Information Security

F.Y.
MCA
(TWO YEARS PATTERN)
SEMESTER - II (CBCS)
INFORMATION SECURITY
SUBJECT CODE: MCA23
© UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Dr. Suhas Pednekar

Vice Chancellor
University of Mumbai, Mumbai
Prof. Ravindra D. Kulkarni Dr. Prakash Mahanwar
Pro Vice-Chancellor, Director,
University of Mumbai IDOL, University of Mumbai
Programme Co-ordinator : Shri Mandar Bhanushe

Head, Faculty of Science and Technology IDOL,
Univeristy of Mumbai – 400098
Course Co-ordinator : Mr. Shyam Mohan T.
Department - MCA, IDOL
University of Mumbai- 400098
Course Writers : Mrs. Vidya Bharde
Assistant Professor,
MGMCET Kamothe, Navi Mumbai
: Mrs. Kavita Chouk
Satish Pradhan Dnyanasadhana college
: Mr.Sandeep Kamble
Cosmopolitan’s Valia College
: Dr. Juita Tushar Raut
Sonopant Dandekar Shikshan Mandali’s College,
Palghar
: Dr. Ghayathri J
Associate Professor
Kongu Arts and Science College (Autonomous),
Nanjanapuram, Kathirampatti Post,
Erode - 638107, Tamilnadu.
: Mr. Milind Thorat
Lecturer,
KJSIEIT, SION
: Mrs. Asha Hulsure
Lecturer,
S.P.M. Polytechnic Kumathe, Solapur
May 2022, Print - 1

Published by : Director,
Institute of Distance and Open Learning,
University of Mumbai,
Vidyanagari,Mumbai - 400 098.
DTP composed and Printed by:

Mumbai University Press
Vidyanagari, Santacruz (E), Mumbai- 400098
CONTENTS
Chapter No. Title Page No.
Module 1 Introduction
1 Introduction...............................................................................................................1
Module 2 Cryptography and Authentication
2 Cryptography.............................................................................................................2
3 Stream Cipher and block Cipher.............................................................................34
4 Authentication – I....................................................................................................50
5 Authentication – II..................................................................................................65
Module 3 Digital certificates and integrity
6 Digital Signature.....................................................................................................77
7 Public Key Infrastructure........................................................................................90
8 Integrity.................................................................................................................110
Module 4 Internet and web security
9 Internet and web security......................................................................................133
Module 5 Firewall and IDS
10 Firewall.................................................................................................................168
11 Intrusion................................................................................................................181
Module 6 Database and OS Security
12 DATABASE AND OS SECURITY......................................................................192

F.Y. MCA
(TWO YEARS PATTERN)
SEMESTER - II (CBCS)
INFORMATION SECURITY
SYLLABUS
Sr. Module Detail Contents

No.
1 Introduction Introduction to Information Security, principles, services
and attacks, functional requirements of security, current
trends in security
Self learning topics Need for security, Security approaches
2 Cryptography and Authentication
Cryptography Concept: Symmetric and Asymmetric Cryptography.
Mathematics of cryptography: Modular Arithmetic
Additive Inverse, Multiplicative Inverse, Euclidean
Algorithm and Extended Euclidean Algorithm,Stream
Cipher and Block Cipher, Concept of Confusion and
Diffusion.
Modes of Operation of Block Cipher: ECB, CBC, OFB,
CFB , DES, RSA,
Numerical on RSA
Authentication Types of authentication, Biometric Authentication and
Third Party Authentication using KDC and Kerberos
Version 5, Mutual authentication ,reflection attack
Self learning topics Variations of DES – 2DES and 3DES , Symmetric and
Asymmetric Key Cryptography together
3 Digital certificates and integrity
Digital Signature Concept, Compare Digital Signature with Public Key
Cryptography, Digital Signature Schema,Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI): Private key management, Public
Key
Cryptography Standards (PKCS). Digital Certificate
Creation Steps,X.509
Certificate, Certificate Revocation
Integrity Message Integrity, Hash functions Properties
Algorithm:MDC,MAC,HMAC,MD5, SHA -512
Self learning topics PKIX model, Data integrity threats
Sr. Module Detail Contents
No.
4 Internet and web SSL, IPSec, Email Security- PGP, Email attacks Web
security services Security: web app versus web service concept,
WS-Security, SOAP web service, SAML assertion,
Browser attacks, web attacks targeting users, obtaining
user or website data
Self learning topics SET , SSL Vs SET, S/MIME
5 Firewall and IDS
Firewall Introduction, Characteristic ,Types :Packet Filter, Stateful
and Stateless Packet Filter, Attacks of Packet Filter,
Circuit Level and Application Level Firewall, Bastion
Host, Firewall Configurations.
Intrusion What is Intrusion, Intruders, Intrusion Detection, Behavior
of Authorized user and Intruder, Approaches for Intrusion
Detection: Statistical Anomaly Detection and Rule based
Detection. Audit Record and Audit Record Analysis
Self learning topics Virtual Private Network (VPN)
6 Database and OS Introduction to database, Security requirements of
Security database, sensitive data, Database access control,
inference, Security in operating systems: Operating
System Structure, Security Features of Ordinary Operating
Systems, Operating System Tools to Implement Security
Functions, Rootkit: Phone Rootkit, Sony XCP Rootkit,
TDSS Rootkits
Self learning topics Cryptographic Toolkits, Denial of Service attack
1
INTRODUCTION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction to Information Security
1.2 Principles of Security
1.3 Security Attacks
1.4 Security Services
1.5 Functional Requirements of Security
1.6 Current Trends in Security
1.7 Summary
1.8 Multiple Choice Question Answers
1.9 True or False
1.10 Sample Questions
1.11 List of References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this module is to learn the concept of Information
Security. Why security is required in the first place? After that we will
discuss the key principles of security. These principles help us to identify
the various areas, which are crucial while determining the security threats
and possible solutions to tackle them. This is followed by a discussion of
the services and attacks. Finally we will discuss the functional
requirements of security and current trends in security.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SECURITY
Information is a valuable asset like any other asset. So, information needs
to be secured from attacks. Now the question is what is security?
Security is
• Freedom from risk or danger; safety.

• Freedom from doubt, anxiety, or fear;
• confidence
Why do we need security?
• Protect vital information while still allowing access to those who

need it. Eg. Medical records, Trade secrets etc
• Provide authentication and access control for resources
• Guarantee availability of resources
1
Information Security In short to secure information, three security goals must be achieved
Confidentiality: Means information needs to be hidden from
unauthorized access.
Integrity: Means information protected from unauthorized change.
Availability: Means information available to an authorized entity when it
is needed.
In early days, the information collected by an organization was stored on
physical files. The confidentiality of the files was achieved by restricting
the access to only trusted people in the organization. And also, only a few
authorized people were allowed to change the contents of the files.
Availability was achieved by designating at least one person who would
have access to the files at all times.
With the invention of computers, information storage become electronic,
means it was stored in computers. The three security requirements,
however, did not change. The files stored in computers also require
confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA). The implementation of
these requirements, however is different and more challenging
During the last two decades, computer networks created a revolution in the
use of information. Information is now distributed. Authorized people can
send and retrieve information from a distance using computer networks.
Although the three above mentioned requirements confidentiality,
integrity and availability have not changed, they now have some new
dimensions.
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF SECURITY
Now we classify the principles related to security, which help us

understand the attacks better and also help us to tackle the attacks. By
taking one example will understand these concepts.
Let us assume that a person A wants to send a check worth 10000 Rs. to
another person B. So, A will write the check for 10000 Rs, put it inside an
envelope and send it to B.
● A will like to ensure that no one except B gets the envelope and
even if someone else gets it, she does not come to know about the
details of the check. This is the principle of confidentiality
● A and B will further like to make sure that no one can tamper with
the contents of the check (such as its amount, date, signature, name
of the payee, etc.). This is the principle of integrity
● B would like to be assured that the check has indeed come from A
and not from someone else posing as A (as it could be a fake check
in that case). This is the principle of authentication.
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● What will happen tomorrow if B deposits the check in his account, Introduction
the money is transferred from A’s account to B's account and then A
refuses having written/sent the check? The court of law will use A's
signature to disallow A to refuse this claim and settle the dispute.
This is the principle of non-repudiation.
These are the four chief principles of security. There are two more, access
control and availability, which are not related to a particular message, but
are linked to the overall system as a whole.
Fig. 1.2 Principles of Security
Examples of Security Requirements
• Confidentiality – student grades

