ONIR 4225 Research Fundamentals

Saya Sapakova
Assistant professor,
IITU, Almaty
General Information about course

• Course title – ONIR 4225 Research Fundamentals

• Lecturer – Sapakova Saya Zamanbekovna

• PhD, Ass.professor CE Dept., Room 409,
• E-mail: [email protected],
• Office hours Wed, Fri 14.00-16.00

• Lectures: 15 hours (1 h/w)

• Practical classes: 30 hours (1 h/w)
• Type of exam: Course work
GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE COURSE

The course goal is development of the ability to independently carry out research work.
The objectives of the course are:
- learn basic methods of formulation and organization of scientific research;
- development of students' skills to independently formulate research tasks, engineering decision-making skills;
- development of students' skills in searching and processing scientific and technical information;
- mastering by students research methods and processing of experimental results;
apply the latest scientific and practical achievements in the field of Software Engineering.

Learning outcomes of the course

Students successfully completing the course will be able to:
1.Know the basic, methods, means and techniques for performing research work, including for the implementation of the diploma
project.
2. Analyze the subject area of development and make a comparative analysis based on an analytical review;
3. Develop an abstract for research topic;
4. To formalize the results of research work (project):
5. Use scientific literature;
6. Defend and justify the results obtained.
Lecture 1. Introduction to Scientific Research
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Describe the meaning of research
• Explain the characteristics of research
• Explain the purpose and objectives of research
• Discuss the types of research
The concept of research

•Research is a term you are probably familiar with. In other words, this is probably not your first time
of hearing or coming across the term “research”.
•Since you are aware of some, if not all of these facts, the question therefore arises:

what is research?
The concept of research

•Some students were asked the above question and some of the responses obtained include the
following:
•“Research is what we do when our lecturers give us assignments.”
•“Research is part of what we do in our final year to earn our degrees.”
•“Research is the thing we do when we want to find something out.”
•While the above responses do indeed possess some utility as we shall later on explain, they are
nevertheless over simplification of the concept of research. Accordingly, they cannot be accepted as
valid definitions of research.
What is research?

•“Research” has its etymological derivation from the French word “recherché”
which means “to investigate thoroughly” or “to go about seeking ”.
•In the English language, the word “Research” comes from a prefix and a root
word
RE + SEARCH
that means ―To Seek Out Again
•In most research is indeed, a mater of seeking out ideas and materials already
found or developed by others. Research is making discoveries – usually in order
to put together in new ways, which is found
•Some synonyms for research are inquiry, investigation and study.
What is research?

Leedy (1997) defines research as the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which
we are concerned or interested.
Leedy (1997) has gone further to clarify for us what research is classified with and what
research is NOT. Let us start with what research is NOT. According to him research is not:
• Mere information gathering
• Mere transformation of facts from one location to another
• Merely rummaging information and
• A catch word used to get information
What is research? Cont.

The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 7 th Edition (2005) defines research as

“a careful study of a subject, especially in order to discover new facts or
information about it”. Although the discovery of new facts is the ultimate aims of
most research endeavours, some are undertaken to prove whether the outcomes
of a previous research are valid or not.

The Chambers Dictionary 11th Edition (2009) defines research as “careful search;
investigation; systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of
knowledge”.
What is research? Cont.

• Research is a process to describe, explain, predict and control the observed

phenomenon.
• To research is to purposely and methodically search for new knowledge and
practical solutions in the form of answers to questions formulated beforehand.
• Research is also defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses,
suggests new interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for
future research to explore.
• Usually Research consists of:
• Asking a question that nobody has asked before;
• Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and
• Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.
Characteristics of research

We can summarize the main characteristics of research as follows. Research:

• is directed toward the solution of a problem;
• is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence;
• demands accurate observation and description;
• involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new
purpose;
• is characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous analysis. However, it is
sometimes somewhat random and unsystematic;
• requires expertise;
• is characterized by patient and unhurried activity;
• is carefully recorded and reported;
• emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrences; and
• strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures
employed, the data collected, and the conclusion reached.
Purpose and objectives of research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures.

The prime objectives of research are

(1) to discover new facts
(2) to verify and test important facts
(3)to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship
(4)to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand
scientific and nonscientific problems
(5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
(6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life
Classification of Research

Research can be classified in terms of:

• goal of research,
• specific objectives of research,
• approaches of research,
• designs,
• the type of data used in research, and
• fields of study.
Classification of Research based on the Goal of Research

The nature of the problem that the research attempts to solve could be theoretical or practical – building a theory
or solving immediate practical problems. These two types of problems that the research tries to solve leads to two
broad classifications of research:
• basic research, and
• applied research.

