Electrical Instruments & Measurements Lab Manual

Department of Electrical Engineering & Technology

INSTITUTE OF SOUTHERN PUNJAB, MULTAN

Submitted to: Engr. Sumera Jabbar

Submitted by:

Registration#:

Class:

Department of Electrical Engineering & Technology

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLOs)

PLO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

PLO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PLO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

PLO4 investigations: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of
experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.

PLO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PLO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PLO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.

PLO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

PLO9 Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or

leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PLO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.

PLO11 Project management: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering

and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a
team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PLO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Lab Objective:
The main objective of this lab is to enable students to develop measuring skills
with different types of instruments. The lab also focuses on how analog and digital measuring
devices work. The objective of this Lab is to help students understand the use of sensors,
transducers and measuring instruments. Calibration of instruments, measurements of electric
quantities, investigation of electrical equipment’s and analysis of measured quantities are the
scope of this lab

Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs)

CLO Taxonomy Mapped
CLO Description Domain
# Level PLO#
CLO Examine electrical parameters using different
Cognitive C4 PLO-1
1 measuring instruments.
Calibrate and investigate circuits using
CLO
different meters, sensors, bridges and Psychomotor P3 PLO-4
2
transducers.
CLO Build the ability to work effectively as an
Affective A4 PLO-9
3 individual and as a team member.

Mapping of CLOs and PLOs

Environment and
Development of

Communication
Individual and
Sustainability
Engineer and
Modern Tool
Investigation

Management
Engineering
Knowledge

Teamwork

Learning
Analysis

Lifelong
Solution
Problem

Design/

Society

Project
Ethics
Usage

Skills

PLO1 PLO2 PLO3 PLO4 PLO5 PLO6 PLO7 PLO8 PLO9 PLO10 PLO11 PLO12
CLO1 X
CLO2 X
CLO3 X
Sr. Experiment
#
1 To demonstrate the working of Clamp-meter and to measure the current flowing
through conductor.
2 To examine the construction and operation of Megger for insulation and continuity
tests.
3 To demonstrate the working of air velocity meter to measure speed of air and sound level
meter for acoustic measurement.
4 To measure the working and characteristics of different types of analog /digital
instruments
5 To design ammeter and voltmeter and measure unknown values.

6 To execute the operation on Wheatstone bridge for measurement of unknown

resistance.
7 To execute the operation on Kelvin bridge for measurement of unknown resistance.

8 To demonstrate the characteristics of Strain Gauge Transducer for weight measurement.

9 To calibrate the characteristics of the linear variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

transducer for displacement measurement
10 To calibrate the characteristics of an air pressure transducer for air pressure
measurement.
11 To calibrate the working and characteristics of an air flow transducer

12 To calibrate the working of Platinum RTD resistance transducer for temperature

measurement.
13 To calibrate the circuit on n.t.c thermistor and check the effect of temperature on
thermistor resistance.
 Student Evaluation Sheet
Marks Obtained
S. # Date Experiment CLO1 CLO2 CLO3 Total
10
1

10

11

12

13

Total marks obtained=¿

Instructor: Engr. Sumera Jabbar

Signature: ________________________
 Lab work Rubrics (Psychomotor)
Sr. Criteria Excellent (100%) Good (75%) Basics (50%) Below basics
No (25%)
1. Designed a circuit Designed a circuit Designed a circuit Help is
according to the according to the according to the required to
circuit diagram circuit diagram circuit diagram designed a
Circuit Understand the Understand the Cannot circuit
Designing working and working and understand the according to
and application of each application of working and the circuit
understandin component each component application of each diagram
g Able to change a component
circuit to obtain Cannot
different readings understand
the working
and
application of
each
component
2 All equipment are Set-up of Set-up of Set-up of
connected equipment is equipment is equipment is
accurately and generally accurate generally Accurate not accurate,
Set-up the wires are placed but wires are but several help is
Equipment neat and organized connected messy procedure need required to
and and performed that need refinement connect wires
procedure accurate procedure refinement and and to
performed perform
accurate experiment
procedure procedure

3 Measurements are Measurements are Measurements are Measurements

accurate and mostly accurate somewhat are
precise. Observations are inaccurate and incomplete,
Data Observations are generally very imprecise inaccurate
Collection very thorough and complete Observations are and imprecise
and may recognize Work is organized incomplete or Observations
tabulation possible errors in recorded in a are
data collection confusing way incomplete or
Work is neat and not included
organized
 Viva (Affective )
Sr. Criteria Excellent (100%) Good (75%) Basics (50%) Below basics
No (25%)
1. Movement seemed Made movements Very little No movements
Body fluid and helped or Gestures that movement or or descriptive
Language the evaluator enhance descriptive gestures
visualized articulation gestures

2 Eye Contact Holds intension of Consistent use Displayed No eye contact

and Voice evaluator with the of direct eye minimal eye with evaluator
use of direct eye contact contact with Consistently
contact Satisfactory use evaluator uses a
Use of fluid of inflections but Displayed monotone voice
speech and speech is not some level of
inflections fluent inflection
3 Knowledge Student Student Student Student
and completely understands the understands understands
understanding understands the fundamentals of some of the minimal of the
fundamentals of their topic fundamental fundamentals
their topic with s of their of their topic
lots of relevant topic with with some
facts lots of relevant facts
relevant facts

LAB EXPERIMENT: 01
 Clamp meter
Objective:
To demonstrate the working of Clamp-meter and measure the current flowing through conductor.