• Integrity – patient information
• Availability – authentication service
• Authenticity – admission ticket
• Non-Repudiation – stock sell order
1.3 ATTACKS
Security attack is an action that compromises the security of information

owned by an organization. Network security attacks are unauthorized
actions against private, corporate or governmental IT assets in order to
destroy, modify or steal sensitive data.
There is a flow of information from source to destination. This is normal
flow, as shown in Fig 1.3.1
3
Information Security
Fig. 1.3.1 Normal flow
Security attacks are classified into four general categories:

Interruption
This is an attack on availability. An asset of the system is destroyed or
becomes unavailable. Ex: cutting of a communication line, disabling of
the file management system, destruction of piece of hardware.
Fig. 1.3.2 Interruption
Interception
This is an attack on confidentiality. An unauthorized party gain access to
an asset. Ex: wire tapping to capture data in a network, illicit copying of
files.
Fig. 1.3.3 Interception
Modification
This is an attack on integrity. An unauthorized party not only gains access
but tampers with an asset. Ex: changing values in data file, altering a
program, modifying the contents of messages being transmitted in a
44 network.
Introduction
Fig. 1.3.4 Modification
Fabrication:
This is an attack on authenticity. An unauthorized party inserts counterfeit
objects into the system. Ex: the insertion of spurious messages in a
network or the addition of records to a file
Fig. 1.3.5 Fabrication
Security attacks are classified into two:

a. Passive attacks
b. Passive attacks
a. Passive attacks
A passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the
system but does not affect system resources. In a passive attack, the
attacker’s goal is just to obtain information. The attack does not modify
data or harm the system, and the system continues with its normal
operation. Example of attack threatening to confidentiality is Release of
message contents and traffic analysis
Passive attacks are of two types:
1. Release of message contents: A telephonic conversation, an email
message and a transferred file may contain sensitive or confidential
information; we would like to prevent an opponent from learning the
content of these transmissions. As shown in Figure 1.3.6, Darth will try to
read the contents of message sent from Bob to Alice.
5
Fig. 1.3.6 Release of message contents
2. Traffic analysis: In traffic analysis attack opponents will observe

the pattern of messages from sender to receiver. As shown in Figure 1.3.7,
Darth will try to observe the traffic or message pattern from Bob to Alice.
Fig. 1.3.7 Traffic analysis
Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any
alteration of data. However, it is feasible to prevent the success of these
attacks.
b. Active attacks
An active attack attempts to alter system resources or affect their
operation. An active attack may change the data or harm the system.
Example of attack threatening to integrity is masquerading, replaying,
modification and Repudiation. Example of attack threatening to
availability is Denial of Service (DoS).
66
Active attacks can be subdivided into five types: Introduction
1. Masquerade: It takes place when one entity claims to be a different

entity. One of the other forms of active attack is a masquerade attack.
Figure 1.3.8 depicts masquerade attack where Darth sends message to
Alice pretending to be Bob and Alice thinks that message is from Bob.
Alice is unaware that message is actually send by Darth.
Fig. 1.3.8 Masquerade
2. Replay: It involves the passive capture of a data unit and its

subsequent retransmission to produce an unauthorized effect.
For example consider Figure 1.3.9 with scenario that Bob sends message
to Alice to add amount of Rs. 500/- to Darth’s account. Darth captures the
message and replays after few days. Alice assumes that this is new
message from Bob and he adds amount to Darth’s account.
Fig. 1.3.9 Replay
7
Information Security 3. Modification of message: It involves some portions of message is
altered or the messages are delayed or recorded, to produce an
unauthorized effect.
For example, Bob sends message to Alice as “Allow John to access
confidential file X". In transmission the Darth intercept the message and
change it for its own benefit as “Allow Darth to access confidential X
file."
Fig. 1.3.10 Modification of messages
4. Repudiation
Sender or receiver performs this attack. The sender or recipient might
subsequently deny sending or receiving a communication. The client, for
instance, asks his bank "To transfer the sum to someone" and,
subsequently, refuses the sender (customer) to make the request. This is
disapproval. Figure 1.3.11 represents Repudiation where Darth denies
previously sent message to Alice
Fig. 1.3.11 Repudiation

88
5. Denial of service (DoS): Fabrication causes denial of service Introduction
attacks. Another form of service denial is the disruption of an entire
network, either by disabling the network or by overloading it with
messages so as to degrade performance.
As in Figure 1.3.12, Darth saturates a server with an overwhelming
number of packets, resulting in denial-of-service attack and the server is
unable to service the request of genuine user (Bob). In order for most DoS
flood attacks to be successful, the malicious Darth must have more
available bandwidth than the target
Fig. 1.3.12 Denial of service
The usual use of communication systems can be prevented. This attack

might have a specific goal. For instance, the entity can remove all
communications to a certain location. The interruption of the whole
network by deactivating the network and/or overloading it by messages to
deteriorate performance is also a type of service denial.
It is quite difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely, because to do so
would require physical protection of all communication facilities and
paths at all times. Instead, the goal is to detect them and to recover from
any disruption or delays caused by them.
9
Information Security Comparative Points of Passive and Active Attack:
ACTIVE ATTACK PASSIVE ATTACK
Attacker needs to have Attacker merely needs to

physical control of the media observe the communication in
or network. the media or network.
It can be easily detected. It cannot be easily detected.
It affects the system. It does not affect the system.
It involves a modification of It involves the monitoring of

data. data.
Types of active attacks are Types of passive attacks are the

Masquerade, session replay, Release of a message, traffic
denial of service, distributed analysis.
denial of service.
It does not check for It scans the ports and network in

loopholes or vulnerabilities. the search of loopholes and
vulnerabilities.
It is difficult to prevent Passive attacks can be

network from active attack. prevented.
1.4 SECURITY SERVICES
The International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication

Standardization Section (ITU-T) provides some security services and
some mechanisms to implement those services
Security service means a processing or communication service that is
provided by a system to give a specific kind of protection to system
resources.
ITU-T (X.800 )divides Security services as shown in the following Figure
1.1.4.1
10
10 Fig 1.4.1 Security Services
1. DATA CONFIDENTIALITY: Introduction
It’s designed to protect data from disclosure attacks. There are four types
of confidentiality services defined by ITU-T standard.
• Connection Confidentiality: All user data on a connection link is

protected.
• Connectionless Confidentiality: All user data protected data in a
single data block
• Selective-Field Confidentiality: Selected fields within the user data
on a connection or in a single data block are kept confidential.
• Traffic-flow Confidentiality: The protection of the information that
might be obtained from traffic flow observation.
2. DATA INTEGRITY:
It is designed to protect data from modification, insertion, deletion and
replay. There are five types of integrity services defined by ITU-T
standard.
• Connection Integrity with Recovery: Maintains the integrity of all

user data on a connection and detects any modification, insertion,
deletion, or replay of any data within an entire data sequence with
recovery attempted.
• Connection Integrity without Recovery: Maintains the integrity of
all user data on a connection and detects any modification, insertion,
deletion, or replay of any data within an entire data sequence
without recovery attempted.
• Selective-Field Connection Integrity: Determines whether selected
fields within the user data of a data block transmitted over a
connection link have been modified, inserted, deleted, or replayed.
• Connectionless Integrity: Provides integrity for a single
connectionless data block which can provide data change detection.
• Selective-Field Connectionless Integrity: Provides for the integrity
of selected fields within a single connectionless data block; takes the
form of determination of whether the selected fields have been
modified.
3. AUTHENTICATION :
The confirmation that the communicating party is who it says it is. There
are two types of authentication services defined by ITU-T standard.
• Peer Entity Authentication: Used in association with a logical

connection, it provides assurance that the people connected are who
they say they are.
• Data-origin Authentication: In a connectionless transfer, provides
assurance that the source of received data is as claimed.
11
Information Security 4. NONREPUDIATION:
Provides protection against denial by one of the entities involved in a
communication of having participated in all or part of the communication.
There are two types of nonrepudiation services defined by ITU-T
standard.
• Nonrepudiation, Origin : Proof that the message was sent by the

specified party.
• Nonrepudiation, Destination : Proof that the message was received

by the specified party.
5. ACCESS CONTROL:
Access control provides prevention of unauthorized access of a resource
(includes hardware, software, firmware, information/ data, and
telecommunications). Access control is the ability to limit and control the
access to host systems and applications via communications links. This
service controls who can have access to a resource, under what conditions
access can occur, and what those accessing the resource are allowed to do.
1.5 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF SECURITY
Functional requirements define the basic system behavior. Essentially,

they are what the system does or must not do, and can be thought of in
terms of how the system responds to inputs. Functional requirements
usually define if/then behaviors and include calculations, data input, and
business processes.
Functional requirements are features that allow the system to function as it
was intended. Put another way, if the functional requirements are not met,
the system will not work. Functional requirements are product features
and focus on user requirements.
The functional requirements of security should be
• Able to uniquely identify individual system users

• It must include two-factor authentication for system access
• It must include notification and user acknowledgment at the login
• It must manage passwords and password processing securely
• It should encrypt authentication and authorization mechanisms
• It must grant the minimum, sufficient access or privileges to the user
according to roles of users or their job duties
• Allow access to sensitive data only as necessary for users job duties
• User should log out or lock unattended workstations
• Users access should be revoked upon termination of appointments
• Owner should review accounts at least annually
12
12
• It should designate owners to manage privileged and shared Introduction
accounts
• It should meet related regulatory and/or contractual obligations
Functional requirements describe what a system has to do. So functional
security requirements describe functional behavior that enforces security.
Functional requirements can be directly tested and observed.
Requirements related to access control, data integrity, authentication, and
wrong password lockouts fall under functional requirements.
In short, we can say that the functional requirement of the system should
have the ability to protect data, resources, and services from unauthorized
access and other threats or attacks that could potentially result in harm to
the information system. Ultimately, the data should be accurate, secured,
and consistent across the entire system
1.6 CURRENT TRENDS IN SECURITY
The computing environment is now a highly interconnected network of

smaller systems. Now a day’s anyone can access a computer from almost
anywhere on the planet. So it complicates the job of the security
professional. Day by day the attackers are increasingly stealing and
committing fraud and other crimes for their benefit. Computer criminals
are increased because the rewards are getting more than robbing the local
store.
Below are three current trends in the information security field are
1. Wireless Security
2. Bluetooth Technology and Security
3. Mobile Security
1. Wireless Security
Wireless communications carry the information through the radio
frequency carriers. Wireless communications can occur over a wireless
network when a wireless device connects to a wired network, or between
two wireless devices. Laptops, mobile phones, Personal computers, and
tablets communicate with each other through a wireless network.
Modulators, demodulators, transmitters, receivers, and wireless networks
ensure that the messages sent from a correct source are received at the
intended destination. Ease of use including the mobility of access points
and no need for extensive cabling, comparatively lower cost of
installation, and ability to work on multiple types of networks like 2G/3G,
etc. Wireless access points connect you to the internet or a wired network.
The systems and the devices which connect to the wireless access point
are known as stations. Wi-Fi adapters are required by stations to
communicate with the wireless access point. 3G or 4G USB-based data
cards can be used for Wireless access.
13
Information Security Though it is cost-effective, easy to use, and easy implementation it has
certain information security issues which we have to consider. Plain text
communication through wireless is vulnerable to sniffing, eavesdropping,
and man-in-the-middle attack. The solution to information security issues
is wireless encryption. The two Wi-Fi encryption standards are Wired
Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). WPA is
more effective but WEP can be easily cracked.
Service Set Identifier (SSID) is used to identify each Wi-Fi network. It is
recommended that this SSID be changed to a name that is neutral in
representation. Wi-Fi authentication can happen using a centralized
authentication server, open system authentication, or shared key
authentication by the access point. To strengthen the authentication
process MAC filtering may be enabled. Various discovery and analysis
tools are available for a price or for free. These enable the analysis of the
wireless frames and man-in-the-middle attacks, including denial of service
attacks, by sending fake packets or sending fake Clear to Send (CTS)
signals in the name of a fake client making other clients wait indefinitely
for their turn. The tools like NetSurveyor, NetStumbler, WiFi Hopper, and
Meraki WiFi Stumbler allow for easy network discovery. Powerful
jamming signals can be used to jam the entire Wi-Fi network of an
organization this leads to denial of service attack.
Best practices to be followed to avoid or reduce wireless attacks:
• Default SSID should be reset in the beginning into a neutral name.

• MAC filtering should be enabled on the access point or the router.
• Firewalls should be enabled between the access point and the
internal network for corporations.
• Encryption should be enabled.
• Pass-phrase should be periodically changed.
• A strong access password should be set on the router.
• The strength of the wireless signal should not be high so that it can
be accessed from the outside of the organization.
• Better encryption mechanisms should be used like WPA.
• Use a centralized server for authentication.
• Access points should not be accessed by others.
• Drivers should be up-to-date.
• If possible use Wireless Intrusion Prevention Systems.
• Periodic audits should be carried out for wireless systems and if any
issues are found fix them.
• Penetration testing should be carried out at least once a year on
wireless network systems and if any issues found are fixed
appropriately.
14
14
2. Bluetooth Technology and Security Introduction
For short-range communication, Bluetooth is used. Bluetooth technology

