs $112 apiece. The complete
installation ran $7 per ft.
FIGURE 426.
Reinforced concrete tetrahedrons above State highway bridge on VII-Ven-2-C,
Santa Clara River. Most of installation settled out of sight.
FIGURE 427. Reinforced concrete tetrahedrons above State highway bridge on VII-Ven-2-C,
Santa Clara River. Last of tetrahedrons.
14â€”30166
362
D-l STEEL CABLE-CONNECTED JACKSTRAWS
(a) Locations Inspected and Selected for Comment
Santa Ana River, VII-Ora-43-B, opposite Sta. 288Â±.
Santa Clara River opposite Fillmore, VII-Ven-155-C.
Salinas River, opposite Metz, Monterey County, by Southern Pacific
Railroad (Figs. 428-431).
Salinas River, opposite Soledad, Monterey County, by County.
FIGURE 428. Steel cable-connected jackstraws thrown over the bank

as an emergency protection, VII-Ora-43-B, Santa Ana River, opposite
Station 288.
PRIOR REPORTS
363
FIGURE 431. Steel jackstraws, Santa Clara River opposite Fillmore, VII-Ven-155-C.
364
This type has proven to be economical and successful for stopping
bank erosion when thrown over and cabled thereto at close intervals
and is recommended particularly for emergency use. On account of
their structural weakness, they are not recommended for permanent in-
stallations where severe conditions prevail.
The Kellner patent on jetty construction, described herein under
jackstraws, expired on October 8, 1935, and is now public property.
Angle irons
10' to 15' long
hi
Cost of Units:
$25 to $35 each
STEEL CABLE CONNECTED JACKSTRAWS
CLASS D-l
FIGURE 432. Jack details.
PRIOR REPORTS
365
D-2 ROCK AND WIRE SAUSAGES
1. San Antonio Wash at Foothill Blvd., VIII-SBd-9-D.
2. Santa Ana River at Orange Street, VIII-SBd-190-C.
3. Whitewater River, VIII-Riv-26-D (Figs. 359, 433).
Wire encased sausages of different designs without toe mats, when
subjected to high-velocity currents, are susceptible to undermining and
tend to roll downstream and obstruct bridge openings.
Wire encased sausages, unless constructed as thin mats similar to rock
and wire mattress type, are not recommended. Apparent weakness
seems to be in breakage of the wire from impact of rolling boulders
and from rupture due to excessive strain when conforming to scour.
No data available on typical section or costs.
D-3 OLD AUTOMOBILES
During the March flood in Southern California, old automobiles
were purchased for $10 each, attached to a cable and thrown over
eroding banks effectively.
FIGURE 433. Rock-and-wire sausages below bridge on Santa Ana River, VIIl-SBd-190-C. Note
typical failure in foreground and at end of sausage. Numerous failures are discernible
along the far bank.
CONCLUSION
The severe intensity of the 1937-1938 storms and resultant damage to
revetment and bank protection has revived a genuine widespread in-
terest among the districts in the merits of the various types of protec-
tion. It is suggested that the information contained herein be dissem-
inated to the districts for study and reference.
As mentioned heretofore, the type of bank protection that merits
further study is the steel tetrahedron. It is particularly adapted to the
troublesome sand-silt wandering streams that caused most of the serious
damage. It is suggested that experimental installations be made on
streams similar to Salinas River, Santa Ana River, and Santa Clara
River.
Respectfully submitted,
G. A. Tilton, Jr.,
Asst. Construction Engineer.
C. F. WOODIN,
Asst. Maintenance Engineer.
R. L. Thomas,
Asst. Engineer Surveys and Plans.
Râ– A. Wagner,
Asst. Bridge Engineer.
PRIOR REPORTS 369
DETERIORATION OF THE RIPRAP AT WADDELL BLUFFS,
IV-SCr-56-C, AND AN EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL
TESTS AS A METHOD OF DETERMINING THE
DURABILITY OF STONE FOR RIPRAP
FOREWORD
On March 6, 1951, during the initial review of performance of bank protection in
District IV, the Committee observed the condition of shore protection at Waddell
Bluff on road IV-SCr-56-C, Sta 430 to 436 + 60.
Built in 1948 under Contract 4WC30 at a cost of $70,000, this structure was
rock revetment on 1.5:1 slope, using heavy riprap stone below El. 20.8 and light
stone above. The heavy stone was 6 ft thick supported on 5 ft of backing material
and founded on soft rock at 7 to 13 ft below sea level. The light stone protected
against spray up to the grade of the shoulder at El. 36 to 38.
At an age of less than 3 yr., many stones had already shed all signs of quarrying
and some were completely disintegrated into a pile of graveI-like residuum. At lower
levels, it was apparent that some stones had disintegrated and the residuum had
been washed away. At higher levels stones could be seen at various stages of decom-
position, and at such random locations as to deny a direct relationship between
damage and attack by the sea. Some stones at various levels were in good condition,
showing sharp edges at diedrals between facets and around drill holes. These stones
were granitic in appearance.
The Committee proposed a geological investigation of the material, its source, its
conformance to test requirements and the adequacy of standard specifications and
tests. This proposal was approved and an investigation requested by the Design De-
partment. It has not yet (1960) been completed, but the following interim report
dated February 25, 1952, presents some very interesting data and tentative conclu-
sions. It is limited to granite and granitoid rock, but the continuing investigation is
covering a much wider range of materials.
The report was prepared by Eldridge D. Drew, Associate Engineering Geologist,
and H. D. Woods, Assistant Engineering Geologist, under the direction of A. W.
Root, Supervising Materials and Research Engineer, and submitted March 3, 1952,
by F. N. Hveem, Materials and Research Engineer.
PURPOSE
This investigation was undertaken by the Materials and Research
Department to determine the cause of deterioration of the granite rip-
rap at Waddell Bluffs, and to investigate the possibility of devising a
test or combination of tests upon which a specification could be based
to prevent use of potentially unsound rock for riprap.
WADDELL BLUFFS RIPRAP (BIG CREEK GRANITE)
Summary
The principal cause of the rapid deterioration of the Waddel Bluffs
riprap was a clay-like mineral contained in the granite which, upon
exposure to moisture, expanded and brought about disintegration of
the rock. The mineral constituted only a very small percent of the
over-all rock, but its dispersed distribution rendered large portions of
the rock from Big Creek quarry susceptible to its insidious action.
The mineral developed as a consequence of chemical alteration (chem-
ical weathering) and was present in the granite at the time it was
quarried. Direct exposure to the atmosphere accelerated the disintegrat-
ing action of the mineral.
370
The disruptive effect of the expanding: mineral was entirely adequate
to cause the destruction of those portions of the Big Creek granite con-
taining it. Furthermore, the mineral was sufficiently distributed in
the rock to render large portions of the material from the quarry un-
suitable.
Although there are portions of the Big Creek quarry that contain
satisfactory rock, it is doubtful if it could be economically separated
from the unsatisfactory rock. Separation would require the closest
of inspection and control, because of the sporadic distribution of the
unsatisfactory rock.
Location
Wadded Bluffs is the name given to a section of coast line approxi-
mately one mile south of the San Mateo-Santa Cruz County line on
road IV-SCr-56-C. A photograph of Waddel Bluffs and the riprap is
shown in Figure 437.
The riprap at Waddell Bluffs was obtained from a quarry on Big
Creek in Santa Cruz County approximately four miles southeast of
Waddell Bluffs. The quarry is about one and one-half miles by road
up-stream from the settlement of Swanton, and is on the property of
the Coast Counties Gas and Electric Co. It is referred to in this report
as the "Big Creek quarry," and both the riprap at Waddell Bluffs and
the rock at the quarry are called the "Big Creek granite." A photo-
graph of the quarry is shown in Figure 438.
FIGURE 437. Stone riprap at Waddell Bluffs, IV-SCr-56-C.

PR I OK REPORTS
371
FIGURE 438. Big Creek quarry, Santa Cruz County.

Field Work
Big Creek quarry and the riprap at Waddell Bluffs were inspected
by Messrs. Root and Drew on March 22, 1951, and by Messrs. Drew
and Woods on July 20, 1951. Samples for laboratory testing were ob-
tained on both of these occasions. A two-day geological investigation
of the Big Creek quarry and vicinity was carried out by Mr. Woods
during June 28-29, 1951.
Geologic Features of Big Creek Granite
Petrology
The Big Creek "granite" is a medium grained hornblende-biotite-
quartz diorite. It is composed of plagioclase feldspar, quartz, biotite,
and hornblende. Some chlorite is present as a liydrothermal alteration
product of the biotite and hornblende. The rock is part of the Santa
Lucia granite complex of widespread distribution in the region. Photo-
micrographs of the rock are shown in Figures 439 and 440.
In addition to the characterizing minerals just noted, portions of the
Big Creek granite contain a pale green, clay-like mineral that expands
profusely on contact with moisture; its expanding tendency resem-
bles that of the clay mineral montmorillonite, but the mineral is of
such extreme fineness that it cannot be positively identified with the
petrographic microscope; its specific identification would entail the
use of refined methods of analysis such as X-ray diffraction.
The expanding property of the mineral characterizes an intermediate
stage in its development. After expanding and doing its damage, it
passes to an inert, yellowish clay.
The expanding mineral developed largely from the hornblende of
the granite by chemical processes associated with weathering, and is
seemingly peculiar to the Big Creek area. Exposures of the Santa
Lucia granite (of which the Big Creek granite is a small part) a
few miles from the quarry show no evidence of this particular prod-
372
FIGURE 439. Fresh rock from the quarry