Apparatus:

Theory:
In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp or current probe is an electrical device
having jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows
measurement of the current in a conductor without the need to make physical contact with it, or to
disconnect it for insertion through the probe. Current clamps are typically used to read the
magnitude of AC and, with additional instrumentation, the phase and waveform can also be
measured. Some clamps meters can measure currents of 1000 A and more. Half effect and Vane
type clamps can also measure DC.

Figure 1.1 Circuit Diagram

Originally designed as a single-purpose tool for measuring AC current, clamp meters now include
inputs for accepting test leads and other probes that support a wide range of electrical
measurements. Indispensable as a test tool, the jaws of a clamp meter facilitate in tight spaces and
permits current measurements on live conductors without circuit interruption. Though clamp
meters are closely related to multimeters, they are not simply multimeters with inductive jaws
replacing test leads. Generally, multimeters can be seen as voltage-measuring instruments with
some current-measuring ability while clamp meters are current-measuring instruments with some
voltage-measuring ability.

Figure 1.2 Clamp Meter

A clamp meter measures the vector sum of the currents flowing in all the conductors passing
through the probe, which depends on the phase relationship of the currents. Only one conductor is
normally passed through the probe. In particular if the clamp is closed around a two-conductor
cable carrying power to equipment, the same current flows down one conductor and up the other;
the meter correctly reads a net current of zero. As electrical cables for equipment have both
insulated conductors (and possibly an earth wire) bonded together, clamp meters are often used
with what is essentially a short extension cord with the two conductors separated, so that the
clamp can be placed around only one conductor of this extension.

Working of Clamp meter

In general AC clamp meters operate on the principle of current transformer (CT) used to pick up
magnetic flux generated as a result of current flowing through a conductor. Assuming a current
flowing through a conductor to be the primary current, you can obtain a current proportional to the
primary current by electromagnetic induction from the secondary side (winding) of the
transformer which is connected to a measuring circuit of the instrument. This permits you to take
an AC current reading on the digital display (in the case of digital clamp meters).
 Figure 1.3 Clamp meter working

Exercise
Q1: Are clamp meters as accurate as multimeters?

Q2: What are the two types of clamp meter?

Q3: Which law is used in clamp meter? Explain it.

Q4: Write the basic parts of clamp meter.

Q5: What is the other name of clamp meter?

Calculation:
Sr.no Different places /instruments Value of current

Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 02
 Study of Megger
Objective:
To examine the construction and operation of Megger for insulation and continuity tests.

Apparatus:

Theory:
Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment condition i.e.
temperature, humidity, moisture & dust particles. It also get impacted negatively due to the
presence of electrical & mechanical stress, so it’s become very necessary to check the IR
(Insulation resistance) of equipment at a constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or
electrical shock.

Types of Megger:
This can be separated into mainly two categories:-
1. Electronic Type (Battery Operated)
2. Manual Type (Hand Operated)
But there are another types of megger which is motor operated type which does not use battery to
produce voltage it requires external source to rotate a electrical motor which in turn rotates the
generator of the megger.

Construction:
Important parts:-
Analog display: - Analog display provided on front face of tester for IR value recording.
Hand Crank: - Hand crank used to rotate helps to achieve desired RPM required generate voltage
which runs through electrical system.
Wire Leads: - Used same as in electronic tester i.e. for connecting tester with electrical system.
Some other parts are:
1) Deflecting & Control coil : Connected parallel to the generator, mounted at right angle to each
other and maintain polarities in such a way to produced torque in opposite direction.
2) Permanent Magnets: Produce magnetic field to deflect pointer with North-South pole magnet.
3) Pointer : One end of the pointer connected with coil another end deflects on scale from infinity
to zero.
4) Scale : A scale is provided in front-top of the megger from range ‘zero’ to ‘infinity’, enable us
to read the value.
5) D.C generator or Battery connection: Testing voltage is produced by hand operated D.C
generator for manual operated Megger. Battery / electronic voltage charger is provided for
automatic type Megger for same purpose.
6) Pressure coil resistance and Current coil resistance: Protect instrument from any damage
because of low external electrical resistance under test.
7) Guard ring: Any leakage current over the terminals or within the tester itself is collected by the
guard ring and directly bypassed to the negative terminal of the generator without passing through
the current coil of the ohmmeter. Similarly end leakage current of the cable particularly due to
moisture combined sometimes with dust is shunted to the negative terminal of the generator
without passing through the current coil by the use of guard wire ( a bare wire wound tightly
around the insulation of a cable.) the accuracy of the reading therefore remains unaffected.