Basic Scientific Research (also called fundamental or pure research) is conducted solely for the purpose of theory
development or refinement. It is usually used to develop new knowledge that advances our understanding of the real
world. This research is more descriptive in nature exploring what, why and how questions.
The major aims of basic research include:
• Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand, or evaluate theory; and
•Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.
Hence, basic research may take any of the following forms:
•Discovery: where a totally new idea or explanation emerges from empirical research which may revolutionize thinking
on that particular topic.
• Invention : where a new technique or method is created.
•Reflection : where an existing theory, technique or group of ideas is re-examined possibly in a different organizational
or social context.
Classification of Research based on the Goal of Research. Cont.

Applied Scientific Research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern

world. It is undertaken to solve immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to the
scientific knowledge is secondary.
The purpose of applied research is about testing theories, often generated by pure
science, and applying them to real situations, addressing more than just abstract
principles.
Applied research:
• Is conducted in relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which they are
found in practice;
• Employs methodology that is not as rigorous as that of basic research;
• Yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms of
universal validity.
 Classification of Research based on the Specific Objectives of Research

Research can be classified as descriptive and explanatory depending on the specific purpose that the
research tries to address.

Descriptive research sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at individuals, groups,
institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast, classify, analyze and
interpret the entities and the events that constitute the various fields of inquiry. It aims to describe
the state of affairs as it exists.

On the other hand, explanatory research, aims at establishing the cause and effect relationship
between variables. The researcher uses the facts or information already available to analyze and
make a critical evaluation of the data/information. Exploratory research is less formal, sometimes
even unstructured and focuses on gaining background information and helps to better understand
and clarify a problem. It can be used to develop hypotheses and to develop questions to be
answered.
Classification of Research based on Approaches of Research

Research can be classified as qualitative research and quantitative research when the issue at hand
is the approaches used in conducting research. This structure is mainly for educational purpose.

Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical
summary or analysis. Qualitative research seeks to describe various aspects about behavior and other
factors of studied object. In qualitative research data are often in the form of descriptions, not
numbers.

Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena.
Classification of Research based on Designs

Another way of classifying research is by design. There are endless ways of

classifying research designs, they usually fall into one of three general categories:
• experimental,
• quasi-experimental, and
• non-experimental.
Classification or Research by Type of Data

Depending of the type of data generated and used research can be classified as
Primary research (also called field research) and Secondary research (also known
as desk research).
Primary research involves the collection of data that does not already exist
whereas secondary research involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of
existing data rather than generating primary data, where data are collected from,
for example, research subjects or experiments.
Classification of Research by Fields of Study

Research can also be classified based on fields of study. Therefore, there are:
• natural science research,
• social science research,
• educational research,
• technical science research,
• health science research, etc.
Summary

• Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase

our understanding of the phenomenon under study.
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
• Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method.
• Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of the
phenomena.
• There are different ways of classifying research. As illustration, in this lecture research
is classified based on goal of research, specific objectives of research, approaches of
research, designs, the type of data used in research, and fields of study.
Assignment

1. Choose the topic of the diploma project.

2. How can you define research in your own words?
3. Explain the characteristics of research
4. Describe the purposes of research
5. Which of the two types of research (basic or applied) will be the focus of your
graduate research?
6. Is there commercial value involved in the discoveries that result from basic
research?
7. Is basic research important for progress to take place
8. When do we use basic research?
Lecture 2. The research process

Saya Sapakova
Associate professor,
IITU, Almaty
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• to explain the scientific process in research
• draw a simple diagram of the research process
• identify and define the key stages of the generalized research process
Research as a process

• Research can be seen as a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to an end.
• Research usually begins with the identification of a problem followed by formulation of research questions or objectives.
Proceeding from this the researcher determines how best to answer these questions and so decides what information to collect,
how it will be collected, and how it will be analyzed in order to answer the research question.
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
And Design
Collect Data
theories Research Interpret
Define Formulate Data (Test
(Including and
Research hypothesis (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem if any)
Design)
Review F F
Previous
Research
I III IV V VI VII
findings

II
F

F Feed Back

F Feed Forward
Flowchart: Steps in the development of a research proposal

Development of a research process is

a cyclical process. The double-headed
arrows indicate that the process is
never linear.
Step 1. Define Research Problem

What is a research problem?

The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.
Research Problem: a theoretical or practical question, the answer to which you do not know and to
which you need to answer. The problem is the bridge from the unknown to the known. .

Why is it important to state and define the problem well?

Because a clear statement of the problem:
• Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal (research objectives,
methodology, work plan, budget, etc.).
• Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own study design
can benefit.
• Enables you to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be
undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results. This is important to highlight when
you present your project to business and donor agencies who need to support your study or give
their consent.
Step 1. Define Research Problem.Cont.