is used for transferring files from one mobile device to another other.
Though the range of communication is short the possibility of hacking
cannot be denied. The two devices that want to connect need to be paired.
The Bluetooth devices communicate with each other using wireless
networks so there is the possibility of attacks, such as denial of service,
and copying of the files from the connected devices. So, Bluetooth is
turned on only when required. If Bluetooth is enabled and the
configuration is in pairable mode, then other devices can connect and copy
the files or information from the connected device.
Bluetooth attackers may use others' mobile phones to send messages to
others.
Similarly, Bluetooth attackers may insert malicious code on mobile
phones using Bluetooth technology and then the attacker can have
complete control over the phone of the victim. Contact details can be
stolen and misused. Other mobile phones can be used for making phone
calls or for connecting to the internet.
Best practices to be followed to avoid or reduce attacks on Bluetooth
communication:
• Have the devices securely with you or store them securely when not
used by you.
• Pre-shared key authentication and encryption should be used for
Bluetooth communication.
• Bluetooth should be enabled only when required to communicate.
• Bluetooth should be set to non-discoverable and non-pairable mode.
• Set discoverable and pairable mode only when you need to connect
to other devices or vice versa.
• Always remove unwanted devices from the list of paired devices.
• Carry out the pairing of the devices only in a secure area. Have the
paired device as near as possible to the other device with which it is
pairing.
• Anti-virus systems should be in place.
• The device firewall should be active all time.
• Regular patching of the Bluetooth devices should be done.
3. Mobile Security
Now a day’s usage of mobile phones, smartphones, and tablets is
increasing. Different operating systems are used in these devices. Mobile
devices are being used for sending e-mails, instant messaging, gaming,
and various official / personal purposes. Many mobile apps are available
free or at a very low cost. Due to mobile devices lives of users become
easy and more active; however, at the same time, they have created a
number of security issues.
15
Information Security If unauthorized users will be able to access the mobile device then there is
a possibility of leaking personal information such as login ids, credit card
details, and passwords. The security of the various apps or games we
download is also questionable. The apps or games might have been
created with malicious intent and can infect mobile devices. The attackers
might misuse the intercepted information.
Operating systems used by mobile devices may have multiple security
issues or vulnerabilities. These security issues may be misused by the
attackers.
Generally, users do not install anti-virus software on mobile phones. It is
advised to install good anti-virus software such as Avast, Norton, or
McAfee on mobile phones to protect from malicious attacks. Mobile
phone settings should be reviewed regularly and set appropriately. Always
disable unnecessary settings/features.
Best practices to be followed to avoid or reduce attacks on Mobile
Communication:
• On mobile devices download apps from only authorized stores only.

• Download unknown apps or even known apps from trusted websites
only.
• Regular updates of the mobile operating system and the apps should
be done.
• Always mobile phones should be locked with a strong PIN.
• On mobile phones do not open links from unknown sources.
• Strong encryption mechanism should be used while using Wi-Fi.
• Confidential data and other sensitive information from your mobile
phone should be transferred to other security devices or secondary
storage devices under your control.
• Keep limited data on your mobile phone.
• Secure websites should not be accessed using unsecured Wi-Fi
connections. There is the possibility of credentials being captured or
sniffed by others.
• Mobile phones should be locked after a certain amount of idle time.
• Unwanted settings should be enabled only when required.
1.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter we studied what is security, the need of information

security, the security principles, and types of attack and security services.
Here we also discussed the current trends of security and functional
security requirements.
16
16
1.8 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUSETION ANSWERS Introduction
i. The _____________attack is related to authentication.

A. Interception
B. Fabrication
C. Modification
D. Interruption
Ans : B
ii. The _____________attack is related to integrity.
A. Interception
B. Fabrication
C. Modification
D. Interruption
Ans : C
iii. Interruption attacks are also called ___________attacks.
A. Denial of Service (DoS)
B. Fabrication
C. Masquerade
D. Replay
Ans : A
iv. Which following considered is not considered violation confidentiality?
A. Stealing passwords
B. Eavesdropping
C. Social engineering
D. Hardware destruction
Ans : D
v. In ________ attack the message contents are modified.
A. passive
B. active.
C. Both of the above
D. None of the above.
Ans : B
17
Information Security 1.9 TRUE OR FALSE
i. DOS attacks are caused by Fabrication.

---False
ii. Violations of confidentiality are limited to direct intentional
attacks.
---False
iii. In passive attack the message contents are modified.
---False
iv. If a computer system is not accessible, the principal of availability is
violated.
----True
1.10 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. What are the key principles of security?

2. What is the difference between passive and active security attack?
3. Discuss the different security services.
4. List the functional requirements of security.
5. Explain in detail current trends in security.
1.11 LIST OF REFERENCES
1. https://www.opensecurityarchitecture.org/cms/definitions/
it_security_requirements
2. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-1-4302-6383-
8_16.pdf
3. Atul Kahate, “Cryptography and Network Security”, McGraw Hill
4. Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice,
William Stallings
5. Cryptography and Network Security, Behrouz A Forouzan

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18
2
CRYPTOGRAPHY
Unit Structure
2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Cryptography
2.2.1 Types of Cryptography
2.2.2 Mathematics of Cryptography
2.2.3 Modular Arithmetic Additive Inverse
2.2.4 Multiplicative Inverse
2.2.5 Euclidean Algorithm
2.2.6 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
2.3 Summary
2.4 Reference for further reading
2.0 OBJECTIVE
• Understand the concepts of cryptography and its type and its

applications.
• Discuss the requirement of information security, private and public
key algorithms and to examine the mathematics of cryptography.
• Learn different ways of securing data by using different algorithm.
• To review integer arithmetic, concentrating on divisibility and
finding the greatest common divisor using the Euclidean algorithm.
• To emphasize the importance of modular arithmetic and the modulo
operator, because they are extensively used in cryptography.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Cryptography is the study and practice of strategies for at ease

communication in the presence of 1/3 parties called adversaries. It deals
with the developing and analyzing protocols which prevents malicious 1/3
parties from retrieving statistics being shared between two entities thereby
following the various elements of data security.
The idea of verbal exchange refers to the scenario wherein the message or
facts shared among two events can’t be accessed by adversary. In
cryptography, an adversary is a malicious entity, which aims to retrieved
treasured data or records thereby undermining the standards of records
safety.
Information Confidentiality, Statistics, Integrity, Authentication and Non-
repudiation are core ideas of modern-day-day-cryptography.
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Information Security 2.2 CRYPTOGRAPHY
Cryptography is the look at a securing communication from out of doors

observers. Encryption algorithms take the unique message or plain text
and convert it into ciphertext, which is not converts it into ciphertext,
which is not understandable. The important thing permits the consumer to
decrypt the message, for that reason making sure on they could read the
message. The strength of the randomness of an encryption is also studies,
which makes it tougher for every person to wager the important thing or
input of the algorithm. Cryptography is how we will attain greater at ease
and robust connections to elevate our privacy. Advancements in
cryptography makes it harder to break encryptions in order that encrypted
documents, folders, or community connections are most effective handy to
legal customers.
Definition
It is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data.
In another language you can say that cryptography is the way of securing
data. Where cryptanalysis is the way of securing and breaking the
communication.
History
It is the art of writing. As civilizations evolved, human beings got
organized in tribes, groups, and kingdoms. This led to the emergence of
ideas such as power, battles, supremacy, politics. These ideas further filled
the natural need of people to communication secretly with selective
recipient which in turn ensured the continuous evolution of cryptography
as well.
The cryptography was found in Roman and Egyptian civilizations.
A message or text is plaintext or called cleartext. This process of
converting a message or text in such a way as to hide its essence
encryption. An encrypted message is ciphertext. The process of again
ciphertext back into plaintext is decryption.
Caser Shift Cipher
Caser Shift Cipher have logic to shift the letters of a message by number
(three were common choice) the recipient of this message would then shift
the letters back by the same number and obtain the original message. It is
the simple and easy method of encryption. It’s a type of substitution cipher
that is each letter of a given text is replaced by a letter some fixed number
of positions down the alphabet.
Encryption is the process of converting normal message (plaintext) into
meaningless message (Ciphertext)
Decryption is the process of converting meaningless
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20 message(ciphertext)into its original form(plaintext)
Examples: Cryptography
Suppose we have plaintext ABCDE and convert into Caesar Shift