Operation:
Voltage for testing produced by hand operated megger by rotation of crank in case of hand
operated type; a battery is used for electronic tester. 500 Volt DC is sufficient for performing test
on equipment range up to 440 Volts. 1000V to 5000V is used for testing for high voltage
electrical systems.
Deflecting coil or current coil connected in series and allows flowing the electric current taken by
the circuit being tested. The control coil also known as pressure coil is connected across the
circuit.
Current limiting resistor (CCR & PCR ) connected in series with control & deflecting coil to
protect damage in case of very low resistance in external circuit. In hand operated megger
electromagnetic induction effect is used to produce the test voltage i.e. armature arranges to move
in permanent magnetic field or vice versa.Where as in electronic type megger battery are used to
produce the testing voltage. As the voltage increases in external circuit the deflection of pointer
increases and deflection of pointer decreases with a increases of current. Hence, resultant torque is
directly proportional to voltage & inversely proportional to current. When electrical circuit being
tested is open, torque due to voltage coil will be maximum & pointer shows ‘infinity’ means no
shorting throughout the circuit and has maximum resistance within the circuit under test.
When electrical circuit being tested is open, torque due to voltage coil will be maximum& pointer
shows ‘infinity’ means no shorting throughout the circuit and has maximum resistance within the
circuit under test. If there is short circuit pointer shows ‘zero’, which means ‘NO’ resistance
within circuit being tested. Work philosophy based on ohm-meter or ratio-meter.

Applications:

Q#1: Which Principle is used by megger?

Q#2: Why DC is used in megger?

Q#3: How many terminals are in a megger?

Q#4: What is range of megger?

Q#5: How many coils are required in a megger?

Q#6: What is megger test and how it is performed?

Calculations:
Needle of megger shows the following result:

1: High resistance =

2: Small resistance =

3: Intermediate resistance =

Conclusion:
Write your own Conclusion

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 03
Objective:
To demonstrate the working of air velocity meter to measure speed of air and sound level meter
for acoustic measurement.

Apparatus:

Theory:
Air velocity meter
An air velocity meter measures the speed or flow of air or wind. In addition to wind or air
velocity, multi-functional air velocity meters can measure additional parameters such as pressure,
temperature and humidity. Depending on the model, an air velocity meter also can possess data
logging or data recording functionality to take measurements over a period of time. Data-logging
air velocity meter devices often feature an internal or SD card memory, USB port and optional
software for detailed analysis via computer.
■ In air conditioning, heating and ventilating work, it is helpful to understand the techniques
used to determine air velocity. In this field, air velocity (distance traveled per unit of time)
is usually expressed in feet per minute (FPM). By multiplying air velocity by the cross
section area of a duct, you can determine the air volume flowing past a point in the duct
per unit of time. Volume flow is usually measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM).

■ To move air, fans or blowers are usually used. They work by imparting motion and
pressure to the air with either a screw propeller or paddle wheel action. When force or
pressure from the fan blades causes the air to move, the moving air acquires a force or
pressure component in its direction or motion due to its weight and inertia. Because of this,
a flag or streamer will stand out in the air stream. This force is called velocity pressure. It
is measured in inches of water column (w.c.) or water gage (w.g.).

Features of air velocity meter

 Fig.3.1 air velocity meter

Sound Level Meter

Sound-level meter device is used for measuring the intensity of noise, music, and other sounds. A
typical meter consists of a microphone for picking up the sound and converting it into an electrical
signal, followed by electronic circuitry for operating on this signal so that the desired
characteristics can be measured. The indicating device is usually a meter calibrated to read the
sound level in decibels (db; a logarithmic unit used to measure the sound intensity). Threshold of
hearing is about zero decibels for the average young listener, and threshold of pain (extremely
loud sounds) is around 120 decibels, representing a power 1,000,000,000,000 times greater than
zero decibels. Being exposed to moderate loud noises for a brief period usually does no harm, but
imagines having to be subjected to it every day. If noise is a problem for you, the first thing you
need to do is measure how loud it is. Then you can take effective steps to control it. A sound level
meter is a hand-held device. The meter is fitted with a microphone that allows you to determine
the acoustic intensity and measure the sound pressure level.

Fig.3.3 Sound level meter

Names and Functions of Sound level meter

Key Features
• You can use a sound level meter to measure and record noise levels accurately

• One of the key tools used in any serious hearing conservation Programme

• Divided into two “Classes” – Class 1 and Class 2

Sound level meters are divided into two “classes”. Both have the same functionality but different
tolerances for error. Class 1 instruments have a wider frequency range and a tighter tolerance than
a lower cost, class 2 meter

Procedure:
Air velocity meter
Sound Level meter

Calculations:
Calculate the sounds of different instruments/ voices and note the values.

Sr.no Voices/sounds readings

Calculate the velocity of air and calculate different features.