(51-1464). Biotiteâ€”b, feldsparâ€”f, quartzâ€”q.
Plane polarized light, 15 X.
FIGURE 440. Same as Figure 439 except
with crossed nicols.
uct of weathering. However, hornblende seems to be more prevalent
in the rock at Big Creek than elsewhere and, inasmuch as it is the
host for the expanding mineral, may account for the limited regional
distribution of the expanding mineral. Another possibility is that the
groundwater in the vicinity of the quarry may have been charged
with specific chemical elements that favored development of the mineral
(e.g. sulphuric acid from leaching of pyrite in the rock).
The significance of this mineral as an active agent in causing disin-
tegration of the Big Creek granite is far greater than its proportionate
percentage of the rock would indicate. Actually it constitutes only a
small percentage of the rock, but its effective distribution and its
expanding action render it a most potent agent in instigating disin-
tegration. The mineral acts to destroy the rock in two ways, (1) by
rupturing the rock as it hydrates and expands, and (2) by weakening
the bond between adjoining mineral grains.
Fractures and Joints
The Big Creek granite is extensively fractured and jointed; the
larger fractures and joints are readily perceivable at the quarry (Fig-
ure 438). In addition to these fractures visible in the quarry, minute
fractures are discernible in the rock under the petrographic micro-
scope, attesting to its thoroughly shattered condition. Several of the
larger fractures contain asphaltum which has seeped into the granite
from overlying sediments.
The fractures are the result of repeated earth movements in the
region during the geologic past. Prominent faults exist in the region
and exemplify the intensity and magnitude of the deformation suf-
fered by the region. The brittle granite yielded to the deforming earth
stresses by breaking, rather than by folding as more pliable rock such
as shale might have done.
PRIOR REPORTS 373
The aggregate effect of all the joints and fractures, large and small,
is to render the rock susceptible to the decomposing attack of atmos-
pheric agents, particularly water. The openings in the rock provide
channelways for the migration of water as it seeps downward from
the surface. The minerals of the granite are gradually altered by con-
tact with the water and air, and chemical decomposition is initiated.
The decomposition begins along the surfaces of the joints and frac-
tures, ever working inward to attack and destroy the fresher rock of
the interior. Such decay is the result of chemical weathering and its
discussed more fully in succeeding portions of this report.
The minute, microscopic fractures facilitated the percolation of water
just as the large fractures did, but on a smaller scale and by capillary
movement rather than by gravity flow. Their effectiveness in promoting
the general decay of the rock is proven by the presence of clay minerals
disseminated along them when they are examined under the petro-
graphic microscope.
Weathering
Weathering of the Big Creek granite was well advanced at the time
it was quarried. It is evident by the alteration products visible in
"fresh" pieces of rock under the petrographic microscope, as well as
in the gross character of the rock as observed in the field. Figures 441
and 442 illustrate weathered blocks of the granite.
Deterioration of the granite was greatly accelerated by its direct
exposure to the atmosphere consequent to quarrying. The rapid de-
terioration of the riprap is probably not due, however, to salt water, as
might be supposed. Its proximity to the ocean subjected the riprap to
mist and spray and alternately wet and dry conditions which caused
expansion of the previously mentioned clay-like mineral, and thus has-
tened failure of the riprap, but fresh water would probably have had
the same effect. It is conceivable that salts precipitated from the sea
water had a deleterious action on the rock. However, no direct evidence
of such was found, and it was noticed that decay of the rock seemed to
be proceeding just as fast at the quarry, some few miles inland, as it
was at the riprap site.
Climate is an important factor in governing the rate of weathering
of the rock, and the fact that the Big Creek granite is situated near
the coast where relative humidity is high is undoubtedly a major in-
fluence on its deteriorationâ€”both before and after quarrying.
Chemical decomposition was the first phase in the gradual destruc-
tion of the Big Creek granite, and took place by the attack of water,
carbon dioxide, and other atmospheric agents upon the mineral con-
stituents of the rock. The feldspar, which comprises a large percent of
the rock, was partially altered to clay minerals and soluble matter, and
the ferromagnesian minerals (hornblende and biotite) were partially
altered to hydrous silicates and iron oxides. Leaching of the soluble
matter from the feldspar destroyed the cohesiveness of the mineral
grains. The whole was physico-chemical process wherein volume changes
occur that bring about the ultimate destruction of the rock. The
severely fractured condition of the rock facilitated the chemical attack.
374
FIGURE 441. Disintegrated granite boulder (under 6-in. rule) in the riprap
at Waddell Bluffs.
FIGURE 442- Granite boulder in process of disintegration at Big Creek quarry. The
6-in. rule rests on a pile of rubble that has accumulated at base of boulder. This
boulder was originally angular, but is becoming rounded by the characteristic split-
ting off of concentric shells from its outer surface.
PRIOR REPORTS 375
LABORATORY TESTS
Object
The object of this phase of the research was to ascertain the effective-
ness of laboratory tests in evaluating the durability of stone that is to
be used for riprap, and to investigate the possibility of devising a test
or combination of tests upon which a specification could be based that
would prevent the use of potentially unsound rock for riprap. How-
ever, the investigation was confined to granitic rocks of the type used
at Waddell Bluffs, and no attempt was made to evaluate the riprap
characteristics of other rocks (e.g. sandstone, basalt, limestone, etc.).
Nine types of laboratory tests were made on a total of eleven vari-
eties of granitic rocks. Some of the tests, such as Los Angeles Rattler,
Wet-shot Rattler, and Soundness (XaL.S04), were standard while others
were of an experimental nature. A few of the tests were found inappli-
cable and were discontinued at an early stage. The results of all tests
that were carried to completion are shown in Table 1. Test results of
the original sample of granite from Big Creek quarry, No. 47-3254,
that was submitted to the Laboratory for acceptance tests are also
included in Table 14.
Samples
Samples of various granitic rocks having satisfactory service records,
as well as the Big Creek granite with a poor performance record, were
obtained for testing and comparison. Riverside granite from the Jurupa
Mountains in Riverside County, and Rocklin granite from the quarry
at Rocklin in Placer County were selected as representing good granite,
and Big Creek granite from Santa Cruz County was selected as repre-
senting poor granite.
The various granitic rocks that were tested are designated as follows:
51-1463 Big Creek granite. From quarry. Weathered.
51-1464 Big Creek granite. From quarry. Moderately weathered.
51-1494 Big Creek granite. From riprap at Waddell Bluffs. Fresh.
51-2727 Big Creek granite. From quarry, northerly portion. Cray.
51-2728 Big Creek granite. From quarry, central portion. Brown.
51-2729 Big Creek granite. From quarry, southerly portion. Gray.
47-3254 Big Creek granite. From quarry.'
51-1500 Riverside granite from Ormand quarry.
51-1501 Riverside granite from Declezville quarry.
51-1638 Rocklin granite. Fine grained, gray.
51-1639 Rocklin granite. Coarse grained, gray.
51-1640 Rocklin granite. Black.2
1 Sample 47-3254 is the original sample of granite from Big Creek quarry that was submitted to the
laboratory for acceptance tests.
2 The black granite is quarried about 8 miles southeast of Rocklin. Both the fine and coarse grained, gray
granite are quarried at Rocklin.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of each of the granite samples was determined.
It ranged from 2.62 to 2.80.
Results
1. The specific gravity of all the granites was well above the 2.5
minimum set forth in the Standard Specifications.
Conclusion
1. The specification is adequate in regard to the specific gravity re-
quirement.
b
OS
TABLE 14. RIPRAP INVESTIGATION-RESULTS OF LABORATORY TESTS
Sample d0ignation
Specific
gravity
%
ab,orp-
tion
0.A.R.T.
% lo,, after
000 R 00 R
Wet0,hot
rattler
% lo,,
Sound-
n0,
(Na2SO<)
% lo,,
Wetting & drying
% lo,, after
0 cyclea 00 cycl0
Compre,-
,ive
,trength
Ib,/,q. in.
Effect of
sulphuric
acid*
a
y,
â–º
%
o
on
a
o
X
M
W
O
H
W
-
O
2;
BIG CREEK GRANITE
0_003 Quarry. Weathered
0_004 Quarry. Fr0h (?)
0_0. Riprap at Waddell Bluff,. Fr0h
0_.. Quarry, northerly portion. Gray
0_.0 Quarry, central portion. Brown,
0_.00 Quarry, ,outherly portion. Gray
4303004 Quarryt â€¢
RIVERSIDE GRANITE
0_000 Ormand Quarry
0_000 Declezville Quarry
ROCK0IN GRANITE
0_338 Fine grained, gray
0_330 Coar,e grained, gray
0_30 Black 0
0.08
0.30
0.33
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.34
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
Rock too rotten
for te,t
3.8
0.4
3.0
03.0
8.0
0.0
30.0
00.4
..4
0.0
0.8
33.4
Rock too
rotten
for te,t
03.0
00.0
0.0
04.0
08.0
08.4
..0
0.0
0.3
3.0
3.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.8
0.8
3
0
0
0
0
4
4
0
0
3
0
0
0.30
0.30
0.0
0.0
00.0
00.0
0.0
30.0
0.4
03.0
0.0
0.3
_.0
0.0
0.4
0.0
0,,80
00
.,,80
0.03
0.00
0.,8
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.4
.0
8.0
30.0
40.0
33.0
0.0
0.0
..0
0.0
0.0
_.0
0.0
0.0
_.0
0.4
0.0
0.3
00
0,800
0,,80
* Samples were immersed In a 0:0 ,olution of HzSOi for one month.
Key: aâ€”No di,integration
bâ€”Slight di,integration
câ€”Partial disintegration
dâ€”Complete di,integration
t Sample from Big Creek Quarry originally submitted for acceptance 0
PRIOR RKPORTS 377
Absorption
The absorption of each of the granite samples was determined. It
ranged from 0.2% to 0.99J.
Conclusion
1. There is a general correlation between percent of absorption and
degree of weathering, the more weathered specimens having a
higher absorption because of their greater porosity, but the diff-
erence in absorption between fresh and weathered granites is not
great enough to furnish a basis for delineating the two. It seems,
though, that absorption of rock that is to be used for riprap
should not exceed 2%. It is believed that this test should be
included in the specification.
Abrasion, Los Angeles Machine (A.A.S.H.O. T 96-49)*
Ten of the eleven granite samples were tested; one, No. 51-1463 from
Big Creek quarry, was too severely weathered to obtain a correctly
{Traded sample for the test. Losses after 500 revolutions ranged from
26.4% to 50.2%.
Results
1. Riverside and Rocklin granites had, on the average, a greater loss
than did samples from Big Creek and Waddell Bluffs. This is
incongruous with the known fact that the field service records
of Riverside and Rocklin granites have been excellent, whereas
Big Creek granite is not, from present indications, entirely sat-
isfactory.
2. According to present specifications. only one of the five Big Creek
samples failed. One of the three Rocklin samples failed. Both of
the Riverside samples were borderline.
Conclusions
1. The Los Angeles Rattler Test was designed to test aggregates, not
stone block. When used for the latter, the test is indicative only
and should not be relied upon as the sole means of judging the
probable behavior of rock that is to be subjected to weathering
action. If cognizance is taken of the test's limitations, it does
have merit in providing an indication of the rock's abrasive re-
sistance.
2. The present maximum permissible loss of 40% is too low; some
rock with a satisfactory service record fails to meet this limit.
A maximum loss of 45% is tentatively suggested, pending more
test data on rock types other than granite.
3. Rattler tests are basically tests of abrasive resistance, but in the
case of riprap, other factors such as resistance to chemical weather-
ing may be more important. By basing a specification on rattler
tests alone, other factors of equal or greater importance may
be overlooked. Less emphasis should be placed on the rattler tests
by using them in conjunction with other tests such as Soundness
and "Wetting and Drying.
* The weight and grading of the samples used in the tests conform to the "A" Grade
of A.A.S.H.O. T 96-49.
4. Major fractures in stone of the size used for riprap may be spaced
farther apart than the maximum size of particle used in the test
and, inasmuch as the stone tends to break along such fractures
when crushed for the test, the weakness of the stone due to these
fractures would pass undetected. Crushing the stone preparatory
to test tends to invalidate the results.
5. The durability of stone of the size used for riprap might be quite
different than small pieces of that same stone as tested in Los
Angeles Battler.
Abrasion, Deval Machine (Wet Shot Rattler) (A.A.S.H.O.
T 4-35, Modified)*
Samples
Ten of the eleven granite samples were tested; these were the same
ten as were subjected to the Los Angeles Rattler. Losses ranged from
12.2% to 54.2%.
Results
1. Only one of the five Big Creek samples failed the test on the basis
of the present specification; this one (51-2728) was so obviously
weathered that it would not have been subjected to test if A.A.S.
H.O. T 2-46 had been followed (visual rejection of weathered
blocks).
2. All other samples passed, with losses falling well below the 37%
limit.
Conclusions
1. The Wet Shot Rattler Test is subject to the same limitations as the
Los Angeles Rattler.
2. It is believed that the existing 37% limit of loss should be revised
upwards to at least 40%.
Soundness, No SOâ– (A.A.S.H.O. T 104-46, Modified) f
All eleven samples of granite were subjected to the sodium sulphate
soundness test. The percent loss ranged from 0.0% to 24.3%.
Results
1. Rocks that are laminated, fractured, porous, friable or otherwise
physically weak are attacked by the test (based upon past experi-
ence as well as on results of the present series of tests). Dense
compact rocks such as fresh, unfractured granite are not attacked
by the test.
2. All samples of Rocklin and Riverside granites gave good per-
formance in the test, the greatest loss being only 0.3%.
* The California method of test is identical to that of A.A.S.H.O. T 4-3 5 except that
sufficient water to cover the sample is added when the specimen is placed in the
machine. The weight and grading of the samples in the present tests conformed
to the "A" grade of A.A.S.H.O. T 4-35.
t The soundness tests were conducted according to the procedure set forth in Para-
graph 5, Section 6, of the California Standard Specifications (1949). The Cali-
fornia method is a slight modification of A.A.S.H.O. T 104-46.
PRIOR REPORTS
379
3. The percent loss of Big Creek granite (including Waddell Bluffs
riprap) ranged from 1.1% to 24.3%, and showed a general cor-
relation to the physical condition of the sample. Samples 51-1494,
2729, and 2727 were relatively free of fractures and had a cor-
respondingly lower loss (1.1%, 2.4%, and 3.1% respectively) than
samples 51-1463, and 2728 (24.3%, and 9.2% loss, respectively)
which were more fractured and also somewhat friable.
Conclusion
1. The sodium sulphate soundness test acts as an accelerated me-
chanical weathering test (similar to frost action in nature), and
is applicable to that aspect of the testing of riprap, but it will not
serve to measure the resistance that a rock will offer to chemical
weathering, such as caused deterioration of Big Creek granite,
except insofar as physically unsound rocks are usually more sus-
ceptible to chemical weathering than physically sound rocks.
Wetting and Drying
Inasmuch as the Wetting and Drying Test is not a Standard Method
of Test of the A.A.S.H.O. or A.S.T.M., a brief description of the test
procedure is given here :
The rock is crushed, screened, and 1000 or 1500 gms. of the |"-f"
fraction is taken for the test. The crushed and graded rock is sub-
merged in water for 18 hours at room temperature, after which the
sample is drained, and oven dried at 140Â° F. When dry, the sample is
cooled to room temperature. This completes one cycle.
The percent loss is calculated by screening the tested sample on a
No. 4 sieve and computing as follows :
Wt. of mat'1. passing No. 4 â€žâ€žâ€ž ^
rp . , w. K X 100 = Percent loss
Total Wt. of sample
In the present series of tests, the samples were run for 10 cycles, with
loss being calculated at 5 and 10 cycles.
All eleven samples of granite were tested. Loss at 5 cvcles ranged
from 0.0% to 12.2%, and loss at 10 cycles from 0.2% to 19.2%.
Results
1. After 10 cycles, all of the Big Creek granite had losses greater
than 1%, whereas, all other granites tested had losses of less than
1%. Results of the test are shown graphically in Figure 443.
Conclusions
1. Granites with good service records had better performance in the
Wetting and Drying test than those with poor service records.
However, some poor rock suffered only moderate loss.
2. The Wetting and Drying test was destructive to those portions of
the Big Creek granite in which decomposition of hornblende to
the expanding, clay-like mineral was well advanced.
3. The test would be helpful in eliminating rocks containing readily
soluble material. Some hygroscopic minerals would be affected.
4. This test should be considered for inclusion in the specification;
tentatively a loss limit of 5% after 10 cycles appear appropriate.
380
PRIOR REPORTS 381
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of three of the Big Creek samples and of
the three Roeklin granites was determined. Their strengths ranged from
9,800 to 20.800 psi.*
The physical condition of the Big Creek granites varied; sample
51-1463 was considerably fractured, 51-1464 was slightly fractured,
and 51-1494 was relatively free of fractures. All of the Roeklin granites
were relatively fresh and unfractured.
Results
1. In general, fractured or slightly weathered granite had less com-
pressive strength than unfractured and unweathered granite, but
results were erratic.
2. The sub-parallel alignment of biotite flakes (foliation) in Big
Creek granite apparently exerts very little influence on its com-
pressive strength. (Samples were stressed parallel and normal
to the foliation.) However, a greater number of tests would be
necessary to establish this observation conclusively.
3. Of the three Roeklin granites, the fine-grained gray granite (51-
1638) had markedly lower compressive strength than the other
two (51-1639 and 51-1640).
Conclusion
1. The strength of rocks is not a reliable criteria of their potential
durability; the correlation between compressive strength and
durability is too general to form the basis for a specification. Fur-
ther, the results obtained are highly variable, and do not justify
the time and expense involved in performing the test. The test
is not practical for determining the suitability of rock for riprap.
Sulphuric Acid Test
This was an experimental test undertaken to learn the affect of a
strong chemical reagent on granitic rocks.
Seven samples of granite were immersed in a 1:1 solution of sul-
phuric acid at room temperature and left undisturbed for four weeks.
Samples from Big Creek, Riverside and Roeklin were represented.
Results
1. Big Creek granite suffered partial or complete disintegration.
2. One sample of Riverside granite was only slightly disintegrated
(51-1501), whereas the other was completely disintegrated (51-
1500).
3. Roeklin granite showed either none or only slight disintegration.