Definition of the problem involves two activities:

1. Identification / Selection of the Problem

2. Formulation of the Problem

IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of
them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain selection criteria.

Some sources of identification of a research topic and problems are the

following:
1. Researcher’s own interest
2. Daily problems
3. Technological changes
4. Recent trends
5. Unexplored areas
6. Discussion with experts and research supervisor
DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

• After identifying a problem, in order to solve it, it has to be defined and

formulated properly. For this purpose, one can execute the following.
• State the problem in questionnaire form or in an equivalent form
• Specify the problem in detail and in precise terms
• List the assumptions made
• Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement of the problem
• Examine the feasibility of a particular solution

• Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research

problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned
with specifying exactly what the research problem is.
Criteria for selecting a research topic

Before choosing a research topic and a problem the young researchers should keep the following
points in mind.

Criteria for selecting a research topic:

• Relevance/Significance
• Avoidance of duplication
• Urgency of data needed (timeliness)
• Feasibility of study
• Applicability of results
• Interest to the researcher
• Ethical acceptability

Topic and problem can be fixed in consultation with the research supervisor.
Step 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the

published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas
of specific interest to the researcher.

• The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those
that need further investigation.

• It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of

investigation.

• It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of
study and how they have done so.
PURPOSE OF REVIEW

• To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

• To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them
and to formulate researchable hypothesis.
• To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring
concepts and techniques of analysis.
• To identify data sources used by other researchers.
• To learn how others structured their reports.
How to conduct the Literature Survey?

• Identify the relevant sources.

• Extract and Record relevant information.
• Write-up the Literature Review.

SOURCES OF LITERATURE:
• Books and Journals
• Electronic Databases
• Bibliographic Databases
• Abstract Databases
• Full-Text Databases
• Govt. and Industry Reports
• Internet
• Research Dissertations / Thesis
Tips for Writing a Literature Survey

• Go online and search for articles, books and papers related to your subject. Select keywords on your
topic.
• Ask your supervisor for recommendations (but don’t totally rely only on these!).
• When you read some literature that you think is useful and related, first record the citation on your list of
references.
• When you read some literature that is not very useful, do not include it on your list of references. More
references do not mean a better list of references. Useless references only confuse a careful reader and
make you lose credibility.
• In each document, identify the approach(es)/method(s) for solving problem(s), and compare this/these
with what you already know.
• Identify which approaches and/or methods you will use and omit in your research.
• Your review must be written in a formal, academic style. Keep your writing clear, avoiding colloquialisms
and personal language.
• You should always aim to be objective and respectful of others' opinions; this is not the place for emotive
language or strong personal opinions.
• Avoid plagiarizing your sources. Making sure you consistently reference the literature you are referring to
 STEP-3. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

• What is a hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can be tested.
• Our definition of a hypothesis stresses that it can be tested. To meet this criterion the hypothesis
must be be measurable.

• Variables in hypotheses
• Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables. An independent variable is
something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher
observes and measures.

• In this example, the independent variable is apple consumption — the assumed cause. The
dependent variable is the frequency of doctor’s visits — the assumed effect.
Developing a hypothesis

1. Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused,
specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.
Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?
2. Do some preliminary research
Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and
previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.
3. Formulate your hypothesis
Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear,
concise sentence.
Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.
4. Refine your hypothesis
You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but
all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:
• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis
Developing a hypothesis.Cont.

5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

• To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of
the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent
variable.
If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.

• In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or

effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.
The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam
scores.
• If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to
find between them.
First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those who
attended few lectures.
STEP-4. Design Research

• Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher.
The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for the subject
matter and set up their studies up for success.
• The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational,
semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem,
descriptive case-study).
• There are three main types of designs for research: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.
• Practical considerations when designing research
• As well as scientific considerations, you also need to think practically when designing your
research.
• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g. by travelling to a specific location or
contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g. statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval?
STEP-5. Collect Data

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Data

collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
(v) Through schedules
In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:
1. Which data to collect
2. How to collect the data
3. Who will collect the data
4. When to collect the data
STEP-6. Analyze Data

Data analysis is the most crucial part of any research. Data analysis summarizes collected
data. It involves the interpretation of data gathered through the use of analytical and logical
reasoning to determine patterns, relationships or trends.
STEP-7. Interpret and report

Finally you progress to the report writing stage.