Conclusion:
Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

 LAB EXPERIMENT: 04

Analog & Digital instruments

Objective:
To measure the working and characteristics of different types of analog and digital instruments

Apparatus:

Theory:
Ammeter

Analog ammeters, also known as current meters, are metered instruments that measure current
flow in amperes. Current levels are displayed on a dial, usually with a moving pointer or needle
made of a soft iron. Analog ammeters provide information about current draw and current
continuity in order to help users troubleshoot erratic loads and trends. They have both positive and
negative leads and feature extremely low internal resistance.

They are required to measure the current in a circuit and are therefore connected in series with the
components carrying the current. High current flow may indicate a short circuit, unintentional
ground, or defective component. Low current flow may indicate high resistance or poor current
flow within the circuit. If the ammeter resistance is not significantly smaller than the load
resistance, the load current can be substantially altered by the inclusion of the ammeter in the
circuit.

Figure 4.1 Analog Ammeter

Voltmeter

Analog voltmeters measure voltage or voltage drop in a circuit. They display readings using a
needle rather than a digital display. Voltmeters may be standalone devices or a part of a
multimeter. Analog voltmeters use a wide variety of means to measure voltage, with d'Arsonval
moving-coil galvanometers being most common. These devices use a coil of fine wire suspended
within a magnetic field. The coil rotates and moves a pointer or other indicator proportional to the
applied current level.

Figure 4.2 Analog Voltmeter

Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the opposition to an
electric current. Micro-ohmmeters (microhmmeter or microohmmeter) make low resistance
measurements. Megohmmeters (also a trademarked device Megger) measure large values of
resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms (Ω).The first ohmmeters were based on
a type of meter movement known as a 'ratiometer'. These were similar to the galvanometer type
movement encountered in later instruments, but instead of hairsprings to supply a restoring force
they used conducting 'ligaments'. These provided no net rotational force to the movement. Also,
the movement was wound with two coils. One was connected via a series resistor to the battery
supply. The second was connected to the same battery supply via a second resistor and the resistor
under test.
 Figure 4.3 Analog Ohmmeter

Wattmeter
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical
energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of
utility frequency and audio frequency power; other types are required for radio frequency
measurements.
The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair of
fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.The current
coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel. Also,
on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the
measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field
around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it.
The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in series with it to reduce
the current that flows through it.

Figure 4.4 Analog Wattmeter

Function Generator:

The function generator is used to generate a wide range of alternating-current (AC) signals. A
diagram of the Leader LFG-1300S Function Generator is shown below in Figure.

Figure 4.5 Function Generator

The front panel is divided into six major control groups:

 Frequency Selection Group;
 Sweep Group;
 Amplitude Modulation Group;
 DC Offset Group;
 Function, or Waveform Group;
 Output Group
Oscilloscope:
The oscilloscope is a graph displaying device that display the electrical signal based on the input
to its probes. It shows in real time how signals change over time. Usually the Y axis represents the
voltage and the X axis time. Most oscilloscopes have intensity or brightness that can be adjusted.
The display is caused by the spot that periodically sweeps the display from left to right. In the
design of electronics project, the oscilloscope is one of the handiest equipment that is worth
investing. An oscilloscope previously called an oscillograpgy and informally known as
a scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital storage
oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying
signal voltages usually as a two- dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time.
Other signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed.

Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of an electrical signal over time, such that voltage
and time describe a shape which is continuously graphed against a calibrated scale. The
observed waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time
interval, distortion and others. Modern digital instruments may calculate and display these
properties directly. Originally, calculation of these values required manually measuring the
waveform against the scales built into the screen of the instrument.

Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, automotive and the
telecommunications industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic
equipment and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as
analyzing an automotive ignition system or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as
an electrocardiogram.

Figure 4.6

When there is a change in the height of the waveform, it means that the voltage has changed. If
the line is horizontal  it means that there is no change in voltage for that period of time. The main
purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph signal as it varies over time an electrical. Most scopes
produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis.

There are basically 2 types of oscilloscope namely analog or digital type. Analog uses
continuously variable voltages. Digital uses discrete binary numbers that represent voltage
samples. Analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron
beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up and down
proportionally; tracing the waveform on the screen. Digital oscilloscope samples the waveform
and uses an analog to digital converter to convert the voltage measured into digital format. It then
uses this digital format to display the waveform. It enables one to capture and view events that
may happen only once. They can process the digital waveform data or send the data to a computer
for processing. Also, they can store the digital waveform data for later viewing and printing.

Write the detail of some other analog and digital instruments.

1:
2:

Procedure:
1) First of all, make a simple circuit using Bread Board, Resistors and Wires.
2) Gave the Supply of this Circuit through Function Generator/DC power supply.
3) Use CRO and check results.
4) Now, measure the value of current, voltage, resistance, power through multimeter and
analog devices.
Calculations:

Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

 LAB EXPERIMENT: 05

Ammeter and Voltmeter Designing

Objective:
Objective of this lab is to design ammeter and voltmeter and measure unknown values.