Conclusions
1. There was not a satisfactory correlation between field perform-
ance and test performance of the granitic rocks. Some rock with
an excellent service record was rapidly destroyed by the acid,
while other was not.
â€¢ The compressive strength of granite is variously reported in engineering hand
books from 12,000 to 51,900 psi. It is commonly rated between 12,000 and 16,000
psi.
2. The sulphuric acid test could not be used on all rock types, be-
cause certain types would be decomposed in the test yet might
be entirely satisfactory for riprap (e.g. limestone or carbonate
cemented rocks).
3. The sulphuric acid test is unsatisfactory as an accelerated weath-
ering test.
Toughness
Two Standard Methods of Test for Toughness have been described
in the Standard Specifications of the A.A.S.H.O. One is a test for
Toughness of Gravel, T 6-27,* and the other is a test for Toughness of
Rock, T 5-35 (ASTM I) 3-18). Both methods are based upon the im-
pact principal wherein a free-falling weight is allowed to fall upon
the test specimen. The height of fall is increased by increments until
failure of the specimen occurs. The toughness of the specimen is ex-
pressed as the height of fall necessary to cause failure of the specimen.
The only impact apparatus available in the Materials and Research
Dept. is that designed according to T 6-27. Inasmuch as both methods
are based upon the impact principle, and in view of the time and ex-
pense that would have been required to construct apparatus and pre-
pare specimens according to T 5-35, it was decided to run preliminary
tests using the apparatus on hand to see if additional development of
this test would be warranted.
The Toughness Test was performed on six specimens representative
of fresh riprap from Waddell Bluffs, 51-1494, and on two representa-
tive of weathered rock from Big Creek quarry, 51-1463.
Results
1. In one case, the rock specimen failed to break after repeated blows
at the maximum height of fall obtainable by the machine. Other
results were equally indefinite.
Conclusions
1. Preliminary Toughness Tests indicated that the time and expense
that would be required to construct apparatus and prepare speci-
mens for testing in accordance with the Standard Method of Test
for Toughness of Rock (A.A.S.H.O. T 5-53; A.S.T.M. D 3-18)
was not justified at this time.
2. The Toughness Test does not appear to be of much value in de-
termining the suitability of rock for riprap.
Autoclave (A.A.S.H.O. T 107-49, Modified)t
The autoclave test consists essentially of subjecting the specimens to
saturated steam vapor at elevated temperature (420Â° F.) and pres-
sure (295 psi) for a 3-hour period.
Four specimens representative of fresh riprap from Waddell Bluffs,
51-1494, and four specimens representative of weathered rock from
Big Creek quarry, 51-1463, were subjected to the test.
* This method has been withdrawn by the association.
t The autoclave apparatus and test procedure used in these tests were identical to
that of A.A.S.H.O. Standard Method of Test for Autoclave Expansion of Port-
land Cement, T 107-49, except that the rock specimens were subjected to 14
cycles instead of one. The results were evaluated by visual and microscopic
examination of the specimens at regular intervals.
PRIOR REPORTS 383
The test specimens consisted of two, 1" cubes and two 1" x 1" x 4"
prisms from each sample.
Results
1. The test produced a noticeable difference in the surface condition
between Set 51-1494 and Set 51-1463; the difference was more pro-
nounced in the prisms than in the cubes. Surfaces of Set 51-1463
were pitted by plucking of the biotite and green mineral, whereas,
Set 51-1494 was not pitted. The iron of some of the pale green,
swelling mineral in both sets was oxidized to yellow-brown color;
biotite was not oxidized.
2. The test produced no rounding of corners or edges.
3. Fractures in the test specimens were not opened up by the Auto-
clave Test, except that one prominent fracture in one specimen of
Set 51-1463 began widening slightly after the third cycle, and
by the 7th cycle was well opened and small flakes along the frac-
ture were spalling. The specimen was not completely split along
this fracture at the end of the test (14 cycles) but was pried off
with slight pressure.
Conclusion
The Autoclave Test is not sufficiently harsh on granite to serve as
an accelerated weathering test.
Conclusion
The existing specification regarding stone for riprap sets forth the
following requirements:
Minimum specific gravity 2.5
Maximum loss in L.A.R.T. (500 rev.) 40%
Maximum loss in W.S.T 37%
Applying these requirements to the various granite samples tested
in the present series, it is found that poor rock passed the specification
easily, but good rock either barely met the requirements or failed to
pass. For example, nearly all samples of the Big Creek granite, rock
with a very poor or at least questionable service record, passed the
specification, yet Riverside granite, with a satisfactory service record,
barely passed, and one sample of Rocklin granite (51-1639), also with
a satisfactory service record, actually failed.
Obviously the existing requirements are deficient, and correction of
the situation will necessitate more than simply making the requirements
more rigid because good granite can scarcely pass the specification as
it is now written.
In order to discover wherein the existing specification is deficient, it
might be well to inquire as to what laboratory tests, upon which the
specification is based, are supposed to do. The answer being that they
are supposed to evaluate the durability of the stone. Durability depends
upon the resistance the stone offers to (1) physical disintegration and
(2) chemical decomposition. These two processes together constitute
weathering, the first being referred to as mechanical weathering and
the second as chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering results from
such agents as frost action, temperature change, abrasion, etc., and
chemical weathering involves actual change in composition in the rock,
such as the alteration of minerals to clay; it is produced mainly by
atmospheric water and carbon dioxide, and in some cases, by organic
or mineral acids. These latter are potent agents and exert greater in-
fluence on rock weathering than is commonly realized.
Successful evaluation of the durability of stone depends on deter-
mining its resistance to both mechanical and chemical weathering. The
existing specification is based upon two tests, the Los Angeles Rattler
and the Wet Shot Rattler, both of which are primarily tests of a type
of mechanical weathering. Thus the very important factor of chemical
weathering is not taken into account and, further, the two rattler tests
measure only one aspect of mechanical weatheringâ€”abrasive resistance.
Reliable results could hardly be expected when so many of the ele-
ments of durability are not taken into account.
It is possible to improve the physical testing (i.e. determination of
resistance to mechanical weathering) of riprap by incorporation of
other laboratory tests such as Soundness, "Wetting and Drying, etc.,*
in the specification. Before this can be done, however, it will be neces-
sary to establish allowable limits of loss in the various tests. This can
be accomplished by subjecting various rock types now in use for riprap
throughout the State to the tests and correlating the results with field
performance.
Tentatively the following limits appear to be about right:
Specific Gravity not less than 2.5
Absorption not greater than 2.0% loss
Los Angeles Rattler (500 rev.) not greater than 45% loss
Wet Shot Rattler not greater than 40% loss
Soundness (Xa2SO.) not greater than 5% loss
Wetting and Drying (10 cycles) not greater than 5% loss
These limits are based upon the present tests on granitic rocks, and
modification may be necessary when other rock types are tested.
All the Riverside and Rocklin samples, and the best of the Big Creek
granite (viz. 1494 and 2727) would have passed the above require-
ments, the poor granite from Big Creek, in each case, would have failed
at least one of the requirements.
However, even with these additional tests the entire question of the
rocks' resistance to chemical weathering is still left unsolved. The most
reliable method of gauging this quality of rock is through knowledge of
its mineral composition and geological historyâ€”information to be had
by geological and penological investigation.
LeggetJ makes the following observations on "Building Stone"
which are also applicable to riprap:
"Geology, therefore, is only one of the factors on which the
suitability of a building stone depends; but it is one of prime
importance, since unless the geological nature and mineralogical
content of a natural rock are satisfactory, other tests of its suita-
bility as a building stone are useless."
* Tests wherein the rock is subjected to the action of solutions, water or other, such
as Wetting and Drying, Soundness. and Wet-shot Rattler, are partly chemical and
partly physical in action. Their chemical action is quite mild, however.
' Legget, Kobert F., Geology and Engineering, 1st Ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York and London,'1939, pp. 514-523.
PKIOR RKI'ORTS 385
And in speaking of durability,
"Durability is a prime requirement of a building stone, once it
has been selected for use in civil engineering work. It is a property
dependent on many factors and affected by varying conditions. It
is also a property the testing of which is still a matter of debate,
so that no recognized standards are available. The Geology of the
rock from which the cut stone is obtained is again of paramount
importance.
"Expressed in simple terms, the durability of a stone is its
capacity for retaining its original size, strength, and appearance
throughout a long period of time while performing the work in-
tended for it in the structure concerned. Reference is usually
made to the stone exposed on the surface of structures; it is sub-
ject to the combined action of the atmosphere and of the extremes
of temperature to which it is subjected. Essentially, therefore,
durability is related directly to the normal weathering of rocks.
The first and most obvious test of a building stone is therefor to
be made by visiting the quarry from which it came and there
examining the evidences of weathering on the naturally, exposed
surfaces of the untouched rock. If this were always possible, and
were an invariable practice, some troubles with building stones
would be avoided."
It is thus evident that any successful attempt to determine the dura-
bility of stone must include all of the many factors involved, and that
a geological investigation, including petrological study, is the logical
first step in gaining a knowledge of these factors.
RECOMMENDATION
The present series of tests on granitic rocks have indicated that
better control over the quality of rock contemplated for use as riprap
can be obtained by incorporating Absorption, Soundness, and Wetting
and Drying tests in the specification, and tentative limits of loss in
these tests have been set forth. These are tentative because they are
based upon tests on granitic rocks only. In order to establish reliable
limits for a specification, it will be necessary to procure representative
samples and run the above tests on the several other rock types com-
monly used for riprap. To accomplish this it is recommended that field
inspection of riprap in use at various places in the State be made, and
appropriate samples be obtained for testing. The inspection should in-
clude critical examination of the condition of the riprap and a rating
of its service performance. This data can then be correlated with the
test data and form the basis for a specification.
COMMITTEE COMMENT
Upon review of the foregoing report, the Committee found support
for some of its findings and conclusions (Chapter I) and concurred
generally in all opinions. A few exceptions will be noted, either that
the Committee held a different opinion or believed that conclusions
should await further study.
1. Instead of holding to a minimum specific gravity of 2.5 as a mear:
ure of quality, this factor should be related to weight of stone;
required for stability, as proposed in Charts A, B and C.
2. The limitation of absorption to 2% is not adequately supported
by the evidence. An andesite which absorbed 3.4% was satisfactory
in one location, but as a discriminant for the granites tested, th.-
limit would have to be as low as 0.5%.
3. The suggestion that permissible loss in the abrasion test (LA
rattler) be relaxed from 40% to 45% is not consistent with other
conclusions (which are favored) that the test is inappropriate fo:-
large blocks of stone. This test should be replaced as a criterion
for revetment stones.
4. Similarly for the wet-shot rattler test, instead of relaxing the per-
missible loss from 37% to 40%, the Committee recommends re-
placement of the test.
5. The wetting and drying test appears so appropriate for granitic
materials that the committee prefers a limitation of loss to the
1% indicated by the preliminary analysis to the more generous
5% proposed.
APPENDIX D
AUTHORIZATIONS AND CORRESPONDENCE
CARL WARREN
California c H pijRCELI-
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
Bepartment of public Works
SACRAMENTO
DIvISION OF HIGHWAYS PL(A*I KIFIlt TO
PUillC WOtKS BUILDING riLB NO.
000.014/RRR
Bank Protection
Study
November 15, 194Â°.
To All District Engineers:
A Joint Bank Protection Committee has been
appointed to review and report on the practice of bank
protection as related to highways. Representation on
the Committee is as follows:
Gordon L. Long Design Department
R. Robinson Rowe Bridge Department
G. A. Tilton, Jr., Construction Department
Clarence F. Woodin Maintenance Department
The scope of the study will include primarily
the special treatment of banks of streams, lakes or tide-
water and secondarily the treatment of highway embank-
ments to prevent erosion by surface waters. The review
will include classification of hazards and protective
methods, appraisal of success or failure, comparison of
costs as related to benefits and consideration of stan-
dard designs. A report with recommendations will be made
to a General Committee consisting of Assistant State High-
way Engineers Gillls, Panhorst, and Vickrev. It is anti-
cipated that conclusions having reference value will be
published.
Largely the study will be an exchange of infor-
mation within and among the Districts, and District Engi-
neers are urged to cooperate as much as practical without
interference with regular assignments of their staffs.
Desirable cooperation is outlined herein.
Reconnaissance. The Joint Committee plans to
examine typical bank protection works in each District,
preferably during or immediately after exposure to
flood or severe wave action. When practical, they should
be accompanied by a representative from the District fami-
liar with location and history of such works.
( 387 )
Records. To amplify the joint field examination
of typical projects, it is desired that a representative
list be made of significant projects in each District,
indicating the variety of installations and briefly com-
menting on success, failure or economy of each item. A
complete list is not expected, inasmuch as that would
involve an unnessarily large expense for exhaustive search
of the records. It should be crawn largely from memory
with some search of final reports for date and cost. Lists
should be sent to Headquarters, attention Bank Protection
Committee, not later than January 31, 1950.
Flood Notice. Wire or telephone report should
be made directly to Headquarters, attention Bank Protection
Committee, or to committee members known to be on busi-
ness in the district, whenever unusual floods or severe
wave conditions occur. This is desired most particularly
on streams subject to flash runoff on which bank protec-
tive works have been built.
Suggestions. The value of this joint study will
depend upon analysis of a wide variety of experience and
observation. To that end, the committee will welcome sug-
gestions and comment on any phase of the investigation
from any engineer or superintendent of the Division of
Highways.
G. T. McCOY
State Highway Engineer
AUTHORIZATIONS AND CORRESPONDENCE 389
RESPONSE TO CIRCULAR LETTER
FROM DISTRICT I, EUREKA, JANUARY 23, 1950
Reference is made to your circular letter of November 1;") requesting
a list of representative bank protection projects constructed in District
I with pertinent comments on the various installations.
With two exceptions all bank protection constructed in the District
has been constructed along streams. The exceptions are rock riprap
construction along the coast at Freshwater Lagoon, road I-IIum-1-J,
and about one-half mile south of Wilson Creek, road T-DN-l-A.
The several representative bank protection projects are detailed in
the attached tabulation. The rock-filled mattress has been used only in
conjunction with sacked concrete and rock riprap construction for pro-
tection of the foundation from scour.
Sacked concrete riprap has been rather extensively used in the dis-
trict for protection of embankments from anticipated erosion and to
repair badly eroded sections of roadbed. Xo failures have been noted
where this type of bank protection has been properly used. Where rock
is not available for riprap the use of sacked concrete for protection of
embankments from either impinging or fast-flowing stream currents is
indicated, if proper foundation or protection against undercutting is
provided. Hence, it should be constructed on a foundation of material
that will not readily erode. If this is not feasible, a rock-filled wire
mattress can be successfully used to protect the foundation. As a
further protection, willow cuttings should be liberally planted under
the mattress and along its edges.
The slope on which the sacked concrete riprap is to be placed should
preferably be IV2 to 1 or flatter to provide stability back of the riprap
and to provide easier construction. However, where the embankment
can be constructed of stable material, such as river gravel or rocky
material, and where it is not desirable to encroach on the stream
channel, it can be successfully constructed on a 1 to 1 slope. This
appears evident from the success of the structure constructed at Green-
law Bluffs in 19:18. This riprap, 42 feet in vertical height, was placed
on a reconstructed embankment of river gravel having a 1 to 1 slope.
This type of riprap can also be successfully placed under water
where it may be neither feasible nor practical to unwater the founda-
tion trench. This was successfully accomplished during construction of
the structure on Cold Creek, I-Men-15-A, during 1938 and at a later
date around a pier of the Twin Trees Bridge 011 I-Hum-1-A and else-
where in the District.
The condition of the sacked concrete riprap constructed at Greenlaw
Bluffs, road I-Hum-1-E, is shown by the attached photographs 437 and
527. No. 527 shows the heavy growth of willows resulting from cuttings
placed under and around the rock-filled mattress during construction.
It will be noted from No. 437 that a growth of brush has started on
the face of the riprap. Where tried, the brush could be readily broken
at the face of the riprap because of the small size of the stem coming
through the riprap at an interstice between sacks. It appears desirable,
however, that such an abundant growth be destrojred by a toxic spray.
As previously mentioned, the rock-filled wire mattress has only been
used to protect the foundations for either sacked concrete or rock
riprap.
The installation of over 20,000 square feet of protection for the rip-
rap, placed at Dyerville during 1942, was constructed of a light gauge