The basic components of a research proposal are the same in many fields. However, how they are phrased and staged
may vary by discipline. The following components can be regarded as steps in the writing of the research proposal.
1. Title page
2. Summary/Abstract
3. Introduction/Background
4. Statement of the problem
5. Literature review
6. Hypotheses /Questions
7. Conceptual framework
8. Objective/Aim of the study
9. Research methods, materials and procedures
10. Work plan
11. Budget
12. References
13. Appendices/Annexes
Summary

Research process can usually be summarized as follows:

Identify and formulate the research topic or problem
Select, narrow and formulate the topic or problem to be studied and conduct preliminary literature search.
Literature search and review
Read around the subject to help clarify your research topic, questions, and methods. Critically review literature to
compare your research with what has already been done, and to give context. This stage interacts with other stages.
Research objectives, questions, and hypotheses
Define clear questions and/or hypotheses.
Research approach, design, and strategy
Select a research approach and design that will make it possible to answer research questions and plan the overall
research strategy.
Identify the data you want to record and from whom/where you are going to collect it (sampling).
Data collection
Data analysis
The data collected are prepared in such a way that they describe and highlight what was found in the research. Analytical
tools are used to describe the data and measure or explore relationships between the subjects or items of interest.
Generalization and write-up
The researcher relates the evidence collected to the research question(s), draws conclusions about the question(s) or
hypotheses, and acknowledges limitations of the research.
Assignments

1. Select a problem in your area of specialization. Identify your own research

topic.
2. Write the introduction section of the topic you identified.
3. Write the statement of the problem for your topic.
4. Review literature for your identified topic
5. Formulate your own research question and hypothesis (relevant to your
topic)
6. Define clearly your general and specific objectives.
7. Write clearly the research design/methods for the identified topic
8. Develop your work plan
9. Choose one method of citing references and write all the references you
used.
Lecture 3. The research variables

Saya Sapakova
Associate professor,
IITU, Almaty
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• to explain the meaning of variables;
• The difference of variables and concepts;
• Converting concepts into variables.
Variables

In scientific research,
concepts are the abstract ideas or phenomena that are being studied (e.g.,
educational achievement).

Variables are properties or characteristics of the concept (e.g., performance at

school), while indicators are ways of measuring or quantifying variables (e.g., yearly
grade reports).
Types of Variables in Research & Statistics | Examples

In statistical research, a variable is defined as an attribute of an

object of study. Choosing which variables to measure is central to
good experimental design.
Types of Variables in Research & Statistics | Examples

Example

If you want to test whether some plant species are more salt-tolerant
than others, some key variables you might measure include
the amount of salt you add to the water, the species of plants being
studied, and variables related to plant health like growth and wilting.
Types of data: Quantitative vs categorical variables

Data is a specific measurement of a variable – it is the value you

record in your data sheet.

Data is generally divided into two categories:

•Quantitative data represents amounts.

•Categorical data represents groupings.
Types of data: Quantitative vs categorical variables

A variable that contains quantitative data is a quantitative variable;

a variable that contains categorical data is a categorical variable.

Each of these types of variable can be broken down into further types.
Quantitative variables

There are two types of quantitative variables:

discrete and continuous.
Quantitative variables
Categorical variables

Categorical variables represent groupings of some kind.

They are sometimes recorded as numbers, but the numbers
represent categories rather than actual amounts of things.

There are three types of categorical variables:

binary, nominal, and ordinal variables.
Categorical variables
Types of data: Quantitative vs categorical variables

Example data sheet

To keep track of your salt-tolerance experiment, you make a
data sheet where you record information about the variables in
the experiment, like salt addition and plant health.
To gather information about plant responses over time, you can
fill out the same data sheet every few days until the end of the
experiment. This example sheet is color-coded according to the
type of variable: nominal, continuous, ordinal, and binary.
Types of data: Quantitative vs categorical variables
Parts of the experiment: Independent vs dependent
variables

Experiments are usually designed to find out what effect one

variable has on another – in our example, the effect of salt
addition on plant growth.
Parts of the experiment: Independent vs dependent
variables

You manipulate the independent variable (the one you think

might be the cause) and then measure the dependent
variable (the one you think might be the effect) to find out what
this effect might be.
Independent vs dependent vs control variables
 Example data sheet

In this experiment, we have one independent and

three dependent variables.
Correlational Research | When & How to Use

A correlational research design investigates relationships

between variables without the researcher controlling or
manipulating any of them.

A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the

relationship between two (or more) variables. The direction of a
correlation can be either positive or negative.
Correlational Research | When & How to Use
Correlational vs. experimental research

Experiments are used to study causal relationships. You

manipulate one or more independent variables and measure
their effect on one or more dependent variables.

Experimental design means creating a set of procedures to

systematically test a hypothesis. A good experimental design
requires a strong understanding of the system you are studying.
Correlational vs. experimental research

There are five key steps in designing an experiment:

1.Consider your variables and how they are related
2.Write a specific, testable hypothesis
3.Design experimental treatments to manipulate
your independent variable
4.Assign subjects to groups, either between-
subjects or within-subjects
5.Plan how you will measure your dependent variable
Example question 1: Phone use and sleep

You want to know how phone use before bedtime affects sleep
patterns. Specifically, you ask how the number of minutes a
person uses their phone before sleep affects the number of
hours they sleep.
Correlational vs. experimental research

Correlational and experimental research both

use quantitative methods to investigate relationships between
variables. But there are important differences in how data is
collected and the types of conclusions you can draw.
Correlational vs. experimental research
Correlational vs. experimental research

When to use correlational research?