Equipment:

Theory:
A galvanometer is a sensitive device which can measure very small currents accurately. A
galvanometer itself may not be very useful for measuring currents in most of the circuits where
current is usually in milli amperes. However by slight alterations a galvanometer can be converted
into a voltmeter or an ammeter with a reasonably larger range. It is basically a current measuring
device but by knowing its internal resistance and using ohm’s law we can use it to measure
voltage across a circuit element. However such a usage of galvanometer has two serious
limitations. First, since the internal resistance of a galvanometer is usually small it would
seriously affect the voltage reading across the element for which it is used. Second, as
galvanometers can measure only small amounts of current (300 micro amperes) so the range of
voltage which they can measure is very small as well. We can overcome both these limitations
very easily. By connecting a very large resistance in series with the galvanometer we can make its
total resistance significantly large. This would increase the range of measurable voltage and
would decrease the loading effect of the galvanometer as well.

EXPERIMENT 08
To Convert a Galvanometer
into Voltmeter
Objectives:
We are going to convert
galvanometer into voltmeters of
different ranges which can be
used to
measure the potential
differences in electrical circuits.
Equipment / Tools:
● Galvanometer
● Voltmeter
● DC Power Supply
● Resistor
Background:
A galvanometer can be
converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a high resistance (R)
in series
with the galvanometer as shown
in the figure. The value of
resistance (R) connected in
series
decides the range of the
voltmeter. The scale is
calibrated in volts, so as to read
the potential
difference directly. To measure
the potential difference between
two points, the voltmeter must
be connected in parallel across
those two points in the circuit.
When a high value of resistance
is
connected in series to the
galvanometer, only a small
fraction of the total current will
flow
through the galvanometer. So,
this does not cause any damage
to the galvanometer. Moreover,
as
the current flow in the
galvanometer, which is
connected in parallel in the
circuit, is very small, it
causes no effect in the current of
the main circuit.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance (R) in series
with the galvanometer as shown in the figure. The value of resistance (R) connected in series
decides the range of the voltmeter. The scale is calibrated in volts, so as to read the potential
difference directly. To measure the potential difference between two points, the voltmeter must be
connected in parallel across those two points in the circuit. When a high value of resistance is
connected in series to the galvanometer, only a small fraction of the total current will flow through
the galvanometer. So, this does not cause any damage to the galvanometer. Moreover, as the
current flow in the galvanometer, which is connected in parallel in the circuit, is very small, it
causes no effect in the current of the main circuit.
 Figure5.1 converting galvanometer into a voltmeter

Procedure:

Calculations:

Sr.no Galvanometer reading(n Voltmeter reading(v)

Divisions)

Ammeter Design

Procedure:
 Figure 5.2 converting galvanometer into ammeter

 The total number of divisions on either side of the galvanometer scale should be equal and
denoted by n.
 Current Ig must be calculated for the full-scale deflection using Ig = nk.
 The shunt resistance value is calculated using the formula

S=Ig.GI−Ig
The shunt resistance S has a small value such that the range is not available in the resistance
box. To obtain the value of this small resistance, wires of copper, manganin, etc are used with
suitable diameter and length.

 Let the length of the wire be 2 cm more than the calculated value of I such that there is 1 cm
extra available at each end. Mark points on each end of the wire and connects it to the two
terminals of the galvanometer. The wire should be such that the points are on the outside of the
terminal screws. A galvanometer with the shunt wire will now work as an ammeter with the
range I.
 The electrical connections must be the same as in the circuit diagram.
 To observe maximum and minimum deflection in the galvanometer, insert the key and adjust
the rheostat.
 Note the readings from the galvanometer scale and the corresponding ammeter reading.
 Record the observations

Calculations
 The resistance of the galvanometer, G =
 The figure of merit, k =
 Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n =
 Current for full-scale deflection, I  = nk
g

 Range of conversion, I =
 ∴ Shunt resistance,S=Ig.GI−Ig
 Verification

Serial no. Galvanometer reading Ammeter reading I2 Difference I2 – I1

Deflection Ө Current in Amp

I1 = Ө x L.C

1.

2.

3.

Conclusion:

Connect the circuit as shown in

the above figure. The variable
power supply connected
gives the required potential
difference to the circuit.
● Now select and connect the
required resistance (R) in series
with the galvanometer, to
convert the galvanometer into
voltmeter of required range.
● The selection of the
resistance that should be
connected in series to the
galvanometer is in
such a way that the
galvanometer shows full
deflection for the required
range.
● By increasing the supply
voltage, the galvanometer
reading is increased in steps of 5
divisions, starting from zero, the
corresponding voltmeter
readings are noted, in the table.
Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 06

Wheatstone bridge
Objective:
To execute the operation on Wheatstone bridge for measurement of unknown resistance

Apparatus:

Theory:
The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit used to compare an unknown resistance with a known
resistance. A schematic is shown below:
 Figure 6.1 Circuit Diagram of Wheatstone bridge

The Wheatstone bridge circuit above is usually operated by adjusting the variable resistor R3until
no current flows in the ammeter. Under this special circumstance, the above circuit problem may
be solved easily without the need for Kirchoff's rules. Notice that resistors R3 and R2 are NOT in
parallel (because there is a different voltage across each resistor) if there is a current in the
ammeter. Also R3 and R4 are NOT in series (because there is a different current through each
resistor) if there is a current in the ammeter.