triangular mesh wire. This fencing material was galvanized before
weaving and was inadequate for the purpose intended, but because of
the war effort no better material could be obtained. It soon deteriorated
and the foundation for the rock riprap was endangered. During 1946
the longitudinal pile jetty, shown by photographs No. 426 and No.
427, was constructed to protect the toe of the riprap from further
erosion.
The wire mattress constructed at Greenlaw Bluffs in 1938 and
1940 is in excellent condition, although at several locations it shows
rusting of the wire. The fencing used was a 9-gauge 2-inch chain mesh
galvanized after weaving. The guy ropes were also galvanized. The
condition of this installation is shown bv photographs No. 528 and
No. 529.
Six log deflectors have been constructed in the District: four under
contract, and the other two by Maintenance forces.
One constructed by Maintenance, probably around 1928, at the
Shively Bluffs, road I-Hum-1-D, showed considerable deterioration from
rot and pulling apart of the members.
There appears to be no deterioration of those constructed at Green-
law Bluffs in 1940. These structures are of massive construction, built
to a height of about 30 feet and are well able to withstand the impact
of heavy drift without damage. Essentially they should be considered
as stream-training structures, such as pile jetties, but it is our opinion
they are greatly inferior, for this purpose, to a permeable pile jetty
type. Their cost of about $6,400 each probably will prohibit their use
for this purpose unless the height to which they can be constructed is
considered essential. Photograph No. 526 shows the deflector at Station
28+00, road I-IIum-1-E. No. 438 shows the growth at the other de-
flectors. No. 435 shows the deflector at Sbively Bluffs, road I-Hum-1-D,
at Station 394+16.
The rock riprap constructed at Dyerville has indicated failure for
three (3) reasons. This is the only major installation of this type which
has to date been subjected to flood waters. During 1946 a permeable
pile jetty was constructed along the toe of the riprap to provide pro-
tection to the foundation. The original construction provided for such
protection by means of a flexible rock-filled wire mattress which did
not prove adequate. The rock used for this riprap is of a soft sandstone
and has badly weathered and spalled due to the action of the elements.
Although the riprap was constructed on a well compacted 1% to 1
slope, a slide occurred therein the winter following construction. Appar-
ently the bottom of the slide was below the foundation of the riprap,
for a push-up occurred in the stream bed beyond the limits of the
riprap.
It is considered essential that rock riprap be constructed on a firm
foundation below the bed of the stream, that the slopes on which the
riprap is placed be of a rocky or granular material, and the rock of
which the riprap is constructed be sound and durable. The latter is a
difficult condition to attain in this District and, consequently, will
limit the construction of this type of bank protection.
391
The permeable pile jetties constructed in the District have success-
Tully withstood several high waters with only one failure. They have
started the formation of extensive bars, which encourage development
of willow growth and additional deposition. The outer portion of jetty
No. 3 at Dyerville constructed in 1944 at the downstream end of the
riprap was apparently hit by drift, breaking the piling. The remaining
section of jetty is in good condition and adequately protects the end
of the riprap.
Considering the several types of bank protection used in the District,
it may be concluded that generally they have successfully functioned
as planned.
/s/ A. M. Nash
District Engineer
TABLE 15. TYPICAL BANK-PROTECTION STRUCTURES IN DISTRICT I IN 1950
Year
Contract
Constructed
Location
Quantity
Unit Cost
Sacked PC Concrete Riprap
01CC3
1938
I-Men-15-A, Station
285+93-295+00
1,180.4 CY
$8.14
01CC3
1938
I-Lak-15-C, Station
164+88-173+92
882.2 CY
$8.14
01CC3
1938
I-Lak-15-C, Station
492+56-494+92
127.6 CY
$8.14
1TC7
1938
I-Hum-l-E Greenlaw Bluffs
3,704.4 CY
$7.50
1JC1
1940
473.5 CY
$8.50
1JC4
1947
I-DN-l-C, Station
Rick-Filled Wire Mattress
871+90-891+00
2,803.2 CY
$15.00
oi rc7 ewo
1938
15,000 Sq Ft
EWO
rci
1940
8,207 Sq Ft
$0.45
i res
1942
I-Hum-l-D Eel River at Dyerville
20,497 Sq Ft
$0.30
:JJ1
1945
I-Hum-l-D Eel River at Dyerville
8,773 Sq Ft
$0.30
Rt Iwood Log Deflectors
2IJC1
1940
I-Hum-1-D,Eâ€”Stations
394+16, 28+00,
Note: Cost of deflectors includes cost of logs, wire mesh, and rock backfill but not roadway excavation.
30+44-32+37
4 Ea
$6,374.99
Hv.vy Stone Riprap
41 'C8
1942
I-Hum-l-D at Dyerville
6,607 CY
$6.00
03 '1
1944
3,750 CY
$6.00
1- TC31-K
1949
I-Hum-l-J, Freshwater Lag.
6,130 CY
$5.75
i-: ;C32
1949
I-Lak-49-B
1,419 CY
$3.62*
Por leable Pile Jetties
1.1 '1
1944
498 LF
$27.00
U''i
1946
857 LF
$49.10
1946
I-Hum-l-D at Shively Bluffs
1,391 LF
$29.80
* /orce account.
FROM DISTRICT II, REDDING, FEBRUARY 28, 1950
In conformance with Headquarters' circular letter dated November
15, 1949, there is submitted herewith a list of projects in District II
which contain bank protection construction. There are included also
the types and cost as obtained from our records.
A. Sacked Concrete Riprap
Tri-20-A Contract 22.IC1
Built 1040-41 Hemstreet & Bell, Contrs.
Quantity 5479 C.Y. Cost .$8.25. Length 2,150'
Height 20'Â±.
Source of Gravel Localâ€”Within 1 mile.
This installation was for protection of the highway built along the in-
side of a curve on the south side of Trinity River. In flood stage it is
exposed to full force of the current. The base of riprap is protected by
rock mattresses as described below.
This work has been satisfactory. Minor maintenance has been neces-
sary at one location where a short area was undermined.
We also have placed sack concrete riprap at ends of 2 bridges over
the Sacramento River here in Redding, at numerous locations adjacent
to small structures and for bank protection throughout the district. We
have no record of failures when same was properly installed.
Use of type is limited to locations where construction can be per-
formed in the dry.
B. Wire and Rock Mattresses
Tri-20-A Contract 22JC1
Built 1040-41 Hemstreet & Bell. Contrs.
Quantity 4.220 SY Cost $2.20. Length 2,150'
Width 15'6". Thickness 8"
Source of Filling Material Localâ€”Within mile.
This protection was built at the base of concrete riprap placed along
the south bank of Trinity River. It is subject to heavy scouring action
under flood conditions.
This installation has been generally satisfactory. A failure in one
short area was responsible for sack concrete failure as mentioned
under "A".
The theory of use of mattress along base of wall is based on the as-
sumption that, in case of undercutting the mattress, it is flexible and
will settle and conform to new stream bed. The base should be free from
rocks; otherwise, the mattress will not settle and hence some of the
value will be nullified.
In the Trinity River the velocity in flood stage is such that sand and
gravel are moved along with the current. An inspection of the mattress
during low water revealed that the galvanized wire on parts of the
mattress had been polished by migrant material and rust was attacking
the wire.
C. Rock Mattressâ€”B.P.R. Type
Plu-83-B B.P.R. Cont. FHP 20-F1.Q1.
Built 1940-41 Shuman & Johnson.
Quantity 6,501 C.Y. Cost $4.00. length 3,690'.
Height 8'Â±. In Sections.
Thickness 2.0'.
Source of Filling Material Local.
This protection was placed along the banks of Indian Creek after
floods had seriously damaged a project under construction.
This type differs from the mattress described under "B" in the size
of filling material and type of mesh cover. In "B" the filling material
is a maximum of 8" and the envelope of Elwood mesh of 12| and 14
gauge wires, while in this type the filling material is 12 to 24" and the
enclosing mesh of 6x6x6 gauge. The material is 24" in thickness, tied
together with No. 9 wire.
There have been no failures nor maintenance on this installation since
it was completed.
D. Wire Mesh Slope Protection
Tri-20-E,F Contract 02CC4
Built 1938 Young & Sons Co. Ltd.
Quantity 4,200 SY Cost $1.15. Height 12'Â±
Length Sections
Sha-28-A,B Contract 02AC4
Built 1938
Quantity 10,250 SY Cost $1.80. Height 15'Â±
Length Sections.
This type of protection consists of 2" Cyclone mesh of No. 9 wire
laid flat on the slope, secured to slope by Â§" reinforcing pins and fast-
ened to 40# railroad rail at the bottom.
This type has proven generally satisfactory. One section on the
Trinity River rolled up when water over-topped the river bank and
came back into channel over the top of mesh. The mesh was straight-
ened out and replaced with no loss and at no great cost.
To be satisfactory, this type should have sections of mesh, which are
laid at right angles to stream bed, wired together. The slope should be
composed of particles large enough so they will not work through the
mesh and of such material that | pins can be driven into it. One ob-
jectionable feature, in that the rail on the bottom for holding down
the mesh, provides an inflexible anchor. It is possible for slope to under-
cut under mesh if conditions are such that the current strikes the pro-
tection and base is not stable.
There is a tendency for willows and brush to grow through the mesh
in a short time and increase the effectiveness of this type.
Of course, this district has used all the types of rock riprap. We
have been impressed particularly with the effectiveness of clean, round
river boulders or mine tailings. This type, even when particles are no
more than 6" in diameter, have stood more stress than random riprap
containing much larger material.
R. W. Haselwood
/s/ By H. Clyde Amesbury
15â€”30166
ADDENDA FROM DISTRICT II, FEBRUARY 25, 1954
In conformance with the Bank Protection Committee's recent verbal
request to the District that our list dated February 28, 1950, of typical
bank protection installations be brought up to date, the following addi-
tional information is offered:
1. Selected Rock Slope Protection
Tri-20-A Contract 54-2TC2-FP
Built 1953-54 II. W. Brown & B. E. Hertel, Contractors
Quantity 20,000 CY Cost $0.60 per CY (Placing)
$0.10 per CY (Overhaul)
Source : Bdwy. Exc. $0.65 per CY (Bdwy. Exc.)
Station 236Â± Height 12'Â±
Length 7,450 Lin Ft
This installation is for protection of the embankment built along
Weaver Creek. In flood stage the highway will be exposed to the full
force of Weaver Creek. The protection has not as yet been subjected
to a major flooding current.
Use of this type is naturally limited to the locations where suitable
rock is available.
This is the only additional type of protection recently installed in
the District.
J. W. Trask
/s/ By F. S. Saunders
Assistant District Engineer
FROM DISTRICT III, MARYSVILLE, MARCH 7, 1950
In accordance with the request made in your circular letter of
November 15, 1949 and Mr. Tilton's tracer of February 23, 1950, we
are listing below some representative slope protection projects located
in this district.
In general, the installations, which are of several different types, are
considered to have been successful. More detailed information con-
cerning the performance of individual installations can be obtained
from Mr. D. D. Breuning, who will act as the District representative
when Committee examinations are made.
Gle-7-B, Sta. 28 + to Sta. 46 +
In 1941, under Day Labor Work Order No. 23A6, shoulder and
slope protection was placed at a cost of about $4,900.00. A bituminous
macadam blanket two inches thick and reinforced with 1\" chicken
wire was placed over the shoulder and fill slope on the east side. At
the toe of the fill slope a IV x 2' sacked concrete toe wall was con-
structed, using about 200 cubic yards of sacked concrete.
Glen-7-B, Walker Creek, Bridge 11-03
In 1936, under Contract 83TC6, when the new bridge was con-
structed over Walker Creek, a total of about 229 cubic yards of Broken
Concrete Kip Rap was placed at a cost of about $900.00.
Glen-7-C, Hambright Creek, Bridge 11-02
In 1940, under Day Labor Work Orders No. 23Jl (8th and 15th
Supplemental) and 23A7, totals of about 130 cubic yards of sacked
concrete riprap and 425 tons of rock riprap were placed at a total
cost of about $3,800.00.
Gle-45-B, East End of Ramp Over West Levee of Sacramento River
In 1941, under Day Labor Work Order 23C16, a total of 220 cubic
yards of sacked concrete riprap was placed at a cost of about $2,650.00.
About 3,300 square feet of rock and wire mattresses were placed at
a cost of about $2,120.00.
In 1942, under Day Labor Work Order No. 23W10 & 3W5, about 303
cubic yards of additional sacked concrete riprap were placed at a cost
of about $3,900.00.
Gle-47-A, Stony Creek Bridge No. 11-29
In 1939, under.Day Labor Work Order 03Jl (16th Supplemental)
about 90 cubic yards of sacked concrete riprap were placed on the
north side of the west approach fill, at a cost of about $750.00. Willow
brush bank protection was placed at a cost of about $200.00.
In 1940, under Day Labor Work Orders 03C28 and 23Jl (16th
Supplemental) the north slope of the west approach embankment was
flattened and bituminous macadam and plant-mixed surfacing placed
as slope protection. A modified penetration macadam, using ROMC-4
and coarse screenings was placed to a total thickness of two inches
over two feet of the shoulder from Station 222+30 to 225+50, and
over the slope from Station 222+30 to 227+50. The treatment was
carried down the slope projected to a point from two to three feet
vertically below the normal ground line. The macadam was reinforced
with \\" poultry netting. The six foot wide shoulder area between the
pavement and the bituminous treatment, was paved with three inches
of plant-mixed surfacing. The total cost of this work was about
$2,050.00.
In 1941, under Day Labor Work Order 23J1-23K120-23C19, 26
tetrahedrons and 25 jackstraws were placed at a total cost of about
$2,250.00.
Also in 1941, under Day Labor Work Order No. 23C17, a total of
about 2,450 square feet of rock mattress was placed at a cost of about
$2,300.00.
But-47-A, Bridges 12-46, 12-47, 12-48, 12-49, 12-50
In 1940, under Day Labor Work Order No. 23Jl (8th and 15th
Supplemental) the outlet channels were shaped and about 430 cubic
yards of sacked concrete riprap placed at a total cost of about
$6,240.00.
Col, Yol-50-A,A, 3A mi. N. Cache Creek Bridge to
Bear Creek Bridge (portions)
In 1939, under Contract 23WC4, a total of 2,053 cubic yards of rock
riprap was placed at a cost of $5,132.00 and 3,387 cubic yards of
sacked concrete riprap at a cost of $27,100.00.
In 1943, under Day Labor "Work Order No. 23W13, about 1,100
cubic yards of Hand Placed Rock Embankment were placed at a
cost of about $4,100.00.
Gle-88-C, Stony Creek Bridge 11-38
In 1941, under Day Labor Work Order 23C18, a total of 439 tons
of granite spalls was placed at a cost of about $1,350.00.
C. H. Whitmore
District Engineer
/s/ J. B. Hodges
FROM DISTRICT IV, SAN FRANCISCO, JANUARY 18, 1950
Conforming with your circular of November 15, 1949 we are sub-
mitting attached hereto a tabulation indicating several installations of
embankment protection in this District which it is suggested be re-
viewed by the Joint Bank Protection Committee in preparation of the
report to the General Committee.
If further data is required it will be necessary to search our files
and this will not be done until we have had advice from you.
/s/ R. D. Kinsey
ADDENDA FROM DISTRICT IV, FEBRUARY 1, 1950
Under date of January 18, 1950, there was submitted to you a tabu-
lation of various installations of embankment protection in this district.
In the tabulation submitted, reference is made to the top soil and
seeding work on SCr-56-C,D,SCr. This section is incorrect and should
have been SCr-56-D,E,SCr which is the work that was performed under
contract 04TC47.
The recent storms in Santa Cruz, where approximately 5" of rain
fell in a 30-hour period, have indicated that the methods used to control
erosion on this above referred to project were not sufficient due to the
intensity of rainfall which was too great for the soil to absorb and has
demonstrated the need for further study in regard to the soil erosion
of embankments in this particular location.
As a result of the above referred-to storms, the embankment slopes
on this project have lost the top soil covering to nearly 85% of the
embankment slope area. This figure is not a result of a careful survey,
however, and may vary after a survey is conducted.
The erosion that has resulted indicates the need for the abandon-
ment, as we see it, of this type of work in this location and the adoption
of the use of a gravel blanket upon the embankment slopes similar to
that which was utilized on SCr-56-D between Watsonville and Rob Roy
under maintenance operations. Inspection of this latter location indi-
cates that it is a most satisfactory method for this area.
/s/ R. D. Kinsey
to
to
TABLE 16. TYPICAL INSTALLATIONS IN DISTRICT IV PRIOR TO 1950
Type of in,tallation
0ocation
Co. Rte. Sec.
Geographical
Work order
Number
Completed
Co,t
Comment,
0og crib
Riprap, heavy
Riprap, heavy
Slope paving
Bulkhead
Fence
Top ,oil and ,eeding
Son00040A
SCr0000C
SCr0000C
CC000B
Son00040A
SC00300D
SM0000B.C
SCr0000D,E, SCr
CC00000A
Ru,,ian River near Guerneville
At Scott Creek
Pacific Ocean at Waddell Bluff,
At Valona Slide
Ru,,ian River near Guerneville
Uva, and Carnadero Creek,
Between Tunita, and 0obita,
Between Rob Roy and Santa Cruz
Between Chri,tie Underpa,, and
Glen Frazer
0W0
04WC0
4WC0
M00
04WC3
0WW0
0WW0
44WC0
04TC430F
4TC04
8/03/40
00/03/30
0/00/48
8/30/03
00/ 0/30
May ',8
00/08/4
/30/40
0/0/40
$0,400
0,00
30000
0,400
,8000
8000
3,00
. 00
0,00
Sati,factory and economical
Sati,factory and economical
Appear, ,ati,factory and eco-
nomical. Period too ,hort for
definite conclu,ion.
Sati,factory and economical, re-
quiring very little maintenance.
Protection ,ati,factory but de-
,ign not correctâ€”alignment not
held.
Sati,factory and economical: ,mall
amount of maintenance.
Sati,factory
Sati,factory
Sati,factory
FROM DISTRICT V, SAN LUIS OBISPO, JANUARY 26, 1950
In accordance with your letter dated November 15, 1949, the follow-
ing bank and slope protection projects have been selected as repre-
sentative in District V. Data was taken from final reports, with com-
ments from District Maintenance personnel where possible. Costs for
the earlier jobs are now out of line and must be adjusted to present
prices if comparisons are to be made with recent jobs.
A. Bank Protection Projects
7. San Ben/to River, V-SBt-119-E, Contract 05WC2, 1939
This contract involved placing sacked concrete riprap and bank pro-
tection fence at various locations between Paicines and Tres Pinos.
Sacked concrete was placed from Station 31+43 to 49+15 and Station
191+61 to 210+14. Bank protection fence was placed from Station
210+14 to Station 215+02.
Price of sacked concrete was $8.00 per yard, which made the average
cost per lineal foot about $4.60 and the price per square foot about
$0.24. Bank protection fence is two rows of barbed wire fence filled
with brush and rocks, and the cost was $1.00 per lineal foot.
This installation was made after the severe flood of March, 1938,
and has given excellent protection since that time, including the 1941
season when floods were almost as severe as those of 1938.
2. Hilltown Bridge, V-Mon-117-A, Salinas River, 1945
This project was done with emergency funds in cooperation with
Monterey County and cost data is not readily available. It consists
mainly of vertical rails with crow feet resting on the river bed, sup-
ported at the top by horizontal rails anchored to the top of the bank,
with lines of cable and mesh strung horizontally between the vertical