Example

You want to know if there is any correlation between the number of children
people have and which political party they vote for. You don’t think having
more children causes people to vote differently — it’s more likely that both
are influenced by other variables such as age, religion, ideology and
socioeconomic status. But a strong correlation could be useful for making
predictions about voting patterns.
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous Variables

Example:
Extraneous variables In your experiment, these extraneous variables can affect the
science knowledge scores:

•Participant’s major (e.g., STEM or humanities)

•Participant’s interest in science
•Demographic variables such as gender or educational background
•Time of day of testing
•Experiment environment or setting
If these variables systematically differ between the groups, you can’t be sure
whether your results come from your independent variable manipulation or from
the extraneous variables.
Questions?
Lecture 4. The literature review

Saya Sapakova
Associate professor,
IITU, Almaty
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Comprehend the fundamental concepts of literature survey and literature
review
• Identify and scrutinize the resources available for literature survey
• Distinguish between scientific paper, white paper and patent
• Organize, compare and contrast the components and findings of reported
research
• Define problem statement and frame the scope and objectives
• Plan the research activity
Literature survey & literature review

Literature survey means penetrating through the available literature in the

selected area of research, whereas, literature review involves assessment and
examination of the reported contributions/findings.

Recording, summarizing and evaluating the existing findings and being able to
provide expert judgment of the methods and finding is also called as literature
review.
The literature survey

A literature survey can be divided into three parts

• Searching of the literature in the area of interest

• Collection/acquisition of literature or data
• Critical study of literature/review of literature in the area of
interest
Literature review

Literature review helps you to widen the knowledge in the selected domain.

It is very important to know the contributions of other researchers in the existing

area or domain. Moreover, questions like, what challenges, which problems, what
advantageous and disadvantageous of the existing systems, should trigger the
thought process. These questions help to focus on finding answers to those
limitations and accordingly you can define your own problem statement.
Background research

Background research is an important part to undertake the

research in the area of interest.

The study of background research is useful in order to know

what approach or methodology the other researchers have used
for their research study.

Background research is necessary in order to know how to

design and understand the research topic.
Background research

• Why you need to pursue research in the selected area?

• How are you going to pursue the research?
• What are the constraints of pursuing the research?
• Which laboratory is to be used for experimentation?
• Is the topic latest or demanding?
• Which is the best method for the experimentation?
• What are the limitations of existing technique?
• Is the research topic feasible?
• Does the research/problem statement have substantial research component?
• Is there any social use for the selected topic?
• Does it harm the society?
• Is there any parallel research being pursued by another person in the selected area?
Background research

Background research is a continuous process. It should continue throughout the

research process. It helps you to draw the aim and objectives of the research to
pursue.

During the study of background research, a researcher has full flexibility to consider
utilization of various information sources and decide which are likely to be most
useful.

As the background research is a continuous process, it helps you to be ready to

modify the requirements as the search progresses.
 Background research

Research topic should also include the effects on the human life. Therefore, the
background research is very important in order to identify a series of problems that
can be tackled individual.
Background research
The importance of incorporating background information

• Introductory detail of the area of interest

• Methodology used for the topic to be studied
• Broad overview of the topic to be studied
• Name of the authors/researchers who are authorities in the area of interest
• Important happenings or events in the area
• Keywords and subject related to the vocabulary terms, which can be used to search the
database
• Local, national and international status of the work
• References and bibliographies that can lead to additional search
• Explanation about the fundamental study conducted in the past
• The important historical dates and events of the major work carried out related to the topic
• The information why and in what way the research problem is important
• Social relevance and contribution
Planning of the research

Some simple steps, the researcher can follow in order to plan and manage the
process of literature search.

These steps include:

• Identifying the research query or research problem

• Plan your search related to research area
• Experimentation based on existing techniques or methods
Planning of the research (cont)

• Evaluating the results of existing techniques or methods and recording the

results
• Revise and review your research plan based on your results obtained
• Try to test your database, based on new methodology or techniques
• Compare results of existing techniques with the new technique
• Analyze and synthesize the results obtained
Primary and secondary resources
Resources of Literature Survey
 How to read scientific paper?