Originally the Wheatstone bridge was developed as a sort of "electrical balance" to measure
unknown resistors placed in the position of R4and the adjustable resistor R3 had a sort of scale
which could be used to determine the value of the unknown resistor R4in a way we now describe.
This original use of the Wheatstone bridge has been replaced with the digital volt, amp, ohmmeter
in your circuit kit.

Figure 6.2 Wheatstone bridge Trainer

Features of Wheatstone bridge trainer:

Procedure:-
Calculations:
Table 6.1 values of different resistor

Sr. R2/R1 R3(A) R3(B) R3(C) R3(D) R3=R3(A)+R3(B)+R3(C)+R3(4) Rx=R2/R1*R3

Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

 LAB EXPERIMENT: 07

Kelvin Bridge
Objective:
To execute the operation on Kelvin bridge for measurement of unknown resistance

Apparatus/instruments:

Theory:
A Kelvin bridge also called a Kelvin double bridge and in some countries a Thomson
bridge, is a measuring instrument used to measure unknown electrical resistor below 1 ohm. It is
specifically designed to measure resistors that are constructed as four terminal resistors. The main
difference between Wheatstone bridge and Kelvin Bridge is that Wheatstone Bridge works for
normal and high resistance while Kelvin bridge is sensitive to detect low resistance. i,e including
in the resistance in a small piece of wire. Kelvin Double Bridge is nothing but a modification of
Wheatstone bridge. It is used for measuring of low resistance to a good precision. It compares two
ratio arms P,Q and p,q and hence is called ‘double bridge’.
 Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of Kelvin Bridge

P, Q, p, q are the resistances in the ratio arms. G is a galvanometer of D’Arsonal type, used as a
null detector. S is a small standard resistor, R is a resistance under measurement. Usually low
resistance consists of four leads. Two of them are called as voltage leads and remaining as current
leads. “r” is the resistance of connecting lead between R and S.
Under balanced conditions,

From the above equation, it is clear that the resistance of connecting leads “r” has no effect on the
measurement if the two sets of ratio arms have equal ratios ie, P/Q = p/q.
A specialized form of a Kelvin Bridge network designed to eliminate the effect of lead and
contact resistance and thus permit accurate measurement of low resistances.

Figure 7.2 Kelvin bridge trainer

Features of Kelvin bridge Trainer
Difference between Wheatstone bridge and Kelvin Bridge

Procedure:

Calculations:
Table 7.1 calculation of unknown resistor.

No. R2 R3=variable resistance Rx=unknown

ratio
R1 resistance

Conclusion:
Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 08

Objective:
To demonstrate the characteristics of Strain Gauge Transducer for weight measurement

Requirements:

Theory:
It is a device which is used for measuring mechanical surface strain and one of the most
extensively used electrical transducer. It can detect and convert force or small mechanical
displacement into electrical signal. Many other quantities such as pressure, weight etc. which
involve the effect of force or displacement can be measured with strain gauge. It consists of a fine
wire, about 0.001 inches in diameter, looped back and forth on a mounting plate which is usually
cemented to the element that undergoing stress. A tensile stress along the proper axis elongates
the wire, thereby increasing its length. At the same time, the cross sectional area of the wire
decreases. Resistance of the wire is

R = ƿL/A

Strain gauge has a dimensionless parameter called gauge factor relating a change in resistance to a
change in length. Gauge Factor (G) = Change in resistance per unit strain
 Figure 8.1 Construction of Stain Gauge

Fig. 8.1 shows the construction of strain gauge, consisting of a grid of fine wire or semiconductor
material bonded to a baking material. When in use, the unit is glued to the beam under test and is
arranged so that the variation in length under loaded conditions is along the gauge sensitive axis
(Fig. 8.1(a)).Loading the beam increases the length of the gauge wire and also reduces its cross-
sectional area (Fig. 8.1(c)). Both of these effects will increase the resistance of the wire.

Figure 8.2 Circuit arrangement of Stain Gauge

The layout and the circuit arrangement for the IT-5931 unit is shown in Fig. 8.2. Resistors are
electro-deposited on a substrate on a contact block at the right-band end of the assembly. The
Gauge is normally connected in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement with the bridge balanced under
no load conditions. Any change of resistance due to loading unbalances the bridge and this is
indicated by the detector (Galvanometer).
 Figure 8.3 Wheatstone bridge arrangement of Stain Gauge

Fig. 8.3(a) shows the basic Wheatstone bridge arrangement with one strain gauge transducer. This
circuit is liable to give inaccurate results due to thermal changes. A variation of temperature will
also produce a change of resistance of gauge and this will be interpreted as a change of loading.