rails. The area in back of the mesh is normally brush filled. This in-
stallation has functioned well during the high water of 1945, but has
not yet been subjected to extreme floods. The County of Monterey gives
their cost on identical work in 1944 as $2.50 per lineal foot.
3. King City Bridge-Salinas River, D.LW.O. 05J1, 1939,
Road V-Mon-2-F
This work consisted of placing tetrahedrons and jackstraws to replace
the rotted pilings along the east bank of the river. 48 tetrahedrons were
placed and tied together with cable and wire mesh. A total of 17 jack-
straws were placed between tetrahedrons and the bank. Cost per tetra-
hedron was $121.45 and per jackstraw was $22.07; with total cost to
State of $7,180, the cost per lineal foot of protection was approxi-
mately $8.50.
This work was done after the intense storm of March, 1938. The high-
est flow since the project was completed occurred in 1941 when dis-
charge was about 60% of the 1938 peak. The installation has been
satisfactory to date.
4. San Ardo Bridge, V-Mon-2-G,H, Contract 25EC2-25TC1, 1930
This work involved placing 226 lineal feet reinforced concrete slope
paving at the San Ardo bridge approaches. A total of 157.72 cubic
yards was placed at $16.00 per cubic yard at a cost of approximately
$3,000 or $13.30 per lineal foot.
This protection has been successful to date and withstood the 1938
floods with little, if any, damage.
5. Bradley Bridge, V-Mon-T-I, Contract 25TC2, 1932
The east approach to the Bradley Bridge was protected with rein-
forced concrete slope paving 4" thick, about 270 feet long. Cost per
lineal foot was $10.00 and per square foot $0.685.
This protection has been satisfactory.
6. Salinas River near Bradley, V-Mon-2-l, Contract 25TC1, 1940
Bank protection was placed from Station 251 to Station 293+50,
consisting of jackstraw spur jetties and broken concrete riprap. A total
of 153 jackstraws were used, in 15 strings, tied together with cable and
wire mesh. Broken concrete riprap was laid on a l1/^ :1 slope to a verti-
cal height of Â±10' and a total of 1,772 cubic yards was placed.
Contract price on jackstraws was $28.00 each, for a total of $4,284.
Broken concrete riprap price was $1.50 per cubic yard for a total cost
of $2,658.
This installation has apparently afforded good protection since con-
structed in 1940. As in several other instances, the work was done after
the severe storm of March, 1938 and has been subjected to floods of
only 60% the intensity of the 1938 peak.
7. Santa Margarita Creek, Cuesta Siding to Santa Margarita,
V-SLO-2-E, Contract 1-5VC26-F, 1950
This project is still under construction. Sacked concrete riprap has
been placed at Station 312 to 315 and at Station 350 to 351. At several
locations unlined channel changes have been constructed, and during
recent rains some erosion of the channel bed has occurred. At such loca-
tions it is planned to place check dams and partial channel lining, util-
izing broken concrete available on the job. The channel lining has been
purposely kept to a minimum on Santa Margarita Creek with the idea
that additional lining would be placed at locations where erosion devel-
ops during the rainy season, thereby limiting expense to those areas
where need is demonstrated.
8. San Lois Obispo Creek, V-SLO-2-D, Contract 5VC14-F, 1948
Sacked concrete riprap was placed from Station Â§8 to 90, Station 101
to 107 and Station 133 to 136, to protect creek bank from high water
stages. Protection was constructed from 4' below to 6' above channel
on 1:1 slope. The contract price was $28.00 per cubic yard and the cost
per lineal foot ran about $25.00.
Some difficulty was experienced during high water stages in 1949 due
to washing out of backfill material to base of riprap, but this was cor-
rected by placing broken concrete in the washed out area and the pro-
tection has since functioned very well.
9. Son Luis Obispo Creek, V-SLO-2-E, Contract 5VC15-F, 1949
Although two areas of sacked concrete riprap was placed, the main
bank protection consists of about 4,400 lineal feet of rock riprap placed
in two locations, Station 485+50 to 488+80, and Station 517+30 to
558+00. Total cost at $3.15 per cubic yard, was about $57,000, or $13.00
per lineal foot.
This riprap has been in place only during the moderate rainy season
of 1949 and has therefore not been exposed to any floods of high inten-
sity.
70. Cuyama River, V-SB-57, D.LW.O. 45x5, 1942
The southwest bank of the Cuyama River at the 4th crossing (from
Route 2) was provided with a low double steel fence filled with rock
and brush, in two separate jetties, at a cost of $4,900 for the 720 foot
total length, which gives a figure of $6.80 per lineal foot.
This installation was made after the high water of 1938 and 1941,
and has therefore not been subjected to storms of high intensity. It
may be difficult to appraise the worth of this installation due to the
extreme instability of the Cuyama River immediately upstream.
11. Gaviota Creek, V-SB-2-E, W.O. 25B4, 1942
Due to wash outs caused by severe storms in 1941-42 sacked concrete
riprap was placed along Gaviota Creek at several different locations
between Station 110+50 and 175+00, totaling 2203 lineal feet. 4 sack
concrete footings were poured to a depth of 3 to 4 feet below stream
bed, and the sacked concrete placed thereon on a 1:1 slope, to an aver-
age vertical height of 12 feet. Dowels were used to connect the bottom
four sack rows to the footing. Total cost for the 1303 cubic yards of
concrete used was $12,672 or $9.72 per cubic yard. Total project cost
was $16,913 or $7.67 per lineal foot.
Since construction there has been no high water comparable to that
of 1941, although several moderately high stages have occurred. The
severity of high water action is evident from the fact that the sacks
have been worn away, and light wear of the concrete itself is apparent.
Shortly after the above-described installation was completed, erosion of
the creek bed began to develop. This has been successfully controlled
by the use of several concrete block check dams. In general, the installa-
tion is in good condition, and is considered to be a good investment.
12. Rincon Creek, V-SB-2-H, Contract 05VC1, 1938
Although the bank protection here is being completely changed under
going Contract No. 1-5VC32-P, past experience with bank protection is
interesting. The existing 21' span arch culvert is skewed Â±30Â° left, and
the end of the barrel was constructed parallel to highway centerline so
that the outlet wingwalls were not symmetrical. During the high water
of March, 1938 considerable erosion developed around and downstream
from the long south wingwall. As a repair project, this long wingwall
was extended 16' and further added to by a 44' length of concrete
riprap.
Studies of photographs taken during the 1938 high water seem to
indicate that the basic cause of the trouble was the nonsymmetrical
outlet wingwalls. Water discharging from the culvert was first released
toward the north along the short wingwall, and then deflected from the
north bank across to the south wingwall, where the erosion occurred.
Current construction will include extension of the existing culvert
downstream with symmetrical wingwalls and the use of broken con-
crete riprap bank protection for some distance beyond the wingwalls.
B. Slope Protection Projects
Most slope protection work in the District follows the orthodox pat-
tern of covering slopes with topsoil and planting grass or ice plant.
However, one slope protection project is unusual enough to warrant
special consideration. This work was done south of Santa Maria on
road V-SB-2-L, Contract 45CS2 in 1932.
The pure sand encountered in the majority of cuts north of Solomon
Summit was eroded badly during construction by the prevailing winds
disfiguring the cuts and filling the roadway with sand. The corrective
measure used was to spray cut slopes with light to medium asphaltic
oils in three separate applications totaling about 1 gallon per square
yard. A total of nearly 45,000 square yards was so treated, and later the
same treatment was applied to about 15,000 square yards of fill slope.
As a result of the oil treatment, wind erosion was completely checked.
Although there are minor areas where undercutting has occurred, the
treatment is still almost completely effective.
At a total cost of $0.19 per square yard, this treatment is considered
to be very economical and effective for the severe conditions found in
this particular area.
No specific mention has been made of embankment protection at the
Soledad Bridge or at a point three miles north of San Ardo, both of
which have given trouble in the past. The south or west bank of the
Salinas River at Soledad has given trouble at various times in the past,
and is protected at present with a tetrahedron installation, which ap-
parently has been effective. The area 3 miles north of San Ardo gave
considerable trouble due to a channel shift in about 1918, at which time
protection work was done by the Southern Pacific Railroad and to
which the State apparently contributed some funds. This area has not
given trouble in recent years, but it is not known if the work or a
channel shift in the river was responsible.
It is believed that the foregoing list will cover the representative
bank protections within the District. No general conclusions can be
made regarding various types of installations due to the fact that many
of them have been placed since the last wet cycle.
Enclosed are copies of district maps showing locations in red of the
installations discussed in this report.
/s/ E. J. L. Peterson
District Engineer
402
ADDENDA FROM DISTRICT V, JANUARY 31, 1951
Submitted herewith, in reply to your oral request of January 24,
1951, is additional information concerning bank and slope protection
works at various locations in this district.
SB-2-D, Station 49+00. No/oqu; Creek R. C. Arch Culvert
Since construction in 1935, the structure has been subjected to sev-
eral violent storms of which the storm of 1941 was the largest, almost
filling the culvert at peak stage. Although no damage occurred to the
entrance or the barrel, the original flared walls at the outlet were under-
mined and damaged during 1938 when discharge reached nearly 700
c.f.s. Under D. L. W. O. 05K76 these wings were replaced with wings
of less height, but greater length, and a paved apron. During several
floods which occurred in 1940 and 1941, these walls and apron were un-
dermined and cracked. Although damage was severe, the structure
withstood the "100 year" storm of December, 1941 with apparently
little additional damage, and for this reason the structure had not
been repaired until the present Contract 15VC36, under which the
inlet is extended and the outlet is revised.
As noted above, the existing walls and apron were severely damaged
early in 1941 when discharge was about 700 c.f.s. and velocities were
approximately 15 ft. per second. Additional damage resulted from the
record "100 year" storm of December 1941, although not in propor-
tion to the intensity of the flood. During this 2000 c.f.s. flood, water
surface rose to within 1 foot of crown at entrance and velocity at the
barrel outlet was estimated at 18 to 19 ft. per second. The major cause
of damage in all floods has been turbulent and eddy action at the
outlet which have undermined the apron and cut into the fill.
Under Contract 15VC36 the inlet has been extended 54 ft. with 35 ft.
wingwalls flared at 30Â°. At the outlet, the west wingwall has been
extended 41.67 ft. and the east wingwall 35.0 ft. Eight gauge inter-
locking sheet piling has been placed on a 25 ft. extension of each wing-
wall and driven to a depth of approximately 12 ft. The tetrahedrons
have been relocated at a flatter skew angle than the wingwalls. Details
of construction can be obtained from Bridge Department Drawing
C-217-11.
SLO-2-E, Station 517+30 to Station 558+00
The selected rock fill was placed on a 1Â£ to 1 slope and extended three
feet below the flow line elevation.
SLO-2-SLO, Station 12+70 to Station 17+00
Channel change is within State right of way. Sacked concrete riprap
was laid on a 1:1 slope and extended three feet below flow line eleva-
tion.
SLO-2-D, Station 87+75 to Station 89+75 and Station
700+89 fo Station 108+31
The observed undercutting of the sacked concrete riprap at Station
90 is to be repaired by maintenance. Method and cost of repair will be
observed and recorded for reference.
403
Si.O-2-D, Station 3 7 2+25 fo Station 315
The sacked concrete riprap at this location was placed on 1:1 slopes
with the invert paved with sacked concrete. The grade of the invert
isâ€”3.8%.
SB-2-L, Station 196 to Station 410
According to the final report of Contract 45CS2, under which this
section was constructed, the cut slopes as originally constructed, pre-
sented a neat appearance prior to the heavy winds of January and
March 1932. Due to these winds, the cuts became badly eroded and
undercut areas appeared throughout the cuts, followed by cave-ins and
slides. The eroded material was deposited on the completed roadway in
depths varying from a few inches to 2\ feet.
The extent of the erosion varied with the nature of the material in
the cuts. Those cuts whose material consisted of sand with clay binder
were not eroded to the same degree as those composed of pure sand.
Prior to the penetration treatment the slopes were dragged and
dressed to 1:1 slopes. Approximately 12,500 cu. yds. of wind blown
and resloped material was removed prior to oiling.
The oil was applied to the slopes by a spray connected to a standard
oil distributor pump, by means of a hose. The oil was a light penetrat-
ing oil with an asphalt content ranging between 40% and 50% and
was applied at a pressure of 40 lbs. per sq. in.
The light oil was put on in two applications of about \ gallon per
square yard. The first application was allowed to penetrate in for about
two days before the second application was applied. The penetration
varied from \ inch to 1 inch varying with the condition of the resloped
area and nature of the material.
The cost of preparing the damaged slopes for penetration treatment
was $0,138 per square yard.
The cost of applying the light oil, including the purchase price of
the oil was $0,037 per square yard.
A third application of 40-50 oil was applied prior to placing the seal
coat. The seal coat was a natural crude of about 70% asphalt content
applied in the same manner as the lighter oil and at a temperature
between 190Â° and 200Â°. The final oiling was at a rate of \ gallon per
square yard.
A strip extending back 10 feet from the top of the cuts was oiled
to prevent wind erosion in that critical area.
Forty four thousand seven hundred square yards of cut area was
oiled with the 70% oil at $0,017 per square yard.
In addition to the cut slope oiling, approximately 15,000 square
yards of fill slope received a penetration shot of | gallon per square
yard. No crust was formed on the fill slopes as on the cut slopes.
Maintenance forces have made varied attempts to hold the erosion
to a minimum. All weights of oil and emulsions have been sprayed
onto the slopes with little success. The sand has been road mixed with
oil and the mixture placed on benched slopes but this has not been
successful. Maintenance personnel have noted that worms working their
404
way through the oil crust have started small slides which initiated the
failure of some areas. They have also noted that the sand slopes are
an encouragement to children to trespass the slopes with the result
that the crust is broken and failure of protection is initiated.
E. J. L. Peterson
District Engineer
/s/ L. L. Funk
FROM DISTRICT VI, FRESNO, JANUARY 30, 1950
Reference is made to Mr. T. G. McCoy's circular letter of Novem-
ber 15, 1949, File No. 000.014/RRRâ€”Bank Protection Study, in which
it was requested that a list of representative installations of various
types of bank protection existent in this District be forwarded to
Headquarters to amplify the joint field examination of typical projects.
Following is a list of such installations arranged by types. It is re-
gretted that some items of informative nature are missing on some
of the locations and types but our records on some of the older installa-
tions are meager in extent. However, it is felt that sufficient pertinent
information is supplied to enable the committee to pick those projects
on which further field study is required.
Masonry Walls
Ker-58-E
At several locations along Tehachapi Creek, where channel changes
were made, slope protection was provided to prevent erosion of the
slope adjacent to the highway. This work was done by day labor, using
convict forces, between October 1941 and June 1943. Protection con-
sisted of cobblestone slopes and vertical rubble masonry walls. During
the high water of October 1945 the greater portion of all walls was
washed out and under Contract 6XC11-F, during 1947, these walls
were replaced using deep concrete toe walls and hand placed grouted
rock slope protection. To date no test has been given these installations.
Cost estimates are not being furnished since such would involve a great
amount of search back into the records.
Ker-57-G
During the construction of this section of the Kern River Canyon
road by convict labor prior to 1925 several installations of masonry
walls were made to prevent eroison of highway embankment slopes.
Our records are too meager to supply any definite information as to
location or costs. These installations have proved effective, high water
in the past having had no damaging effect.
P.C.C. Slope Paving and Sacked Concrete Riprap
Ker-4-E
Occasioned by the relocation, during 1936, of a portion of Route 4
around Famoso, it was necessary that a new bridge be constructed across
Poso Creek, a short distance north of that small town. P.C.C. slope
paving was used to protect the slopes at the bridge abutments. Portions
of this protection were washed out during flood conditions of either
405
1937 or 1939. Sacked concrete riprap was used to repair flood damage,
using "J" funds.
Plant-Mixed Surfacing Slope Protection
Fre-41-N
In 1940, during the relocation of this section around the City of
Firebaugh, new bridges were constructed across Helm and Main
Canals. Because of reverse curve alignment at each structure the use
of P.M.S. as slope protection was resorted to. This was placed on the
canal banks for a thickness of two inches, extending from six inches
below flow line to the top of free board. To date there have been no
complaints from the canal owners as to the efficiency of this slope
protection. Costs, as shown by final report, was $1,080.00 for 180 tons
of P.M.S. No data is available as to the area covered.
Rock Riprap
Ker-4-A
In order to protect the abutments of the bridge across Grapevine
Creek, constructed in 1935 under Contract 46FC3-66VC3, special rock
riprap was placed along the embankment toes. Approximately 900
cubic yards were placed at a cost of approximately $2,400.00. To date
no apparent damage to this protection has been sustained, but neither
have there been any unusual storms since construction was completed.
Fre-10-B, C
Under Contract 46WC3, approximately 1900 cubic yards of hand
placed rock slope protection was constructed at two channel changes on
Warthan Creek, west of Coalinga, in 1941 and 1942. This was done at
a cost of approximately $7,500.00. No damage has resulted from the
extreme flows occasionally present in the channel of Warthan Creek.
E. T. Scott, District Engineer
/s/ by P. B. Stearns
FROM DISTRICT VII, LOS ANGELES, JANUARY 30, 1950
Following is a list of locations where the main features of bank pro-
tection and soil erosion prevention work has been done in District VII;
the listing, in compliance with your letter of November 15, 1949, file
000.014/KRR, Bank Protection Study.
The enclosed photographs, some taken at time of construction, some