A scientific paper helps to understand the following things:

• What has already been discovered in research domain?
• What questions remain unanswered?
• How the experiments are conducted?
• What is the time duration to conduct that experiment?
• Which tools/equipment’s needed to conduct the experiment?
• Details about how to perform the experiments?
Preparation of literature

Preparation of literature survey involves following points:

• Summarizing the key points from the literature;

• Searching of accurate, reliable, and latest information on the research topic or subject;
• Listing the ideas and concepts into a summary of what is known
• Synthesizing, discussing and evaluating these ideas and concepts
• Criticizing and identifying the particular area for debate or controversy
• Preparation of mind-set of the researcher and relevant resources for the application of these
ideas for new research to be proposed
 How to read scientific paper?

• What are the keywords given by the author?

• What are the proofs and evidences the author has produced to support the idea presented
in the paper?
• The evidences interpreted by the authors can these by represented in other way?
• What type of results provided by the authors, such as quantitative, qualitative or
experimental?
• Is there enough mathematical analysis given by the author, to support the research work?
• Comparison of theoretical values with the practical values
• Critical evaluation of other literature
• Has the author included the literature, which has opposed his/her idea presented in the
paper?
 How to read scientific paper?

• Validity of research information provided in the paper, is it from the reliable source?

• Is it possible for you to provide your own judgment to deconstruct the argument?

• Is it possible to identify the gaps or future scope for improvement in the existing research

• What type of information or contribution is provided to your own research subject?

• Are there any strengths and limitations given in the paper

 How to read scientific paper?

The literature review will contain a number of “mini reviews” based on the material
read.

Every mini review contains the following important points:

• A brief summary of the article/book

• Critically evaluated points in the book or article
 Critically evaluated points in the book/article

Does the author produces sufficient evidence to establish the point they want to make?
• The researcher has to identify the points that the author has conveniently left out or skated
over
• What is the author not saying related to the work carried out? • Has the author given
proper answer to the arguments?
• What are the evidences for those arguments?
• Identify carefully the loop holes in the presentation
• Generally the author is spinning the evidence. Is it possible for you to spin the evidence in
another direction?
• What is the impact would this have on overall argument given by the author?
• Here you find some clues for research area. Based on your reading the material, you need
to ask yourself, what if this particular author is comple tely right or partially right or
completely wrong.
 Where to place the LR?

Generally the literature review is placed, immediately after the introduction part of the
theses. This is the “traditional” way to place the literature review to be distributed over the
theses as a whole. The advantage of this is that, the entire theses reads like a continuous and
ongoing process throughout the research duration. The decision to place the literature
review should be taken only after the discussion with your supervisor/guide.
 Organizing the LR

The structure and the sequence of the literature review section or chapter should
have the beginning, middle and end.

For each article/book one has to commit on following points:

• Brief summary of the main idea
• Limitations and weaknesses of the existing subject
• Methodology followed by author
• Relevance of the book or article for your research subject
• Future scope given in the article/book
 Writing literature review

The summary of the literature review should be done in your own words. Here are
some important points to be noted for writing literature review:
• Claims should be supported with evidence: whatever the claim given in the
literature review, it should be supported with the proper evidences. You should be
careful while interpreting the evidence
• Keywords from the literature: From each literature survey, only selected points
should be considered. Use your judgment to identify what is important and what is
secondary from the literature
• Summary from the literature: Your own words should be used to summarize the
finding from the literature
 Writing literature review

• Arguments should be presented with evidence: Use your own thinking and voice
with a clear-cut argument. Arguments should be supported with evidence
• Avoid too much I/we language: It is better to avoid too much I/we language. Use
more indirect language such as “It is observed from the results,” “It could be
concluded that,” and so on.
• Revision of drafting: Revise, refine, and edit the drafting, number of times.
Grammar and spelling should be checked number of times. Fluency of language
should be checked as well as the references that you have used.
A clear and well-defined problem statement should bring the following questions:
• What are the limitations/weaknesses in the existing research subject?
• What is the database required?
• What are the characteristics of data, which are relevant and need to be studied?
• What parameters need to be explored?
• What are the exiting methods/techniques available for this purpose?
Lecture 5. The research design

Saya Sapakova
Associate professor,
IITU, Almaty
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Understand the importance of research design;
• Analyze the various types of research designs and select appropriate design for
experimentation;
• Distinguish and learn the applicability of the experimental designs;
• Investigate the sampling techniques and select suitable method for research.
Any research implementation needs a systematic approach toward development.
This is important from the view of exploring right directions to come up with
concrete results. So what relationship exists between the methodology and the
design? Which aspects of design are required for a problem at hand? What about
the samples used? How to select them?
What is research design?

-How to carry out the research?

-How to practically deploy solutions and deliver accurate results?
What is research design?

A research design is the most important step in giving a direction

to the research problem. It is the overall plan that deals with the
aspects of complete design from the study type, data collection
approaches, experimental designs, and statistical approaches for
data samples.
Why is the research design so very important?