The correct for this an identical gauge is used and connected in circuit as shown in Fig. 8.3(b).
This gauge is placed near to the other gauge but is arranged so that it is no subjected to any
loading. Any variation of temperature now affects both gauges equally and there will be no
thermal effect on the bridge conditions. The gauge subjected to loading is referred to as the active
gauge and the other is called the dummy gauge. The output from the circuit is small and to
increase the four gauges are normally used with two active gauges and two dummies as shown in
the Fig. 8.3(c). The IT-5931 uses to active gauges formed along the axis of the beam and two
dummies formed at right angles to these.

The Main Characteristics/Applications of the device are:

Experimental Setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure setup for the present experiment
 Figure 8.4 Configure setup of Stain Gauge

Background Calculations:
Specific ratio of Load cell = 150g

O/P Sensitivity = 0.8mV/V

Excitation Voltage = 5V

So the full scale voltage will be = 0.8mV * 5 = 4mV

Full scale voltage 4 mV

Hence V/g¿ = =26.67 µ V /g
Load Capacity 150 g

To find the voltage for 100g

26.67µV *100 = 2.667mV

There is a total gain of 1000 involved in the experiment so

2.667mV * 1000 = 2.66 ± 10% V

The above calculation shows that the strain gauge will give 2.66V (approx.) after amplification.
Similarly, calculations can be performed for different weights for example 50g, 25g, 10g, 5g etc.

Procedure:
Calculations:

Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)
 Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 09

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Objective:
To calibrate the characteristics of the linear variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) transducer
for displacement measurement

Requirements:

Theory:
The construction and circuit arrangement of an LVDT are shown in Fig 9.1. It consists of three
coils mounted on a common former and having a magnetic core that is moveable within the coils.
 Figure 9.1 Construction of LVDT

Figure 9.2 Circuit arrangement of LVDT

The center coil is the primary and is supplied from an AC Supply. The coils on either side are
secondary coils and are labeled in Fig 9.2. Coils A & B have equal number of turns and are
connected in series opposing so that the output voltage is the difference between the voltages
induced in the coils. Fig 9.3 shows the output obtained for different positions of the magnetic
core.

Figure 9.3 Position of Core of LVDT

When the core in its central position as shown in Fig 9.3(b) there should be equal voltages
induced in coils A & B by normal transformer action and the output voltage would be zero. In
practice this ideal condition is unlikely to be found, but the output voltage will reduce to a
minimum. With the core moved to a left as shown in Fig 9.3(a), the voltage induced in coil A (Va)
will be greater than the induced in coil B (Vb). There will therefore be an output voltage V out =
(Va – Vb) and this voltage will be in phase with the input voltage as shown. With the core moved
to the right as shown in Fig 9.3(c) the voltage induced the coil A (Va) will be less than the
induced in coil B (Vb) and again there will be an output voltage V out =(Va−Vb) and this voltage
will be antiphase with the input voltage.

Figure 9.4 Construction of LVDT

Experimental Setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure setup for the present experiment.
 Figure 9.5 Configuration setup of LVDT

Procedure:

Characteristics of LVDT

Calculation:
Table 9.1

Core -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
position
(turns from
neutral)-7
Output V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V
Voltage
Result:
Plot the graph of output voltage

Graph 9.1
Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 10

Air Pressure Transducer

Objective:
To calibrate the characteristics of an air pressure transducer for air pressure measurement.

Requirements:

Theory:
A pressure sensor (sometimes pressure transducer or transmitter) measures the physical quantity
pressure and converts it into a standardized electrical measurement signal.
Pressure transducers are used to measure pressure – often either air pressure or pressure in a
liquid. They are used to inform personnel that the pressure has risen/dropped above/beyond a
certain limit, this could be for safety reasons
A pressure transducer is a measuring device which converts an applied pressure into an electrical
signal. Generally, a pressure transducer consists of two parts, an elastic material which deforms
under the application of pressure and an electrical part which detects this deformation. Fig 10.1.
Shows the electric circuit arrangement of the IT-5930 pressure unit. The device consists of a outer
plastic case which is open to the atmosphere via single port. Within this case is an inner container
from which the all has been evacuated and within a strain gauge wheatstone bridge circuit is fitted
on the surface.

Fig.10.1 Circuit Diagram of air pressure transducer

The all pressure in the outer container will produce an output from the bridge and variation of
the pressure will produce a variation of this output. The transducer output can be calibrated
and may be called an absolute pressure transducer.

Experimental Setup
Applications:

Procedure:

Calculations:
Time(minutes)
Voltages

Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 11
 Air Flow Transducer
Objective:
To calibrate the working and characteristics of an air flow transducer

Equipment:

Theory:
Flow transducers are used to measure air and liquid flow velocity. Fig. shows the construction of
an air flow transducer, consisting of two RTD’s (resistance temperature dependent) mounted in a
plastic case. One of the devices has an integral heating element incorporated with it and the other
is unheated.