taken to show condition at present, are included to assist in your study
of these locations.
/s/ F. B. Cressy
Asst. District Engineer
TABLE 17. BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION IN DISTRICT VII, 1913-1949
Work
Year
Length
Con-
Cost
order
Section
built
Type of work
Station limits
feet
dition*
$/ft.
07VV1
Ora-2-A
1938
Double line fence .
631 + 00
640 + 00
900
*1
8.76
07VV1
Ora-2-A
1938
Double line fence.
651+57
657 + 93
636
1
8.76
07VV1
Ora-2-B
1938
Single line fence.
383 + 50
391 + 18
768
1
1.94
47 J1
Ora-2-B
1928
1943
Double line fence. .
14 + 00
24 + 00
1000
1
t
07VV4
Ven-2-C
Steel rail tetrahedrons ,
West bank of Santa
Clara R. washed out
M151
Ven-2-D
1913
in 1938
t
1927
PCC seawall
66 + 66
71+75
509
3
t
M151
Ven-2-D
1913
1927
PCC seawall
83+69
85+86
217
3
t
M1S1
Ven-2-D
1913
1927
PCC seawall
91+21
100 + 00
879
3
t
67VC6
Ven-2-D
1935
Steel piling seawall
112 + 00
118+00
600
4
24.59
67VC6
Ven-2-D
1935
156 + 00
181+00
2500
4
24.59
M151
Ven-2-D
1927
PCC seawall
164+19
180+16
1597
3
t
67VC6
Ven-2-D
1935
Riprap (ocean) ,
181+00
181+50
50
2
56.47
67VC6
Ven-2-D
1935
Riprap (ocean) ....
262 + 00
267 + 00
500
2
56.47
67VC6
Ven-2-D,
E
1935
Riprap (ocean) .
317 + 50D
4o+ooi0:
340
2
56.47
67VC6
Ven-2-E
1935
51 + 00
57 + 60
660
4
24.59
67VCT.
Ven-2-E
1935
Riprap (ocean).
57+60
58+00
40
2
56.47
67VC6
Ven-2-E
1935
Riprap (ocean) ..
S1 + 22
82 + 00
78
2
56.47
7VC84
Ven-2-F
1949
Riprap (ocean).
157+00
202 + 75
4575
1
114.23
M-53
Ven-2-F
1926
PCC seawall
317 + 22
336+01
1879
3
62.28
7VC31-F
LA-4-G
1948
Channel paving and de-
celerators .
181+64.5
191+70
1025
1
t
7VC57
LA-4-G
1949
PCC slope paving and
decelerator
238+40
102
1
87.76
7VC57
LA-4-H
1949
Riprap (stream) ,. ,
97 + 25
100+64
339
2
I Approx
1 19 nri
I 14. UU
7VC38
LA-4-H
1948
PCC slope paving
263 + 50
265 + 00
150
2
33.50
0-7 VC11
LA-4-1
1939
riprap.
30 + 00 and 33 + 40
200 Â±
2
t.30.00
0-7 VC11
LA-4-I
1939
Riprap (stream). ,
42 + 00
47 + 00
1000
2
J30.00
0-7 VC11
LA-4-1
1939
Riprap (stream). ,,
85 + 75
93 + 00
725
2
t-30.00
0-7 veil
LA-4-1
1939
PCC slope paving .
128+50 and 132 + 25
200 Â±
2
,20.00
0-7 veil
LA-4-1
1939
riprap
134 + 21
138+95
474
2
J30.00
0-7VC11
LA-4-1
1939
PCC slope paving
144 + 00
100Â±
2
*20.00
0-7 veil
LA-4-1
1939
Riprap (stream)..
169 + 50
150
2
J15.00
0-7VC10
LA-23-A
1938
Double line fence
45 + 45
46 + 75
150
2
6.60
0-7VC10
LA-23-A
1938
Double line fence. , ,
411+ 10
49 + 90
100
2
6.60
0-7VC10
LA-23-A
1938
Double line fence.
67 + 80
73 + 20
560
2
6.60
0-7VC10
1.A-23-A
1938
Double line fence ..
76 + 65
77 + 50
100
2
6.60
0-7VC10
LA-23A
1938
Double line fence .
82 + 30
85 + 40
350
2
6.60
0-7VC10
LA-2S-A
1938
Double line fence
95+10
101+50
624
2
6.60
0-7VC10
LA-23-H
1938
Double line fence. â€”
290 + 50
298 + 07
760
2
6.60
0-7VC10
LA-23-H
1938
Double line fence ,. .
316 + 80
318 + 40
160
2
6.60
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Double line fence. . ..
151+04
155 + 00
396
2
14.49
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Slope paving and sheet
piling ...
148+30
153 + 48
518
2
45.51
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Double line fence-
157 + 00
160 + 30
330
2
8.81
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Double line groyne
159 + 50
100 + 30
2
8.81
1938
Double line fence-
215 + 50
233 + 50
800
2
8.81
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Double line groynes
242+00
248 + 00
175
2
8.81
1938
Triple line fence
140 + 80
148+30
750
2
12.94
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Triple line fence .
153 + 52
157 + 00
348
2
12.94
0-7XC19
Ora-43-B
1938
Triple line fence..
299+60
315 + 53
1593
2
12.94
D 620
LA-60-A
1927
Riprap (ocean) .
Unknown
S
t
97F4
LA-60-B
1929
Riprap (ocean). ..
49+00
74 + 55
2555
2
4.40
D-498
LA-60-B
1924
Groynes (ocean)
190 + 00
283 + 75
1448
S
2.21
57VC2
LA-60-B
1935
Groynes (ocean).
231+92
241+,_,7
250 Â±
5
50.91
47JI-57.I14
Ora-60-B
1943
Riprap (ocean) ..
El Morro Bay
600 Â±
2
55.43
47 V1
Ven-60-A
1932
Throwback Cap. ,
669 + 85
672 + 72
358
4
5.00
47V1
Ven-60-A
1933
Repairs to old seawall.
672+72
676 + 72
400
4
4.73
407
(Continued)
Work
order
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
0-7VC1-
97V1
47V1
47V1
47 V1
47 V1
47V1
0-7V1
0-7V1
47V1
47V1
47 V1
47 V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47 V1
47 V1
47V1
47V1
47 VI
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
47V1
Year
Section
built
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1929
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1937
Ven-60-A
1937
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1933
Ven-60-A
1931
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Ven-60-A
1932
Type of work
Seawall
Throwback Cap
Seawall
Repairs to old seawall
Cells for slope paving.
Slope paving (shore
protection)
Groyne (ocean)
Throwback
Seawall
Groyne (ocean)
Sevwall
FCC seawall
2 buttresses
Seawall -
Raise old wall
Throwback cap
Buttress (o?ean)
Buttress (o -ean)
Buttress (ocean)
Groyne (ocean)
Groyne (ocean)
Groyne (olean)
Groyne (o?ean)
Groyne (ocean)
Groyne (ocean)
Groyne (ocean)
Groyne (ocean)
Seawall.
Groyne (ocean)
Station limits
676 + 72 687+06
687 + 06 690 + 27
700 + 71 728+75
700 + 71 728+75
701+30 994 + 50
701+30
704 + 63
705+16
741+22
819+73
820 + 92
830 + 30
994 + 50
707+11
743 + 51
830+86
832 + 60
831+23 and 832+20
858+71
858+00
875+45
868 + 52
880 + 04
881 + 55
885 + 85
888 + 81
892 + 45
894 + 71
902 + 54
920 + 00
925+00
925 + 06
931+28
937 + 21
949+17
951+51
952+06
863 + 83
895 + 00
879 + 35
875+46
993 + 00
951+43
954 + 01
957 + 24
Length
Con-
feet
dition*
602
4
316
4
2263
4
2804
â– 1
1765
2
1765
2
24
4
222
4
229
4
91
4
1286
4
230
4
Un-
known
4
512
4
3900
4
390
4
753
4
14
1
15
4
15
4
52
4
77
4
62
4
183
4
62
4
6800
4
153
1
141
4
212
4
227
4
80
4
214
4
36
4
352
4
173
4
128
4
150
4
500
4
120
4
Cost
t/ft.
19.16
6.63
18.50
3.15
7.73
14.33
10.72
5.19
14.37
8.60
9.92
71.64
Total
1,663
26.25
4.53
6.46
2.07
24.27
14.41
11.00
10.70
9.10
2.59
13.42
13.62
0.20
17.91
6.61
15.00
19.89
9.52
t
LA-61-A
1933
LA-61-A
1933
LA-61-B
1938
LA-62-A
1938
Ora-62-D
1938
Ora-64-A
1938
Ven-79-C
1938
Ven-79-C
1942
Ven-79-C
1942
Ven-79-C
1942
Ven-79-C
1942
Ven-138-A
1938
Ven-138-
B,C,D,E
1939
Seawall
Groyne (ocean)
Throwback cap
Groyne (ocean) _.
Groyne (ocean)
Groyne (ocean)
Seawall
Groyne (ocean)
953 + 92
954 + 01
972+45
976+04
981+01
983 + 35
985 + 45
988+38
20.88
2.27
8.21
12.90
12.91
14.43
12.80
(Day Labor Work Orders 67V14, 1936; 87V4, 1938; 07V2, 1939, 27V1, 1945; spent 1270,000 repairing
and replacing above walls and groynesâ€”Stations 665 to 996.)
47DS6
47DS6
07X3
07XC15
07XX3
07XX3
47X20
47X20
47X20
47X20
47XC6-
47X20
07XC7
07X11
Erosion control
Erosion control
Erosion control
Riprap (stream)
Double line fence
Double line fence
Double line fence
PCC slope paving
Sacked cone, riprap
Rock and wire mattress
Steel rail tetrahedrons.
Double line fence
Riprap (stream).
121+00 319+00
--
3
Method
I $760/
acre
121+00 319+00
_"
3
Method
II 1,130
/acre
824+00 910+00
__
3
tie.oo
t
71+26 90Â±
__
2
t
Not available
__
5
Mile 4.6
348
5
9.55
580 587
700
5
t
554 595
.
5
t
554 595
__
5
t
554 595
--
5
t
587 595
800
2
8.00
(About mile 7.5)
1200
4
t
Various locations
9674
(cy.)
2
t
408
(Continued)
Work
order
Year
Length
feet
Con-
dition*
Cost
Section
built
Type of work
Station limits
J/ft.
07X11
Ven-138-E
Ven-138-E
Ven-138-E
Ven-155-A
Ven-155-C
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156 A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156- A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-156-A
LA-205-
SPas
1942
1938
1946
1944
1944
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1944
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1942
1944
Double line fence- _ _ -
Single line fence - _ â€”
380 387
700
i700
360
5
3.39
27D33
380 387
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
t
57 J12
Single line fence
734+25 737 + 85
t
13.55
8.43
3.10
2.54
2.54
2.54
3.38
3.24
3.29
57 J1
Sacked concrete-
Riprap (stream) -
Bridge No. 52-110
66
200
900
57J8
Bridge No. 52-118
27D29
Riprap (stream)
Mile 0.98 to 1.15
27D29
Riprap (stream).
Mile 1.23
75
27D29
Riprap (stream). __ __
Mile 1.32
50
150
300
900
1600
t
200
150
100
100
200
27D29
Riprap (stream)
Mile 1.44
27D29
Riprap (stream) ..
Mile 1.73 to 1.79
27D29
Riprap (stream) â€”
Mile 1.85 to 2.02
27D29
Riprap (stream) _ .
Mile 2.12 to 2.42
57J9
Riprap (stream). .
Mile 2.25 to 5.28
t
5.08
2.77
2.54
3.18
3.18
5.22
9.26
6.50
27D29
Riprap (stream). _ _ .
Sacked concrete-
Riprap (stream)
Mile 2.50
47X36
Mile 4.63
27D29
Mile 4.86
27D29
Riprap (stream)
Mile 5.44
27D29
Riprap (stream). _ _ _
Sacked concrete.. ._ _
Mile 5.57
47X36
Mile 6.36
60
150
47X36
Sacked concrete _
Mile 6.53
47X36
Sacked concrete. _
Sacked concrete
Mile 6.59
50
t
57J9
Mile 6.73 (6.69)
t
27XM108
1940
Erosion control
11+00 36+70
2570
2
4.85
* Present condition:
1â€”Excellent
2â€”Good
3â€”Fair
4â€”Poor
5â€”Unknown
t Not available
} Approximately
ADDENDA, COMMITTEE TO DISTRICT VII, SEPTEMBER 15, 1950
The following is a list of bank and erosion protection installations
which were not included in the list provided in Mr. Cressy's memo-
randum to Mr. McCoy, Attention: Joint Bank Protection Committee,
under date of January 30, 1950.
These items are exclusively projects which have been financed by
maintenance (J) funds and cover only work done since 1942. It may
be that your District records cover other similar projects worthy of
field review by the committee during their contemplated field trip,
August 25-27.
The committee would be pleased to receive in quadruplicate a list
of any installations not already covered and which, in your opinion,
merits consideration at this time.
Tentative List of Bank-Protection Installations
for Review in District VII
LA-60-A
W.O. 57J15
1944
Escondido Canyon to Corral Canyon.
Place heavy rock riprap 792â€”794+25
774â€”778
742â€”752
695â€”702+50
$34,175
409
Ven-60-A
W.O.1-7J1-8 sup.
1949
Ven-151-C
W.O. 67J1 Sup.
1945
Ven-738-B, C
W.O. 57J2
1943
Ven-138-E
W.O. 77J12
1945
Ven-79-B
Riprap shore protection
736+50â€”739+50
881+50â€”882+80
987+75â€”990+00
Cut-off wall replacement 130'x8'Â±
Dip at Ventura River
$75,000
Rock Riprap
Mi. 4.7 Sec. B
Mi. 5.7 Sec. B
Orouted-Rock Riprap
Mi. 5.2 Sec. B
Mi. 0.7 Sec. C
Mi. 0.9 Sec. C
Mi. 10.5 Single rail-and-wire fence
400 lin ft
$3,500
Ven-155-C
W.O. 57J1
W.O.57J8
W.O.â€”
Ven-79-C
W.O. 7X10
1943
LA-79-B
LA-23-B, C, D
Contr. 7JC2
Sup.
LA-59-CD (por.)
W.O. 57J1-7 Sup.
1943
LA-23-1
W.O. 57J1-Sup.
Sespe Cr. Bridge Abutment Protection
(riprap) $2,650
Bardsdale Bridge riprap protection
1943
1944 Extend protection
Check dams in Grimes Canyon
Bank protection (riprap, tetrahedrons,
jacks) $44,400
7X10 Sup : $40,000
7X10 Sup $7,500
LA-79-B Sta 288 to 290+55 rail-and-wire fence
LA-23-B 84 to 87+30 rail-and-wire fence
LA-23-C 81+50 to 88+00 rail-and-wire fence
217+70 to 219+50 rail-and-wire fence
244+07 Sierra Pelora Cr. Br. 50 lin ft
sack concrete downstream, 35
lin ft upstream
340+65 to 344+25 sack concrete riprap
LA-23-D 45+00 to 47+50 sack concrete riprap
Oil mixed roadside and guttersâ€”erosion control
(i gal. MC3 per sq yd).
At Santa Clara R. Bridge, riprap and tetrahedrons.
1943
410
LA-61-A
W.O. 1-7J1-125
1949-50
Ven-155-A
W.O. 57J1-5S
1943
Ora-184-A
W.O. 67J1-6S
1944
W.O.77J16
1946
W.O. 57J1-11S
1943
Oro-60-6
W.O. 57J14
1944
Cooperative project (with USFS) erosion control
(in progress).
Potrero Creek Bridge, sack concrete riprap.
Erosion Control.
Broken concrete check dams and walls (grouted).
Sack concrete
Straw and ice-plant erosion control on grade.
Fill voids rock riprap with broken concrete.
FROM DISTRICT VIII, SAN BERNARDINO, JANUARY 23, 1950
Attached is a list of bank protection features in District VIII pro-
posed for study and observation by your committee, as requested by
your letter of November 15, 1949.
No failure of note to such installations has occurred in the District
since 1938.
You will be notified in the event of damage to any protective work
in the District.
E. Q. Sullivan
District Engineer
/s/ By A. Coonrad
TABLE 18. BANK-PROTECTION FEATURES IN DISTRICT VIII
Section
Type
Sta. to Sta.
Year
Built
SBd-31-B.
SBd-31-B.
SBd-26A_
Riv-26-D..
Riv 26-C.
Heavy Riprap
Self-enlarging Channel
Timber Revetment
Grouted-rock dike facing
290-296
306-342
12-23
82-88
91-94
47
1944
1944
1939
Riv-187-D.
SBd-190-D
SBd-207-A
Riv-19-C.
SBd-207-A
Riv-43-B__
Light riprap
Sacked concrete riprap
Selected rock bank protection
Wire-and-brush erosion mats
Horizontal mats, straw, seeding and planting, erosion
protection
81-95
95-98
240-458
345-348
94-100
135-139
Embankment
Embankment
6-12
1939
1940
1940
1948
1941
1946
1934
1946-50
1948
FROM DISTRICT IX, BISHOP, NOVEMBER 23, 1949
In response to Mr. McCoy's circular letter dated November 15, 1949,
relative to a review and report on the practice of bank protection as
related to highways, I wish to advise as follows:
In this District, bank protection has been confined within relatively
narrow limits, light and heavy rock riprap, sacked concrete and a small
installation of railroad rail and torpedo netting.
With the exception of all but the major projects hereinafter listed,
the installations were of a minor nature, consisting primarily of small
protected areas at the entrance to bridges and culverts and a few short
sections of rock protection work on inlet and outlet ditches.
It is probable that the committee will consider that the work per-
formed on Mono-23-K, between Sonora Junction and Coleville (through
the West Walker River Canyon) in 1939, under Contracts 09VC5-
89VC6, is most representative of protection work in the way of channel
changes, light and heavy riprap, and sacked concrete riprap. More
details as to construction may be found in my Final Report dated
August 12,1939.
In the winter of 1938, the Walker River Canyon was subjected to a
flood of probably a volume greater than had been experienced in the
preceding 50 years period. This flood destroyed several miles of high-
way and necessitated extensive repairs and a system of protective work.
The Walker River is subject to annual floods that normally occur be-
tween April 1st and June 20th, dependent upon the snowfall and rate
of melting. Therefore, the work completed in 1939 has been subjected
to at least seven floods of major proportions. The installation of both
riprap and of channel work has been very successful in preventing
damage and to the best of my recollection, it has not been necessary to
replace or repair any portion of the work performed.
As an example of torpedo netting installation, it is suggested that
consideration be given to the work that was completed in the Red Rock
Canyon, road IX-Kern-23-C, contract 0-9VC17, between Ittner's to
Ricardo, completed 1949, and covered by my Final Report dated July
28, 1949. This installation has not, as of this date, been tested by flood
and the only apparent advantage that could be gained until such time
as a flood does occur, is a study of an installation prior to flood. A
review of the final report will indicate the series of pictures, showing
the various stages of work which should prove sufficient for preliminary
study.
Notice has been given to all sections of District personnel to report
to the District Office any storm damages or floods which may occur, in
order that a representative of the Bank Protection Committee may be
notified, in accordance with the second paragraph of page 2 of Mr.
McCoy's letter.
Yours very truly,
/g/ S. W. LOWDEN
District Engineer
412
FROM DISTRICT X, STOCKTON, MARCH 1, 1950
There are several bank protection projects in this district, the major
one being on our road X-Mer-18-F,G. This work comprises of light rip-
rap, rock fills, grouted and ungrouted, and rubble walls. It is very
extensive, running from Briceburg to El Portal, although not a solid
installation.
The next heaviest installation is that which lies adjacent to X-Sac-
11-C on the Sacramento River, between Emmaton and Isleton Bridge.
This is mostly light riprap.
There is also bank protection at the southwest corner of the Antioch
Bridge, on our road X,CC-11-A. This is also riprap.
On X-Ama-65-C,Jkn, there is some minor bank protection on South
Jackson Creek and the work consists of Gunite.
On X-Cal-24-B, where the road leaves the Calaveras River, there is
an installation of riprap; also, on road X-Ama-97-A at Dry Creek
Bridge and again at Dry Creek Bridge on road X-SJ-4-D, the latter
being concrete slope pavement.
The only work of this kind that it is believed will be interesting to
the Committee will be the job on road X-Mpa-18-F,G, and the riprap
placed along the banks of the Sacramento River on road X-Sac-11-C.
The other items mentioned are of minor importance and since their
installation, no severe tests have been made of their efficiency, although
it is believed they would all function if the need arose.
J. G. Meyer
District Engineer
/s/ By M. C. Fosgate
FROM DISTRICT XI, SAN DIEGO, JANUARY 24, 1950
As instructed in your letter of November 15, 1949, subject, Bank Pro-
tection Study, I am submitting herewith a list of various projects in
this vicinity which involve some type of flood or erosion protection
work.
We have not had an opportunity to review files and records for costs,
but undoubtedly this list covers some projects that may not be of par-
ticular interest. If the members of the Committee will indicate which
items may be of primary concern, we will attempt to collect the neces-
sary data concerning date of completion, exposure to floods, etc., and
cost.
Mr. F. W. Stewart, Associate Highway Engineer in this District is
probably more familiar with the various projects listed than anyone
else in the District, and we will attempt to make him available at the
time the Joint Committee visits this District.
Imperial Irrigation District advise they have mainly heavy riprap.
They have done some tetrahedron and jack straw work, but it is now
covered up.
413
However, they suggested they have a small waste structure "Dixie
Waste" north and east of Dixieland, concrete flume on slope. Flume
has sets of concrete blocks in the bottom which successfully retard water
velocity and create smooth flow. Might be used in handling water in
long ditches in cut sections on steep grades.
If other data is desired at this time, please advise and we will at-
tempt to furnish same.
E. E. Wallace
District Engineer
TABLE 19. FLOOD-CONTROL DEVICES IN DISTRICT XI
Section Location and type of device
SD-2-A (1) Riprap along beach. Starts at George's Cafe in Solana
Beach and runs south for approximately one-half mile.
Serious damage incurred at this point in the past.
(2) Sorrento Creek Bridge south of Del Mar, there is an
example of heavy riprap which settled below flow line in one
storm. A second story has been added which is still there,
but may disappear again in a sufficient flood.
(1) Riprap at Escondido Creek.
(2) Heavy riprap was required at Hedionda Creek due to
erosion underneath footing. Severe erosion occurred and sand
bar broke, releasing a lagoon of water through this opening,
causing heavy scour.
Tetrahedrons at San Mateo Creek. These have worked well for
drifts, but low water has cut under them in places.
Seven miles south of Escondido. Diversion levee and spillway
installed to correct erosion from stream running parallel to
road.
Treatment of highway embankments, berms, etc. Plant-mixed
berms on 4:1 slopes. (Should be used more extensively.)
One-half mile east of Vista. Erosion control ditch of gunited
asphalt reinforced with wire. Approximately 0.3 mile long.
Walls about four feet high with an approximate slope of 1:1
and bottom about four feet wide.
Riprap wall, approximately two miles north of Santa Ysabel.
Four to five hundred feet long and used as protection for
creek bank.
Willow cuttings planted for embankment erosion protection.
Seven miles east of Rincon Store and running about two miles
on fill only, redwood boards set edgewise in fills and spaced