The research design helps the researcher to understand the

dependencies, consider the overall road map for carrying out the
research along with identifying the minute details. So, in a
nutshell, it is extremely necessary that a research design should be
prepared meticulously and exploited for the betterment of a
benchmark research
The research framework

(i) Defining precise, up to the point problem statement

(ii) Approaches/techniques that can be put to practice to collect
samples/data
(iii) The details about the data that need to be analyzed and further
researched upon
(iv) Approaches/experimental setups to be executed for the data
processing and
analysis.
Parameters research design
The research framework

(i) Title of research

(ii) Importance of the research
(iii) Literature survey
(iv) Scope/objectives and problem statement
(v) Concepts of the terminology used
(vi) Data
(vii) Results: Interpretations and conclusions
(viii)Further research
The difference between design and method

Design is not any method that one needs to carry out.

It is a way of planning things. No explicit method in research design
talks about the way in which data collection should occur or any
specific approach to be applied.
explanatory research

While carrying out explanatory research, we need to understand

causal relationships. Since it’s all about addressing the question of
why we need to determine the impacts and effects of one attribute
with other that is involved in the research. While saying so, the
causal relationships are typically given as X->Y, where Y is some
attribute or characteristic that is affected by X. Causal relationships
can be direct, indirect, or complex, or a combination of direct and
indirect.
explanatory research
Summary of the Research Designs
 Experimental research design

(i) Problem formulation

(ii) Defining the hypothesis
(iii) Preparation of the experimental design – this includes the variables,
the quantities, their relations, their properties, the environment in
which the experiment is to be performed, proper selection of the
equipment for experimentation and selection of any other
material/substances in the procedure.
(iv) Analysis of the impact and effect on the variables post
experimentation.
(v) Validation of the experiments with statistical reasoning and testing.
 basic principles of Experimental design

(i) The principle of replication states this – to perform the experiment

number of times and not relying on the output obtained after
performing it just once
(ii) The principle of randomization
(iii) The principle of local control
basic principles of Experimental design
Lecture 6. The research instruments

Saya Sapakova
Associate professor,
IITU, Almaty
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Understand scope of instrumentation schemes
• Recognize static and dynamic characteristics and predict the
reliability of an instrument
• Describe major approaches in data collection
An instrument is a device and instrumentation is the course of action (the
process of experimenting, testing, and using the device)
Characteristics of an instrument

They are mainly divided into:

• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
Characteristics of an instrument
Data collection

Data collection is the process of collecting and measuring information of

selected variables in an established systematic manner.

The systematically collected data enables researcher to answer relevant

questions and evaluate outcomes.

Data collection is important factor of research in all fields of study including

physical and social sciences, humanities, Engineering and Technology and
business.
Data collection

The goal of data collection is to get quality evidence which will allow
researcher to analyze formulation of convincing and credible answers to
prove his/her hypothesis.

Data collection begins after finalization of research problem, accurate data

collection is necessary for maintaining the integrity of research. Inaccurate
data causes consequences that includes the inability to answer research
questions accurately and the inability to repeat and validate the research
Types of data

To decide the method of data collection a researcher should know types of

data. A Researcher would have to decide which kind of data is required for
research and then accordingly he will have to decide the method of data
collection.

To reduce likelihood of errors occurring selection of appropriate data

collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use are needed. The data has been
divided into two types: primary and secondary.
Primary data

The data which are collected fresh for the first time are called as primary
data.

This may include number of ways like interviews, focus groups, telephone
surveys, and so on. Primary data can be collected from large population and
across wide geographical coverage through emails and posts
Advantage of primary data

• The primary data is original and pertinent to the subject of the research
to achieve high accuracy in research
• The researcher can get a realistic view about the topic under
consideration from the primary data
• Primary data are highly reliable because these are collected by the
researcher or concerned and reliable party
Disadvantage of primary data

• To collect primary data coverage is restricted in size and for larger coverage a
more number of researchers are required;
• The cost of the data collection will increase with increase in time and efforts of
more people but the importance of the research may drop;
• Primary data collection takes lot of time and efforts. The problem of the
research can become serious or out dated before completing the process of data
collection, analysis and report preparation. It may defeat the purpose of the
research;
• In collection of survey based data one can face design problems while preparing
questionnaire. The prepared questionnaire must be simple to understand and
respond;
• Timely responses are not received from some respondents.
Secondary data

The data which has already been collected by someone else, analysed and
statistically processed is called as secondary data.

It has been collected by someone not related to the current research field but
collected this data for some other motive and at different time in the past. If the
researcher uses this data to make conclusions then this becomes secondary data
for the researcher.
Secondary data

Secondary data can be of internal or external type.

If information is acquired within the organization where research is being carried

out the data is called as internal or in-house secondary data.