• The operation of the device uses the principle that when air flows over the RTD’s, the
temperature of the heated unit will fall more than that of unheated unit. The temperature
difference will be related to the air flow rate which will in turn affect the resistance of the
RTD’s. With the IT-5930, the transducers are enclosed in a clear plastic container and
provision is made for air to be pumped over the device.
• Flow transducers are used to measure air and liquid flow velocity. Flow transducers use
different measuring principles. . By means of the flow velocity, analysis units of flow
transducers can calculate the flow level or determine the amount of flow with a counter.

Experimental Setup
Procedure:

Calculations:
Time

Voltage

Conclusion:
Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 12
 RTD Transducer
Objective:
To calibrate the working of Platinum RTD resistance temperature transducer for temperature
measurement

Equipment:

Theory:
The Platinum RTD (Resistance Temperature Dependent) Transducer

Figure 12.1 Construction of RTD

The construction of the Platinum RTD Transducer is shown in Fig 12.1, consisting of a thin film
of Platinum deposited on a ‘ceramic substrate and having gold contact plates at each end that
make contact with the film. The Platinum film is trimmed with a laser beam to cut a spiral for a
resistance of 100Ω at 0° C. The resistance of the film increases as the temperature increases. It has
a positive temperature coefficient (p.t.c). The increase in resistance is linear, the relationship
between resistance change and temperature rise being 0.3850Ω/°C.

Rt = Ro + 0.385t
Where

Normally, the unit would be connected to a DC supply via a series resistor and the voltage
developed across the transducer is measured. The current flow through the transducer will then
cause some self heating, the temperature rise due to this being of the order of 0.005°C/mW
dissipated in the transducer. The very simple electrical circuit arrangement of the IT-5929 unit is
as shown in Fig1 2.2.
 Figure 12.2 circuit arrangement of RTD

The white dot signifies that this ia a p.t.c., not n.t.c. (negative temperature coefficient) types of
resistor which would have a black dot.

In the practical exercise you will connect the platinum RID in series with a high resistance to a
DC supply and measure the voltage drop across it. Due to the small variation of resistance, the
current change will be negligible and the voltage drop across the transducer will be directly
proportional to its resistance.

Difference between positive and negative temperature co-efficient:

Is RTD is active transducer or passive transducer?

Experimental Setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure setup for the present experiment.
 Figure 12.3 Configure setup of RTD

Procedure:

Calculation:
Table 12.1
Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=

LAB EXPERIMENT: 13
 N.T.C Thermistor
Objective:
To calibrate the circuit on n.t.c thermistor and check the effect of temperature on thermistor
resistance

Apparatus:

Theory:
The n.t.c (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor

The thermistor (thermally sensitive resistor) is manufactured with the intension that’s its value
will change the temperature. Unlike a normal resistor, a large coefficient of resistance ( change of
resistance with temperature) is desirable.

Some are made with resistance with increases with temperature (positive temperature coefficient
p.t.c) or decreases (negative temperature coefficient n.t.c). They are made in rod, disc or bead
form.

The construction of a typical n.t.c thermistor is shown in Fig. 13.1(a), consisting of an element
made from sintered oxides of metals such as nickel, manganese and cobalt, with contacts made to
each side of the element.

Figure 13.1 Construction and Circuit diagram of thermistor

As the temperature of the element increases, its resistance falls, the resistance temperature
characteristic being non-linear.

The resistance of the thermistors provided with the IT-5929 trainer is of the order of 5kΩ at an
ambient temperature of 20°C (293°K).

Two similar units are provided, one being mounted inside the heated enclosure. This is connected
to the +5Vsupply and designated A. The order is mounted outside the heated enclosure. It is
connected to the 0V (ground) line and is designated B. The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig
13.1(b).

Background:-

The resistance of the n.t.c thermistor varies over a wide range for the wide range for the
temperature range available within the heating enclosure. If resistance readings are to be taken at
regular intervals of 1 minute, the reading must be obtained very quickly. The method selected
connects the thermistor in series with a calibrated resistor to the +5V supply.

For each reading, the variable resistor is adjusted until the voltage at the junction of the thermistor
and resistor is half to the supply voltage. For the setting there will be the same voltage drop across
the thermistor and the resistor and since the same current flows in each their resistances must be
equal. Hence the value of the resistance read from the calibrated resistor scale is the same as the
resistance of the thermistor.

Construction of Thermistor:

Experimental setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure setup for the present experiment.

Figure 13.2 Schematic diagram of thermistor

Figure 13.3 Configure setup of thermistor

Procedure:
Calculations:
Time
(minutes)
Temperature
Conclusion:

Evaluation:
Experimental CLO/PLO Based Evaluation Chart
CLO#01/PlO#01 CLO#02/PlO#04 CLO#03/PlO#9
(Cognitive) (Psychomotor) (Affective)
Apparatus Theory Circuit Procedure Readings/ Result Viva
(1) (1) Diagrams (1) Tabulations (1) (2)
(2) (2)

Total= Total= Total=