about 18 inches apart to prevent slope erosion. Done by U.S.
forces about 1939 or 1940. Fill slope protection is quite ade-
quate.
Also, on the county road to Palomar Mountain the forest service
installed excellent slope protection.
Imp-26-B,C Torpedo netting at San Felipe Creek and Lone Tree Wash fol-
lowing 8 netting installations have different soil conditions at
each. Athol planting at San Felipe and Lone Tree (Lone
Tree later planted with salt cedars).
Imp-26-B Torpedo netting at Trifolium Drain, 1948, Contract 11VC18.
Imp-26-B,C,D Rock and brush fences. Recent work which has had no test yet.
Imp-26-C Tamarisk cuttings planted at San Felipe Creek.
Riv-26-G Light riprap work above bridges, fair exampleâ€”a few have had
floods, the design worked well.
Riv-26-G Pipe-and-wiie-mesh fence placed by Coachella Valley County
Water District. Some disappeared in the first storm.
Riv-26-Var. Ditch and dike systemsâ€”rock-faced and plain.
SD-2-B
SD-2-D
SD-77-B
SD-77-B,Esd,F
Old SD-77-C
(Now County Rd.)
SD-78-C
SD-195-E.D
Riv-64-C.D Dike systemâ€”many unrepaired sections here and on Imp-26-B,
C which show need for auxiliary protection to dikes them-
selves.
Riv-64-Var. Ditch and dike systems.
Riv-64-H Fences. Fences held, but rock disappeared.
Riv-64-F Tetrahedrons at Colorado River.
Riv-64-Q Left of our road, rock and brush protection at Deep Canyon.
Riv-146-C,D,E Rock mattress placed by Maintenance Department.
Riv-187-A Articulated rock facing at Salt Creek.
Riv-187-F Rock-and-wire fence installed in 1939 at Coachella Storm Drain.
Fairly successful example of such work in connection with
bridges on piling.
Mission Bay and San Diego River flood protection at outlet to
oceanâ€”installed by U. S. Army Engineers.
APPENDIX E
PATENTS
LANDMARK PATENTS IN BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION
Number
Inventor
Novelty
104586
159956
200412
208248
219899
224398
227531
231957
239920
260016
275132
283683
314941
315384
331127
396446
419121
419237
426807
449185
534919
598076
620584
687332
717039
749386
762727
777288
780437
801603
810630
812045
837484
850244
875480
877201
880390
891890
892610
897369
919788
954283
964362
975551
978897
994999
1005113
1031077
1058879
1060357
1129719
1140140
1146229
1151445
1200767
1219995
1230608
1281021
1281022
1355051
1355052
1371119
1373629
1389513
1870
1875
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1885
1889
1890
1891
1895
1898
1899
1901
1902
1904
1906
1906
1907
1908
1910
1911
1912
1913
1915
1916
1917
1918
1920
1921
Harlan
Mullett-Schumann
Scott
Littlefield
Bangs-Dolbey
Currie
Hughes
Dyer
Bell.
Franklin
Buck
Thomas
Hyatt
Boynton
Goodridge.
Weeke
Henshaw
Wisner
Harrelson
Solomon
Sewall
Case
Harrelson
Neale
Smiser
Kellner
Landenberger
Kellner
Neale
Neale
Dwight
Kellner
Maccaferri
Nabers
Westenhaver
Kellner
McGregor
Wells
Neale
He wland-DeNyse-
Smith
Hawkes
Airhart
Maher_
Kelley
Hare__.
Green
Maher-Bignell
Maher
Nies
Parrott
E verett-Shel dc n _..
Adamson
Dean
Sewall
Pedley
Sheldon
Kellner
Kellner
Kellner
Kellner
Scott
Nohlen
Kellner
Leg rafts sunk as jetties
Spur jetty of solid caissons, inclined DS
Spur jetty of trees, permeable
Vertical fascines
Jetty on mattress
Mattress dams as jetties
Sea jetty
Open box pile for jetties
Brush mattresses, cross-shaped
Pile bulkhead, permeable
Jetties of trees
Breakwater of baffles
Jetty, counterforted over mattress
Pile A-frame jetty
Flexible mattress jetty
Tiiangular mattress jetty
Flexible fence
Mattress and rock jetty
Triform rack (tetrahedron)
Mesh suspended over caving bank
Sheet pile jetty
Groin
Chain-mat jetty
Hollow fascines
Boom of trees
Triangular fascines
Pile fence
Triangular fascine with anchor
Staggered jetties
Submerged tetrahedral frames
Triangular groin
Fascine jetty
Gabion
River fence
Jetty inclined upstream
Current deflector
Pile jetty inclined downstream
Vane jetty element
Series of jetties to LW mark
Sheet pile groin
Triangular concave vane
Revetment, triangular RC blocks
Riprap
Slat riprap
Boom and fence
Curtain mattress
Debris collector
Levee
Fence jetty
Bank fencing
Concrete blocks cast on trees
RC tetrahedrons
Cribs filled with brush
Triangular spurs
Spurs inclined upstream
Fence with streamers
Triangular RC shell
Pole jack current retarder
Angle-iron jack for jetty
Jack, 3, 5 ct 7 axes
Jack, 8 or 12 axes
Drift-fending fence
Angle-iron jack, 5-axis
Pyramid
(415)
APPENDIX E-Continued
PATENTS
LANDMARK PATENTS IN BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION
Number
Year
Inventor
Novelty
1409140
1448965
1475461
1487668
1489647
1516767
1528016
1531743
1554605
1574153
1578138
1580338
1584766
1595946
1609633
1627623
1635899
1641966
1646168
1662578
1681636
1691335
1716509
1748444
1775820
1814495
1819305
1840271
1841594
1844484
1858976
1875668
1880838
1888364
1928473
1948639
1967759
2000311
2000312
2032582
2055150
2071656
2071779
2082707
2097342
2099249
2106564
2135337
2244433
2766592
1922
1923
1925
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1941
1956
Bignell
Kellner..
Kellner
Rehfeld
Nohlen
Falley
Evers
Falley
Smith.
Kellner
Kirk
Scott
Gordo n-Frisbie
Kellner
Rehfeld
Smith.
Nohlen
Farney..
Pringle
Kellner
Farney
Campbell
Smith
Dutton
Johannes
Sheldon
Snyder
Falley
Dysart
Smith
Thomley.
Sheldon
Curney
Van Orman
Wood
Young berry
Snyder
Wocd-Sch mitt-
Wood
Lashmet
Heskett
Rehfeld
Dora
Mahon
Rehfeld
Wood
Fisk-Lucas
Herbest
Ottinger.
Danel-d'Auriac
Pile-anchored trees
Mesh crib
Hook jetty, inclined upstream
Tetrahedron with tripod
Tripod of angle irons
Baffle deflector
Triangular H-beam cribs
Baffle deflector
4-axis jack
Triangular jetty
Triangular crib jetty
Riprap frame
Jetty frame, anchored
Angle-iron jack
Spring-steel tetrahedron
Compound jack, using salvage
Spherical jetty unit, hooped
Pile-anchored mattress
Fence jetty
Jack, 5-axis
Pile-anchored mattress
Zigzag spur jetty
Fence on jacks
Boom and mattress on fence
Triangular jetty with fence
Casting RC tetrahedrons
Cylindrical fence
Frame with netting
Flexible crib or piles
Branched jetties
Pile A-frames, with fence
Casting tetrahedrons
Dikes on mattresses
Helical fencing
Permeable rock groin
Permeable groin, adjustable
Angle bar frame and wire net
RC crib jetty
Pile jetty, variable permeability
Channel-iron 4-axis jack
Pile fence and trees
Buck frames of auto chasses
Mesh fascines
Tied jack frames
Jetty anchorage
Crib and pile jetty
Jetty layout
Reticulated mesh jetty
Jack of 3 X-frames
Tetrapod (4- or 5-footed jack)
PATENTS 417
PATENT CLASSIFICATION
Except for the last item, the foregoing list was compiled from an
intensive review of the 266 patents issued up to June 1941 in classes
61-3, 61-4 and 61-5. If further search is ever warranted, the following
abstract of classification will serve as a guide:
Class 61â€”Hydraulic and Earth Engineering
Subclasses:
1. WATER CONTROL
2. Channels
3. Forming and preserving
4. Jetties, groins and breakwaters
5. Portable
18. Spillways
30. Dams and levees
34. Cofferdams
35. EARTH CONTROL
36. Solidifying or thawing earth
37. Revetments
38. Mattresses
39. Retaining walls
46. STABLE STRUCTURES IN SHIFTING MEDIA
47. Cribbing
53. Piles
58. Sheet piling
ABSTRACT OF FILES ON PERMEABLE-JETTY PATENTS
7938, February 26 to March 26:
Exchange between District Engineer Gibson and Monterey County
Engineer Cozzens leading to request for legal opinion (File 205.47)
that Kellner Patent 1281022 had expired and the invention (jack
unit for jetties) was public property. Included warning that the State
might by some remote possibility duplicate and infringe on a modified
form covered by later patents.
7940, May 74:
Letter from Kellner Jetties Company stated "... patents covering
improvements on former structures, new structures, as well as systems
of installation, have either been taken out by or acquired by our
company, and are all in effect either through completed issuance or
pending applications."
7947, April 21:
Memo from Tilton to Gillis (File 200.46) cited the foregoing and
recommended investigation of all permeable jetty patents for guidance
in highway practice. The recommendation was approved and Messrs.
Johnson and Rowe were assigned to the legal and technical phases
respectively.
1941, August 11:
Memo from Panhorst to Gillis transmits interim report of Rowe on
review of 266 patents, finding 123 pertinent to study, and abstracting
12 expired and 3 active patents by Kellner.
1941, September 18:
A follow-up memo transmitted abstracts of 6 expired and 4 active
patents of jetty elements in the form of tetrahedrons, with comment
that our current practice was unlike any active patent, but that re-
newed use of concrete units should avoid infringement of two patented
procedures for precasting.
Also transmitted were abstracts of 5 expired and 9 active patents of
jetty elements in the form of jacks, with the comment that our prac-
tice was similar to early inventions which were now in the public
domain. Active patents covered minor alleged improvements, more
complicated units, and new combinations of jacks in jetty construction
by addition of anchors and interconnections.
1941, October 2:
An addenda report summarizing the earlier reports and extending
to cover combinations read as follows:
PERMEABLE SPUR JETTIES
Patents pertinent to permeable spur jetties may cover one or more
of the following phases:
1. Design of a jetty unit
2. Manufacture of a jetty unit
3. Arrangement of units in a jetty
4. Method of anchorage
5. Construction procedure.
This study will be limited to permeable jetties of tetrahedrons and
jackstraws. The study of phases 1 and 2 has been outlined in previous
progress reports. This report will consider the combination of those
units with appurtenances (such as fencing); also arrangement, anchor-
age and construction procedure.
There are many patents which may be made to bear on these phases.
For example, Patent B may claim an arrangement of jetty units;
Patent A, dated earlier, may claim a jetty unit and suggested the
arrangement claimed in Patent B. In that case we could infringe on
that particular claim of Patent B with impunity.
For the present, these patents are briefly described and coded as an
index for future study. The code is explained in a footnote.
PATENTS
419
A. EXPIRED
Patent
Number
Sub-Class
Brief Description
Previous
Brief
c 'ode
200412
275132
315384
320129
419121
426807
604810
762727
777288
780437
801603
850244
877201
880390
949933
975551
978897
982621
994999
1005113
1031077
1058879
1060357
1129719
1140140
1146229
121995
1230608
1281021
1281022
1355051
1355052
1371119
1373629
1378967
1389513
1409140
1448965
1487668
Spur jetty of trees
Spur jetty of trees
Batter piles forming cells for brush
Echelon of units
Winged fences of wire and willows â–
Fences across river bays
Double pile jetty with flap gates _.
Spur of plank fence on piles -
Fascine of timber cribs
Construction methods
Tetrahedral anchors
Wire fences
Wire fence
Piles in rows; brush between
Triangular crib, timber and wire. _
Picket fence
Fence hanging from boom
Fence hanging from boom
Wire and brush for bank on jetty..
Pile and cable debris collector
Picket fence on cables
Brush fascines hung from cables
Training fences; pile supported
Concrete blocks cast on trees
Tetrahedrons
Brush filled wire cribs
Fence with streamers
Triangular oblique baffles
Jack straw
Use of jackstraws
Long jack straw
Cubical jack straw
Permeable pile jetty
Long jack straw
Pile-anchored brush jetty
Pyramidal frame
Pile-anchored brush and trees
Mesh crib
Extended tetrahedrons
1, 3
I. 3
1, 3
1, .i
3
1, 2
1
2
2
ABCDE
ABCDE
ABCF
AD
ADG
hcdcii
ABCDX
ACDI
A BCD J
ABCD
lull
ACDG
ACDG
ACDF
((;.l
ACG
ACDG
ADEG
BCDG
ACDF
ABCDFG
ACDX
CDG
DE
ADH
ACDG
CG
ADK
ACDL
ABCDL
ACDL
ACDL
BCDF
BCDL
ABCDE
ACDH
ABCDE
ACDG
H
1489647
Extended tetrahedron; combining.
ACDH
Legend, last column:
Aâ€”Spur jetty, shown or claimed
Bâ€”Construction method particularly described
Câ€”Anchorage provided or indicated
Dâ€”Arrangement of units claimed or illustrated
Eâ€”Utilizes trees or brush
Fâ€”Requires piles
Gâ€”Uses reticular elementsâ€”fencing, mesh, woven
willows, etc.
Hâ€”Units are tetrahedron or pyramids
Iâ€”Utilizes flash boards
Jâ€”Units are horizontal triangular cribs
Kâ€”Units are concrete blocks
Lâ€”Units are jackstraws
Mâ€”Units are vertical triangular cribs
Nâ€”Units are buck frames
0â€”Units are spherical
Pâ€”Mattress developed
Qâ€”Utilizes salvaged auto chasses
Râ€”Units are cylindrical
\Vâ€”Method of manufacture is claimed
Xâ€”Unit design is of no interest
420
B. ACTIVE
Patent
Sub
Number
Class
1516767
3
1528016
4
1531743
3
1554605
3
1574153
3
1578138
4
1580338
3
1584766
3
1595946
4
1609633
3
1622568
3
1627623
3
1635899
3
1646168
4
1662578
3
Rel6976
4
1716509
3
1748444
3
1775820
3
1814495
4
1819305
4
1840271
3
1841594
4
1844484
4
1858976
3
1875668
3
1888364
3
1928473
4
1967759
4
2000311
4
2000312
4
Rel9786
4
2032582
5
2055150
3
2071656
5
2072707
3
2097342
5
2099249
4
2106564
3
2135337
4
2244433
3
Expires
1941
1942
1942
1942
1943
1943
1943
1943
1943
1943
1944
1944
1944
1944?
1945
Hit.")
HMO
1947
1947
1948
1948
1049
1949
1949
1949
1949
1949
1950
1951
1952
1952
1952
1953
1953
1954
1954
1954
1954
1955
1955
1958
Brief Description
Baffle deflector
H-beam triangular cribs
Baffle deflector
Jackstraw
Triangular crib
Triangular crib
Buck-frame
Complex frame-fenced
Jackstraw, wire grip
Flexible, jackstraw . _
Auxiliary to 1409140
Auto chassis jackstraw. . .
3-hoop jetty unit
See Re 16976
Mattress of jackstraws
Apron fence
Fence of jackstraws
Semi-floating fence-matt ress
Fence on buck frames
Vertices of concrete tetra. .
Cylindrical fence
Floating fence
Pile-anchored crib
Retard of jacks
Trussed-pile rack
Casting RC tetrahedronsâ– -
Helical retard units
Open rock groin
Wire strung on posts
Permeable groin
Permeable groin
See 1928473
Jackstraws of X-frames
Apron fence on pile frames _
Buck frames of auto chasses
Jetty frames
Anchorage for jetties
Permeable groin
Arrangement of jetty units
Horizontal mesh cylinder
Collapsible jackstraw
Previous
Brief
1. 3
2
3
1,3
Code
ACDX
ADM
ACDX
ACDL
ACDJ
A BCD J
ACDN
ABCC,
LW
AL
ABCDE
LQ
ACDO
ACDLP
ACDEG
ADGL
ACG
ACDGNQ
HW
ADGR
ACDGM
ABCEF
BCDL
ABDF
W
ACDGPQ
ABD
ACDF
AD
ABCDF
ABD
ACDL
ACDEFG
ACDNQW
ADHLW
ACDG,J,L,N,Q
ABCDF
ACD
ACGR
LW
APPENDIX F
INDEX OF PHOTOGRAPHS
designationâ€”page number (figure number)
Articulated concrete blocks 14(18) ; 91(115); 195(25G) ; 269(321); 323(369);
324(370a,b) ; 325(371a,b,c).
Asphaltic slabs, broken 191 (244).
Asphaltic slope paving 90(113) ; 140(175,176) ; 142(178) ; 191(245) ;
211(266) ; 212(267) ; 263(320) ; 333(381).
Auto bodies 193(250) ; 271(337) ; 366(435).
Bar, ocean 30(36) ; 32(39).
Causeway 70(89).
Channel:
Change 58(71) ; 250(307).
Constriction 56(68).
Skewed crossings 57 (69).
Check dams and drops 100(148) ; 273(343) ; 331(379).
Concrete, broken 91(118) ; 93(123) ; 191(243) ; 214(269).
Concrete cells 3(6) ; 90(114) ; 216(270)
Concrete, precast shapes 93(124,125) ; 94(126) ; 190(240,241).
Concrete slabs, salvaged 92(120).
Concrete slope paving 1(2) ; 13(17) ; 57(69) ; 58(71) ; 90(111) ; 126(162)
131(167) ; 132(168) ; 144(181) ; 192(247) ; 195(256)
210(265);226(284a) ;261(311);262(317);263(318);
269(321) ; 273(343e) ; 322(366,367) ; 323(368,369) ;
324(370a,b,c) ; 325(371a,b) ; 328(373a,b,c) ; 329(374,
375) ; 330(376,377); 331(378,379).
Crib:
Concrete 99(146) ; 184(229) ; 225 (283a) ; 272(341).
Jetty, log 15(20) ; 96(136) ; 192(246) ; 225(283b).
Log 99(147) ; 184(230,231,232) ; 272(338).
Timber 184(233).
Debris cone 31 (37).
Detritus deposition 42(52).
Dikes 21(28); 58(70); 59(72); 100(149); 238(294);
271(336).
Drift 43(53) ; 250(306).
Dune, sand 53(65,66) ; 85(105,106).
Erosion :
Eddy 37(45) ; 60(73,74) ; 62(75b) ; 239(295a) ; 262(314) ;
331(379) ; 336(386).
Gulley 28(33) ; 86(107).
Lake 31(38).
Ocean 34(40) ; 51(63a,b).
Rill 28(32).
Stream 32,33(39); 51(64); 68(86); 239(295b) ; 261(312);
267(326) ; 309(351) ; 313(356) ; 316(359) ; 318(362) ;
323(368) ; 330(376) ; 335(383) ; 339(389) ; 348(405).
Fallen-log retard 195 (254).
Fence:
Double 275(340).
Baffle 100(150a) ; 242(298) ; 274(344) ; 276(348).
Jetty 96 (135) ; 347 (402,403,404).
Retard 95(131,132); 96(133); 160(203); 161(204); 222
(277); 226(284b); 268(331); 275(345); 276(347);
338(387a,b,c) ; 339(388,389) ; 340(390,391) ; 341(392) ;
344(395,396,397); 345(398,399); 346(400,401); 348
(405,406) ; 351(409) ; 354(415).
Flexible 194(253).
(421)
Fenceâ€”Continued
Revetment 11(15) ; 195(255).
Single:
Baffle 05 (130).
Jetty 154 (191b).
Retard 4(7) ; 16(21) ; 17(23) ; 95(129) ; 154(192) ; 160(202) ;
161(205) ; 223(278) ; 268(332) ; 333(381) ; 351(408) ;
352(410,411) ; 353(412).
Flood damage 39(48) ; 180(226) ; 243(299) ; 244(300a,b) ; 250(306) ;
341(393).
Gorge formation 29(34).
Groins:
Concrete 98(141) ; 178(223b,c,d).
Steel sheet pile 18(25); 80(101b) ; 98(140); 171(215); 178(223a) ;
187(236) ; 224(280).
Stone 79(99) ; 98(142) ; 170(214) ; 176(221).
Timber 171(216) ; 191(243).
Gully formation 28(33).
Hazards of Location:
Dunes 53(65) ; 85(105,106).
Shore 23(29b) ; 34(40); 70(88,89); 72(91); 73(92);
74(93) ; 75(94) ; 76(95) ; 77(96) ; 78(97).
Stream 23(29a) ; 26(31); 63(76,77); 64(79); 65(80,81);
66(82) ; 67(83) ; 71(90) ; 230(286) ; 243(299).
Emergency protection 159(201) ; 168(212) ; 562(428) ; 363(429).
Jetty 96(138) ; 219(273) ; 363(430,431).
Retard 9(14) ; 95(128) ; 164(209) ; 194(253c) ; 268(330).
Meander 29(35) ; 64(79).
Overflow aprons 28(32) ; 196(258).
Oyster shells 92(121).
Rock-and-wire mattress 1(3); 5(8); 19(26a,b) ; 91(116); 143(179,180);
144(181,182) ; 213(268) ; 265(322) ; 266(324,325) ;
318(361,362) ; 319(363,364).
Rock-and-wire sausage 100(150b) ; 189(239) ; 365(433) ; 366(434).
Rock Slope Protection :
Causeway 70(89).
Grouted 90(112); 123(159,160); 125(161); 209(264); 239
(295b) ; 245(301) ; 262(313) ; 315(358) ; 316(359,360).
Shore 3(5); 24(30); 45(54); 51 (63b) ; 75(94); 77(96);
78(97); 81(102); 93(122a) ; 102(151); 103(153);
109(155) ; 202(261) ; 205(262a,b) ; 267(327,328) ; 370
(437) ; 371(4.38) ; 374(441,442).
Stream 7(11) ; 16(22) ; 17(24) ; 56(68) ; 58(70) ; 59(72) ;
65(81); 91(117); 93(122b) ; 102(152); 143(179);
158(199) ; 205(262c) ; 221(276) ; 241(297) ; 250(307) ;
252(308,309) ; 266(324b) ; 267(326) ; 308(349,350) ;
334(382) ; 335(383) ; 336(384,385,386).
Sacked concrete 7(12); 12(16a,b) ; 14(19); 19(26a,b) ; 40(49);
62(75); 68(85); 71(90); 90(110); 133(169); 136
(172) ; 137(173,174) ; 143(180) ; 182(228c) ; 207(263) ;
229(285); 230(286); 239(295a) ; 244(300b) ; 252
(310); 261(312); 262(314,315,316); 263(319); 266
(324a) : 309(351) ; 311(352) ; 312(353,354) ; 313(355,
356) ; 330(377).
Sand bag protection 31(38); 191(242); 323(368); 324(370b) ; 328(373a,
b,c) ; 353(413) ; 354(414).
Seawallsâ€”See Walls
Strand 47(58) ; 48(60) ; 79(100).
Stream flow 32,33(39) ; 34(43) ; 39(48) ; 41(50) ; 49(61).
Tetrahedrons:
Jetty 5(9); 97(139); 154(191c) ; 322(367); 357(417,418,
419) ; 358(420,421) ; 361(426,427).
Retard 6(10); 9(13); 20(27a,b) ; 95(127); 164(208); 168
(213) ; 218(272) ; 246(302) ; 247(304) ; 268(329) ;
270(335) ; 358(422) ; 359(423,424).
INDEX OP PHOTOGRAPHS
423
Tetrapod, concrete 93(124b,c) ; 190 (241b) ; 194(252) ; 217(271).
Timber pile:
Jetty 67(83); 96(137) ; 123(159) ; 154(191a,193) ; 220(274);
221(276) ; 246(303).
Retard 96(134) ; 152(189,190) ; 154(192,194) ; 155(195) ;
158(199); 159(200,201); 221(275); 225(282); 269
(333,334).
Tribar, concrete .93 (124a).
Vegetation 195(257).
Walls:
Concrete 180(226) ; 182(228) ; 263(318).
Rubble masonry 70(88) ; 98(144) ; 179(225) ; 193(249) ; 225(281) ;
244(300a).
Seawalls 1(4).
Concrete 46(56); 50(62); 80(101); 99(145); 179(224);
186(235) ; 187(237) ;
Steel pile and timber...272(340).
Steel sheet pile 80 (101b) ; 98(140); 187(236); 224(279); 272(342).
Timber 37(45); 98(143); 185(234); 272(339); 353(413);
354(414).
Toe 131(167).
Waves .45(54) ; 46(56).
Woven-wire protection 91(119) ; 150(187) ; 193(251) ; 265(323) ; 367(436a,b).
O
30166 11-60 10M
printvd in California state printing office
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B 3 MSI 33S