If data is obtained from outside sources then data is called as external secondary
data.
Advantages of using secondary data

• Secondary data is economical and faster to access

• It gives a way to use the work of the best intellectuals all over the globe
• It imparts a persuasion to the researcher about direction he/she should follow
for the selected research topic
• Secondary data adds value to the research study by preserving time, effort, and
money
Disadvantages of using secondary data

• The data collected by someone else may not be as reliable and as accurate
compared with primary data
• Data collected at one location may not be acceptable for the other location
because of inconsistent environmental conditions
• As time passes the data becomes obsolete and antiquated
• Collected secondary data may pervert the results of the research
• To use secondary data a special care and permissions are necessary to amend or
modify for use
• To use secondary data, care should be taken to avoid issues of copyright and
authenticity
Data collection process
Data collection process

(a) Primary Sources :

Information gathered using the 1st approach is said to be collected from
primary sources.
Primary sources provide first-hand information.
Primary sources e.g., measured, observed, interviewed, questionnaire.
For Example:
determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization.
finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards health
services.
evaluating the social programme.
ascertaining the health needs of a community.
Data collection process
 Observation
when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide
objective information about it.”
Observation is one of the best way to collected primary data.
It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of;
- watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
For Example:
Study the dietary patterns of a population.
Study the behavior or personality traits of an individual.
Want to learn about the interaction in a group.

It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate information cannot be elicited
by questioning because;
- respondents either are not co-operative or are unaware of the answers because it is
difficult to them to detach themselves from the interaction.
Observation
(1) Participant Observation
Researcher participate in activities of the group being observed in the same manner.
For Example;
You might want to examine the reactions of the general population towards people in
wheelchairs. You can study their reactions by sitting in a wheelchair yourself.
Or you might want to study the life of prisoners and pretend to be a prisoner.

(2) Non-Participant Observation

Researcher don't get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities and draw conclusions from this.
For Example;
you might want to study the functions carried out by nurses in a hospital.
- as an observer, you could watch, follow and record the activities as they are performed.
 Observation

(i) Observation (Problems):

 Hawthorne effect – individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed and
change their behavior.
- What is observed may not represent their normal behavior.
 Possibility of observer bias.
 Interpretation drawn from observation varies between observer.
 Possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording.

(i) Observation (Environments of Observation):

• Natural observation
 Observing a group in its natural operation rather than
intervening in its activities.
• Controlled observation
Introducing stimulus to the group for it to react to and observing the reaction.
Observation

(i)Observation (Recording Observation):

Narrative recording
Using scales
Categorical recording
Recording on electronic devices.
Advantages

• Subjective bias can be eliminated

• Data is unaffected by past behavior or future intentions
• Natural behavior of group is allowed to record
Disadvantages

• Gives limited amount of information

• Unseen factors can affect the observation task
Interviewing

Interviewing :
“ An interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the telephone maybe used, in which
an interviewer tries to elicit information beliefs or opinions from another person.”

you, as a researcher, have the freedom to decide the format and content of questions to be asked of your
respondents
Interviewing
 Interviewing

(ii) Interviewing (flexible/inflexible):

This process of asking questions can be;
-either very flexible,
- where you as the interviewer have the freedom to think about and formulate questions at run-
time.

or inflexible, where you have to keep strictly to the questions decided beforehand;
-including their wording,
- sequence and the manner in which they are asked.
 (ii) Interviewing (Types of Interviewing):

Interviews are classified into different categories;

(1) Unstructured Interview
Researcher is free to order these in whatever sequence they wish.
Have complete freedom in terms of the wording.
Common in qualitative research.
(2) Structured Interview
Researcher asks a predetermined set of questions using;
- the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule.
A written list of questions, open ended or closed.
Advantages:-
It provides uniform information, which assures the comparability of data.
 (iii) Questionnaire :

Written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded by respondents.

Respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the
answers.
 (iii) Questionnaire (Ways of administering):

(1) Mailed questionnaire

 Send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail.
 Usually it is good idea to send a prepaid, self addressed envelope with the questionnaires.
 Major Problems – low response rate.

(2) Collective administration

 Captive audience – people assembled in one place such as students in a classroom, or people attending a function, etc.
 Major Advantage – ensures a high response rate..

(3) Administration in a public area

 Administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping center, health center, hospital, or school.
 Depends upon the type of study population, you are looking for and where it is likely to be found.
 Major Problems – slightly more time consuming.
(iii) Questionnaire (Ways of administering):

Design an environment of your research field which includes all methods of Data Collection?

Participant Observation, Unstructured Interview,

Non-Participant Observation, Structured Interview,

Mailed questionnaire,
Collective administration,
Administration in a public area
Questions?