Cipher.so we must made it into encrypted text and decrypted text for
original plain text.
To get original text that is plaintext we have decrypt text from encrypted
text.
In other way means when you make it mathematical way you can give the
numbers to the alphabets that is
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Suppose “text” message which is converted into 1942319
That is,
T->19
e->4
x->23
t->19
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Information Security 2.2.1 Types of Cryptography
1) Symmetric Key Cryptography
2) Asymmetric Key Cryptography
3) Hash Function
1) Symmetric Key Cryptography: It is also called Conventional
cryptography or secret Key Cryptography. In this while doing the
encryption process the sender and receiver shares common single key for
encryption and decryption of text or message. The key for encrypting and
decrypting had known to sender as well as receiver. Otherwise, the
message could not be decrypted by conventional means.
The algorithm use is also known as a symmetric algorithm or sometimes
called a secret key algorithm.
Advantages of symmetric cryptography

1) It is simple and fast.
2) The sender and receiver exchange the key in secure way.
Disadvantage of symmetric cryptography
1) If the key is leaked, the message can be easily changed that
considered risk.
Symmetric Key Cryptography examples
a) Data Encryption Standard (DES)
b) Triple Encryption
c) Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
2) Asymmetric Key Cryptography:
It is also known as public-key cryptography, refers to a cryptography
algorithm which requires two separate keys, one of private and another is
public. The first key which is used to encrypt the message that is public
and another key which is used to decrypt the message that is private.
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22
Cryptography
Asymmetric Key Cryptography Examples

a) Digital Signature Standard (DSS)
b) Algorithm-RSA
c) EI Gamal
Difference between Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
Sr. No Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption
1 It is used single key for It uses two different keys one

encryption and for encryption and another for
decryption. decryption.
2 It is used to transmit It is used to transmit for small

large amount of data. amount of data.
3 It uses low resource It uses high resource

consumption. consumptions.
4 It is Fast Technique. It is slow technique.
5 Length of the keys are Length of the key are (RSA)

128- or 256-bit size 2048 bit
7 It is less secured as uses Much secure as uses two

single key. different keys.
8 It is an old technique. It is modern encryption

technique.
9 Ex.RC4, AES, EX.RSA, Diffe-Hellman, ECC

DES,3DES and QUAD Algorithm
3) Hash Function:
It is a hash function that takes random size input and yields a fixed size
output. It is a easy to calculate but difficult to access an original data. It is
strong and difficult to duplicate the same hash with unique inputs as hash
function .it is one-way function so once you started you cannot go back. It
is same as Digest, message digest, checksum etc.
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Information Security By using hash function
1) Check Digital Signature
2) Message assurance
3) Source integrity service using MAC (Media Access Control)
address.
4) Key establishments algorithm
5) To generate random numbers
2.2.2 Mathematics of Cryptography:
Cryptography is the mathematics behind encrypting data. Whenever user
wants to transform plaintext data into ciphertext information. There are
operations or a set of operations that is used. For example, ROT13 is a
type of symmetric encryption algorithm that use some rotational
operational on a plaintext data. hence this operation is symmetric and
reversible. Thus, the ciphertext data can turn back into a plaintext data.so
consider all alphabets with 13 alphabets.
Ex. HELLO - Plain text

ROT13
URYYB- Cipher text

Use of mathematics in cryptography. Whenever we must encode text
plaintext to into encrypted form that time, we have to use mathematical
technique to encode plain text with hash and perform crypto analysis from
encrypted keys to identify the original text.
The maths plays important role in cryptography to find out how keys
behave at sender and receiver side.
There are other types of algorithms that use cryptography mathematics
like
● Big ‘O’ Notation: It is Asymptotic Notation which is used to
describe the running time of an algorithm.
24
24
● Prime Factorization: This is commonly used technique uses in Cryptography
multiplication of two large prime numbers.
● Pseudo Random Number Generation: To generate random number
sequence
● The Birthday Problem: In group number of people have birthday on
same day. It is useful for checking probability
● The RSA Algorithm: It is asymmetric algorithm.
● The Diffie-Hellman Algorithm: This algorithm is used for data
security. It is also called DH Algorithm.
2.2.3 Modular Arithmetic Additive Inverse:
In this, we are interested in only one of the outputs, the remainder r.
modular arithmetic we use in daily life. Example we use a clock to
measure time. Our clock system uses modulo 12 arithmetic. However,
instead of a 0 we use the number12.
Consider we are divided two integers and have equations like
Then we can say from these equations.

R-remainder
A-divided
B-Divisor
Q-quotient
When we want to work on remainder that time A/B for theses we use
operator modulo operator called mod.
Example:(10 mod 3) =3 remainder 1
When we are working in modular arithmetic, we often need to find the
inverse of a number relative to an operation. We are normally looking for
an additive inverse (relative to an addition operation) or a multiplicative
inverse (relative to a multiplication operation).
In this, each integer has an additive inverse. The sum of an integer and its
additive inverse is congruent to modulo n.
Congruence Modulo
A ≡ B (mod C)
You can say A is congruent to B modulo C

In Zn, two numbers a and b are additive inverses of each other if
a +b ≡ 0 (mod n)
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Information Security Where To show that two integers are congruent, we use the congruence
operator (≡ ) example
3 ≡ 8 (mod 5) and 15≡25 (mod 10).
Ex.1) Find all additive inverse pairs in Z10.
Sol=> We have m=10
By using modular arithmetic, the sum of an integer and its additive inverse
is congruent to 0 modulo n.
So, we must find all pairs that is equal to 10
The six pairs of additive inverses are (0, 0), (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), and
(5, 5).
2.2.4 Multiplicative Inverse:
In modular arithmetic, an integer may or may not have a multiplicative
inverse. When it does the product of the integer, and its multiplicative
inverse is congruent to 1 modulo n.
In Zn, two numbers a and b are the multiplicative inverse of each other if
a x b ≡ 1 (mod n)
suppose a = 3, m = 11
sol: 4
Since (4*3) mod 11 = 1, 4 is modulo inverse of 3(under 11).
One might think, 15 also as a valid output as "(15*3) mod 11"
is also 1, but 15 is not in ring {1, 2, ... 10}, so not
valid.
suppose a = 10, m = 17
sol: 12
Since (10*12) mod 17 = 1, 12 is modulo inverse of 10(under 17).
Ex.1) Find all multiplicative inverses in Z10.
Sol=> We have n=10
By using Multiplicative Inverse,
a x b ≡ 1 (mod n)
so, there are only three pairs (1, 1), (3, 7) and (9, 9). The numbers 0, 2, 4,
5, 6, and 8 do not have a multiplicative inverse.
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26
Ex.2) Find the multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z10. Cryptography
Sol=> We have n=10

a x b ≡ 1 (mod n)
so, there is no multiplicative inverse because gcd (10, 8) = 2 ≠ 1. In other
words, we cannot find any number between 0 and 9 such that when
multiplied by 8, the result is congruent to 1.
Ex.3) Find all multiplicative inverse pairs in Z11.
Sol=> We have n=10
a x b ≡ 1 (mod n)
so, we have seven pairs (1, 1), (2, 6), (3, 4), (5, 9), (7, 8), (9, 9), and (10,
10)
2.2.5 Euclidean Algorithm
GCD (Greatest Common Divisor) of the two numbers is the largest that
divides both. Suppose two numbers A and B of two integers and we must
find the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD).
This algorithm has technique to find the GCD of two integers quickly.
Definition:
A method of finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers by
dividing the larger by the smaller, the smaller by the reminder, the first
remainder by the second remainder you have to find until exact division is
found once the greatest common divisor is the exact divisor.
Fact 1: gcd (a, 0) = a
Fact 2: gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r), where r is
the remainder of dividing a by b
The Euclidean Algorithm for finding GCD (A, B) is as follows:
● If A = 0 then GCD (A, B) =B, since the GCD (0, B) =B, and we can
stop.
● If B = 0 then GCD (A, B) =A, since the GCD(A,0) =A, and we can
stop.
● Write A in quotient remainder form (A = B⋅Q + R)