CALIFO1_A - DEPAR0M;NT O_ PUsLIC WORKS - DIVISION OF HIGHWAYS

FIGURE 4. Rincon VII-Ven-2-F,G

FIGURE 6. Pt. Mugu VII-ven-oO-A

FIGURE 7. Santa Ana R. VII-Ora-43-B

A study of cost and performance of various types of protection

The committee reported * on classification, construction, cost and

FIGURE 14. Tule R. VI-Tul-129-B

FIGURE 15. Coyote Cr. VII-LA-174-B

FIGURE 17. Santa Ana R. VIII-SBd-26-E

FIGURE 25. Santa Monica VII-LA-60

FIGURE 27. Colorado R. XI-Riv-64-F

14. There should be in eaeh district a designer or advisor trained

FIGURE 32. VIII-SBd-207-A

FIGURE 35. Mad. R. l-Hum-1-J

FIGURE 37. Garnet VIII-Riv-26-D

FIGURE 40. Near Edgemar IV-SM-56

FIGURE 43. lll-Yol-7-C

FIGURE 48. Kern R. VI-Ker-57-H

FIGURE 49. Cache Cr.

(B) San Benito R. V-SBt-2-B

FIGURE 53. Eel R. Overflow l-Hum-56-A

FIGURE 54. Pacific Coast N. of Seal Cliff VII-Ven-2-F

FIGURE 56. Pt. Mugu VII-Ven-60-A

Wave refracted by shoal (C) and reflected from shore (B)

FIGURE 58. San Diego Bay XI-SD-199

FIGURE 61. Alameda Cr. IV-Ala-107-A

FIGURE. 66. Scott Cr. IV-SCr-56-C

FIGURE 71. Piru Cr. VII-LA-4-l

FIGURE 72. Santa Ana R. on Crestmore Rd. VIII-Riv-FAS

FIGURE 73. Dune Cr. VII-Ven-2-D

FIGURE 75. Valencia Cr. lV-SCr-56-D

FIGURE 76. Eel R. I-Hum-1

FIGURE 79. Eel R. Sandy Prairie l-Hum-1-E

FIGURE 82. Merced R.

FIGURE 88. Clear Lake l-Lak-15-B

FIGURE 90. Batchelor Cr. I-Lak-15-A

FIGURE 91. l-Men-56-F

FIGURE 96. IV-Ala-69-F

FIGURE TOO. Freshwater Lagoon 1-Hum-l-J

FIGURE 105. Scott Cr.

FIGURE 107. Near Orick l-Hum-1-J

FIGURE 110. Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-A

FIGURE 112. Carson R. lll-Alp-23-C

FIGURE 113. VI-Fre-41-N

(A) Trifolium Drain XI-lmp-26-B (B) ll-Sha-28-B

FIGURE 120. VI-Mad-32-A FIGURE 121. IV-SM-105-B

FIGURE 125. Humboldt Jetty

FIGURE 126. Humboldt Jetty

FIGURE 127. Salinas R. V-Mon-2-F

FIGURE 129. Santa Clara R. VII-Ven-79-C

San Benito R. V-SBt-119-E

FIGURE 137. Eel R. 1-Hum-l-D

FIGURE 140. VII-Ven-2-F FIGURE 141. Near Pt. Mugu VII-Ven-60-A

FIGURE 144. Seacliff VII-Ven-2-F

FIGURE 146. Trinity R. ll-Tri-20-F FIGURE 147. Russian R. IV-Son-104-A

FIGURE 148. Grizzly Cr. I-Lak-15-C FIGURE 149. VIII-Riv-187-C

St. Helena Cr. l-Lak-49-B (B)

Below scour depth