● Find GCD (B, R) using the Euclidean Algorithm since GCD (A, B)
= GCD (B, R)
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Information Security Ex1). First let me show the computations for a=210 and b=45.
Sol=> Divide 210 by 45, and get the result 4 with remainder 30, so
210=4·45+30.
Divide 45 by 30, and get the result 1 with remainder 15, so 45=1·30+15.
Divide 30 by 15, and get the result 2 with remainder 0, so 30=2·15+0.
15 is the greatest common divisor of 210 and 45.
Ex.2) Find the GCD of 270 and 192
Sol=> A=270, B=192
A ≠0
B ≠0
By using division to find that 270/192 = 1 with a remainder as 78. We can

say like this
270 = 192 * 1 +78
Ex.3) Find GCD (192,78), since GCD (270,192) =GCD (192,78)
Sol=> A=192, B=78
A ≠0
B ≠0
By using division to find that 192/78 = 2 with a remainder as 36. We can

say like this
192 = 78 * 2 + 36
Sol=> A=78, B=36
A ≠0
B ≠0
By using division to find that 78/36 = 2 with a remainder as 6. We can say
like this
78 = 36 * 2 + 6
Sol=> A=36, B=6
A ≠0
B ≠0
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28
By using division to find that 36/6 = 6 with a remainder of 0. We can say Cryptography
like this
36 = 6 * 6 + 0
Sol=> A=6, B=0
A ≠0
B =0, GCD (6,0) =6

So, we have shown:
GCD (270,192) = GCD (192,78) = GCD (7 8,36) = GCD (36,6) =
GCD(6,0) = 6
So GCD (270,192) = 6
Ex.3) Find the GCD (1424, 3084) using Euclidean Algorithm.
Sol=> By using Euclidean Algorithm method perform successive division,
first of the smaller of the two numbers into the larger, followed by the
resulting remainder divided into the divisor of each division until we get
the remainder is equal to zero. At that point,
look at the remainder of the previous division that will be the greatest
common divisor.
So, GCD (1424, 3084) is 4.

Ex. GCD (2415, 3289)
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Information Security Sol=> By using Euclidean Algorithm method perform successive division,
first of the smaller of the two numbers into the larger, followed by the
resulting remainder divided into the divisor of each division until we get
the remainder is equal to zero. At that point, look at the remainder of the
previous division that will be the greatest common divisor.
2.2.6 Extended Euclidean Algorithm

While the Euclidean Algorithm calculate sates only the greatest common
divisor (GCD) of the two integers and the extended version also finds a
way to represent GCD in terms of and i.e., coefficients and for which
a.x+b. y=gcd (a.b)
In other language you can say the Extended Euclidean Algorithm finds a
linear combination of a and b equal to (a, b)
This algorithm builds on top of the basic Euclidean Algorithm and helps
us in solving certain linear Diophantine equations as well as finding the
modular multiplicative inverse, in addition to calculating the greatest
common divisor.
30
30
Algorithm Cryptography
We will denote the GCD of a and b with g

The changes to the original algorithm are very simple. If we recall the
algorithm, we can see that the algorithm ends with b=0 and a=g. For these
parameters we can easily find coefficients, namely g.1+0.0=g
Starting from these coefficients (x, y) = (1,0), we can go backwards up the
recursive calls. All we need to do is to figure out how the coefficients x
and y change during the transition from (a, b) to (b, a mod b)
Let us assume we found the coefficients (x, y) for (b, a mod b):
b.x1+ (a mod b). y1=g
and we want to find the pair (x, y) for (a, b):
a.x +b. y=g
We can represent a mod b as:
a mod b=a-[a/b]. b
Substituting this expression in the coefficient equation of gives
g=b.x1+ (a mod b). y1=b.x1+(a-[a/b]. b. y1
and after rearranging the terms
g=a. y1+b. (x1-y1. [a/b])
we found the values of x and y
{x=y1
{y=x1-y1. [a/b]
The extended Euclidean algorithm finds the multiplicative inverses of b in
Zn
when n and b are given and gcd (n, b) = 1. The multiplicative inverse of b
is the
value of t after being mapped to Zn
Linear Diophantine equation:
A linear Diophantine equation of two variables is
a x + by = c
Solution:
x0 = (c/d) s and y0 = (c/d) t
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Information Security General solutions:
x = x0 + k (b/d) and y = y0 − k(a/d) where k is an integer.
2.3 SUMMARY
It is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. In

another language you can say that cryptography is the way of securing
data. Where cryptanalysis is the way of securing and breaking the
communication. Encryption is the process of converting normal message
(plaintext) into meaningless message (Ciphertext)Decryption is the
process of converting meaningless message(ciphertext)into its original
form(plaintext)types of ssymmetric Key Cryptographyand asymmetric
Key Cryptography and hash function.
In Mathematics of Cryptography, where we added concepts of math.

Modular Arithmetic Additive Inverse and Multiplicative Inverse. To find
GCD Euclidean Algorithm and Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
2.4 REFERENCE FOR FURTHER READING.
1) https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Cybersecurity/Documents/01-
Introduction%20to%20Cryptography.pdf
2) https://www.cs.umd.edu/~waa/414-F11/IntroToCrypto.pdf
3) https://nayakuch.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/cryptography-
network-security-atul-kahate.pdf
4) https://thisismyclassnotes.blogspot.com/2017/05/cryptography-
euclidean-algorithm.html
5) https://www.cs.siue.edu/~tgamage/archieved/S15/CS490/L/CR01.pd
f
6) https://www.rit.edu/academicsuccesscenter/sites/rit.edu.academicsuc
cesscenter/files/documents/math-
handouts/DM6_EuclideanAlgorithm_BP_9_22_14.pdf
7) https://cp-algorithms.com/algebra/extended-euclid-algorithm.html
8) Cryptography And Information Security, V. K. Pachghare
9) Atul Kahate, “Cryptography and Network Security”, McGraw Hill
Self-learning topics:
Variations of DES – 2DES and 3DES, Symmetric and Asymmetric Key
Cryptography together
32
32
Cryptography
QUESTIONS
1) What is mean by cryptography? Explain its type.
2) Difference between Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption.
3) Explain Mathematical Cryptography.
4) What is mean Modular Arithmetic Additive Inverse?
5) What is mean Multiplicative Inverse?
6) Explain Euclidean Algorithm?
7) Explain Extended Euclidean Algorithm?

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3
STREAM CIPHER AND BLOCK CIPHER

Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cipher
3.2.1 Types of cipher
3.2.2 Types of stream cipher
3.2.3 Confusion
3.2.4 Diffusion
3.2 5 Modes of Operation of Block Cipher
3.2.6 Data Encryption Standard (DES)
3.2 7 Triple DES
3.2.8 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
3.2.9 RSA Algorithm
3.3 Summary
3.0 OBJECTIVES
● Understand the concepts of cipher and its type.

● Concept of stream cipher and block cipher.
● Discuss the difference between the stream cipher and block cipher.
● You learn the concept of Confusion and Diffusion.
● You learn the difference mode of operation of block cipher.
● Discuss the algorithm of RSA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Cipher: The text which is comes from output of encryption algorithm

applied to plain text. When a person or device lacking the cipher is unable
to read it when data is said to be encrypted. Need to convert into the plain
text so that it is in readable form.
Definition: It is an algorithm which is applied to plain text or message to
get ciphertext. Cipher text is the unreadable output of an encryption
algorithm. The term "cipher" is sometimes used as an alternative term for
ciphertext. Ciphertext is not understandable until it has been converted
34
34 into plain text using a key.
3.2 CIPHER Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
3.2.1 Types of cipher

1) Caesar Cipher
2) Mono Alphabetic Cipher
3) Homophonic Substitution Cipher
4) Polygram Substitution Cipher
5) Vigenere Cipher
Stream Cipher: It is the type of a symmetric key (secret key) cipher that
operates on small units of data (as small as a single bit) at a time. It
generates a key stream or sequence of bits using the secret key as a seed.
Stream cipher is that they encrypt data one bit, or byte, at a time. As this
cipher uses only one key for encryption as well as decryption so it has fast
implementations with low resource consumption. This is useful for
encrypting wireless signals, which more naturally fit a streaming model
than transmitting data in larger, fixed-size chunks.
This is used one time pad the key typically used with a stream cipher one-
time pad is unbreakable because it's always at least the exact same size as
the message it is encrypting. Cryptographers also refer to the symmetric
key used in a stream cipher as a keystream.
Example of stream cipher is simple substitution.
3.2.2 Types of stream cipher
1) Synchronous stream ciphers: In which the keystream is generated
independently of the plaintext and of the ciphertext. The keystream
is usually produced by a pseudorandom generator, parameterized by
a key, which is the secret key of the whole scheme.
2) Self-synchronizing stream ciphers: the key stream depends on the
secret key of the scheme, but also of a fixed number, say t, of cipher
text digits.
Advantages:
1) Speed-Stream cipher is father transformation.
2) Ease of use-as single key used.
3) Low Consumption-Low resources required.
Disadvantage:
1) Low diffusion: plaintext symbol is contained in a single cipher text
symbol.
2) Susceptibility to insertions/ modifications: As it works on bits.
35
Information Security Block Cipher-
Encrypt a group of plaintext symbols as one block. The key is applied to
blocks mostly 64 bits size at a time. Size of block 128, 192, or 256 bits.
(128 bits used by AES and 64 bits used by DES)
Consider a 128-bit block cipher it required 128 bits of plaintext and
encrypts it into 128 bits of ciphertext. Where the amount of plaintext is
less than 128 bits.
Advantages:
1) Block Ciphers provides us integrity protection like MAC.
2) It provides ease of implementation and less restrictive required.
Disadvantage:
1) Block Cipher are slow and less memory efficient.
2) In this transmission errors are more caused.
We can say that on block cipher is the process in blocks or multiple bits
where stream cipher is the process them to bit or bytes.
Difference between Stream Cipher and Block Cipher.
Sr. Stream Cipher Block Cipher

No
1 It encrypted one bit at a time. It encrypted block at a time.
One time pad)
2 It uses only confusion. It uses both confusion and

diffusion.
3 It uses substitution technique. It uses transportation technique.
4 It is faster than block cipher. It is slower than stream cipher.
5 It requires less code. It requires more code.
6 It is more complex. It is simple.
3.2.3 Confusion:
It means that the key does not relate in a simple way to the
ciphertext. Each character of the ciphertext should depend on
several parts of the key.
As Stream cipher used one time pad so uses confusion. Nonlinear
functions are responsible for confusion.
Confusion = Substitution
a —>b
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36
Caesar cipher Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
Each bit of the ciphertext block has highly nonlinear relations with the
plaintext block bits and the key bits.
X plaintext 🡪 E k(x) k-key 🡪 Y ciphertext
Each bit of the ciphertext block has highly nonlinear relations with the
plaintext block bits and the key bits. Example: Suppose that x, y and k all
have 8 bits.
y1 = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + k1 + k2 + k3 + k4
y2 = x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5
y3 = x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + k3 + k4 + k5 + k6
y4 = x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + k4 + k5 + k6 + k7
y5 = x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + k5 + k6 + k7 + k8
y6 = x6 + x7 + x8 + x1 + k6 + k7 + k8 + k1
y7 = x7 + x8 + x1 + x2 + k7 + k8 + k1 + k2
y8 = x8 + x1 + x2 + x3 + k8 + k1 + k2 + k3
As the linear relations bad confusion.
3.2.4 Diffusion
It means that if we change a character of the plaintext, then several
characters of the ciphertext should change, and similarly, if we change a
character of the ciphertext, then several characters of the plaintext should
change.
Block cipher uses confusion and diffusion. Linear functions are
responsible for diffusion.
Diffusion = Transposition or Permutation
abcd —>dacb
DES
We can say confusion means relationship between plaintext and
ciphertext. where diffusion means spreads the plaintext statistics through
the cipher text.
Each plaintext block bit or key bit affects many bits of the ciphertext
block.
X plaintext 🡪 E k(x) k-key 🡪 Y ciphertext
x, y and k all have 8 bits. If
y1 = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + k1 + k2 + k3 + k4
y2 = x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5
y3 = x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + k3 + k4 + k5 + k6
y4 = x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + k4 + k5 + k6 + k7
37
Information Security y5 = x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + k5 + k6 + k7 + k8
y6 = x6 + x7 + x8 + x1 + k6 + k7 + k8 + k1
y7 = x7 + x8 + x1 + x2 + k7 + k8 + k1 + k2
y8 = x8 + x1 + x2 + x3 + k8 + k1 + k2 + k3
then it has very good diffusion, because each plaintext bit or key bit
affects half of the bits in the output block y.
Difference between confusion and diffusion.
Sr. No Confusion Diffusion
1 It obscures the relationship It spread the plaintext

between the plaintext and statistics through the cipher.
ciphertext.
2 It is possible through substitution It is possible through

algorithm. transportation algorithm.
3 It is used stream cipher. It is used only block cipher.
4 Vagueness is increased in redundancy is increased in

resultant. resultant.
5 If a single bit in the key is In case a symbol in the

changed, all the bits in the plaintext is changed, several
ciphertext will also have to be or all symbols in the cipher
changed. text will also have to be
changed.
6 The relation between the cipher While The relation between

text and the key is masked by the cipher text and the plain
confusion. text is masked by diffusion.
3.2 5 Modes of Operation of Block Cipher:

The mode of operation of block cipher are configuration methods are
allowed to work with large data streams with providing security. The
block cipher process into the data block that is fixed block consider n bits
means n-bits input of plaintext produce output of n-bits cipher text. If the
output is longer than n-bits, then we must divide in sequential block.
Suppose consider the size of a message is larger than the block size in the
modes so the long message is divided into a series of sequential message
blocks which divides it into blocks, and the cipher operates on these
blocks one at a time in the cryptography.
Block cipher are procedural rules of generic block. with the use of
different modes of operations.
Criteria of evaluation
1) Identical messages checks that ciphertext of two identical messages
38
38 are the same.
2) Chaining dependencies check adjacent plaintext blocks affect Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
encryption of a plaintext block
3) Error propagation that are resistance to channel noise.
4) Efficiency pre-processing and parallelization random access.
Types of Mode of Operations
1) Electronic Code Book (ECB)
2) Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)
3) Cipher feedback (CFB)
4) Output Feedback (OFB)
1) Electronic Code Book (ECB):
This mode of operation is applied for encryption and decryption. Each
block is encrypted independently. It is simple as direct encryption of each
block of input plaintext and output is in form of blocks of encrypted
ciphertext. Suppose a message is larger than n bits in size, it can be
broken down into a bunch of blocks and the procedure is repeated.
Electronic Code Book Encryption
Electronic Code Book Decryption

Advantages
1) It is simple.
2) It is faster because at a time of blocks of bits encrypted.
39
Information Security Disadvantages
1) Not suitable for long message.
2) Cipher Block Chaining (CBC):
In this, data is encrypted in specific blocks, and each block is dependent
on the blocks before it for decryption. The process uses something called
an initialization vector to help tie these blocks of encrypted data together.
the first block of the plaintext is exclusive-OR'd (XOR'd), which is a
binary function or operation that compares two bits and alters the output
with a third bit, with an initialization vector (IV) prior to the application of
the encryption key.
If the first block has index 1, CBC encryption is
Ci=Ek(pi Ci-1),
C0=IV
CBC decryption is
Pi=Dk (Ci) Ci-1,

C0=IV
Ex.
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Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
Cipher Block Chaining Encryption
Cipher Block Chaining decryption
41
Information Security Advantages
1) It is more secure rather than electronic code book.
2) It has good authentication mechanism.
3) It also works those have input greater than n bits.
Disadvantages
1) Parallel cipher block chaining is not possible.
3) Output Feedback (OFB) mode: -
Output feedback mode have output from encryption function that is
feedback to shift register in cryptography. OFB modes operates on full
blocks of plaintext, ciphertext and text or message but it is not work on s-
bit subset character.
Each plain text block in XORed with the current output block to cipher
text block and which is the encrypted form of the previous output block.
OFM mode notation uses formula,
C[i] = P[i] XOR O[i]
O[i] = Ek(O[i-1])
O [1] = E (Initial Vector)
IV
| -----| -----|
Ek () / Ek () / Ek()
|--O [1] |--O [2] |--O [3]
| | |
P [1] --XOR P [2] --XOR P [3] --XOR
| | |
C [1] C [2] C [3]
That is symmetry of the XOR operation,
C j=P j O j,
P j=C j O j,
O j=Ek (I j),
I j=Oj-1,
I0=IV
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For encryption, Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
Cj = Pj E(K, [Cj - i Ⓧ Pj - 1])
For decryption,
Pj = Cj E(K, [Cj - 1 Ⓧ Pj - 1])
Output Feedback Mode Encryption
Output Feedback Mode Decryption

Advantages
1) By using this you can save our code from unknown users.
2) While converting text bit errors in transmission do not propagate.
Disadvantages
1) It is time consuming process.
43
Information Security 4) Cipher Feedback (CFB):
It is also called as cipher feedback. It uses Initialization Vector(IV)
previous ciphertext block is encrypted and the output is XORed with the
current plaintext block to create the current ciphertext block. an initial
vector IV is used for first encryption and output bits are divided as a set of
s and b-s bits the left-hand side s bits are selected and are applied an XOR
operation with plaintext bits.
Cipher Feedback Mode Encryption
Cipher Feedback Mode Decryption

The difference between CFB and CBC is, In CFB mode if bit of data of
plain text message has an error or damage due to some reasons the block
of ciphertext will damaged. In CBC if one of the messages of cipher text
damaged only two received plain text will damaged.
In CFB mode encryption works with only one thread. Where CBC many
threads simultaneously.
3.2.2.6 Data Encryption Standard (DES):
Data Encryption Algorithm nothing but Data Encryption Standard which
is a symmetric-key block cipher published by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST). DES was the first standardized cipher
for securing electronic communications. It is used in ECB, CBC or the
CFB mode.
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44
It is a block cipher. It encrypts data in blocks of 64 bits each. From these Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
64 bits used in input of DES that is plain text message of 64 bits and
output of it cipher text is 64 bits. For encryption and decryption uses same
algorithm with the key 56 bits. The below diagram shows the process.
Algorithm
The algorithm process breaks down into the following steps:
Step1: The process begins with the 64-bit plain text block getting handed
over to an initial permutation (IP) function.
Step2: The initial permutation (IP) is then performed on the plain text.
Step3: Next, the initial permutation (IP) creates two halves of the
permuted block, referred to as Left Plain Text (LPT) and Right Plain Text
(RPT).
Step4: Each LPT and RPT goes through 16 rounds of the encryption
process.
Step5: Finally, the LPT and RPT are re-joined, and a Final Permutation
(FP) is performed on the newly combined block.
Step6: The result of this process produces the desired 64-bit ciphertext.
Initial Permutation (IP) –
It work at once in starting. It works how the transposition in IP should
proceed. example consider IP replaces the first bit of the plain text block
or message with the 58th bit of the plain text, the second bit with the 50th
bit of the plain text block, and so on.
5 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 4
8 0 2 4 6 8 0 0 2 4 6 8 0 2
6 5 4 3 3 2 1 6 6 5 4 4 3 2 1 8
2 4 6 8 0 2 4 4 6 8 0 2 4 6
5 4 4 3 2 1 9 1 5 5 4 3 2 1 1 3
7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1
6 5 4 3 2 2 1 5 6 5 4 3 3 2 1 7
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 3 5 7 9 1 3 5
45
Information Security As 64 bits message are divided into two parts that is 32 bit each. And 32
bits are divided
Into 16 rounds these are 5 steps we must follow
1) Key Transformation
2) Expansion permutation
3) S-box permutation
4) P-box permutation
5) XOR and swap
Key Transformation🡪Expansion permutation🡪S-box permutation🡪P-box
permutation🡪XOR and swap
3.2 7 Triple DES:
Triple DES (TDES or 3DES) is symmetric encryption algorithm that
involves using DES three times to encrypt a text. While DES encrypts a
block of data in 16 rounds, three times or triple DES uses 48 rounds. It is
powerful with compare with DES.
3.2.8 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES):
Advanced Encryption Standard is six time faster than triple DES. It is
based on ‘substitution–permutation network’. In AES operations are in
sequential and some of operation which involve replacing inputs by
specific outputs (substitutions) and others involve shuffling bits around
(permutations).
AES is depending on the length of the key as it is variable. It uses 10
rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys and 14 rounds for 256-
bit keys. Each of these rounds uses a different 128-bit round key, which is
calculated from the original AES key.
3.2.9 RSA Algorithm
As three scientists were found in1978 names Rivest, Shamir and Adleman
so algorithm is called as RSA.It is asymmetric algorithm (means sender
and receiver uses two different keys) this means this algorithm uses
private and public key are used.
The RSA algorithm is set of rules which is based on the mathematical
truth that it is easy to locate and multiply massive prime numbers
collectively, however it's miles extremely difficult to aspect their product.
The private and public keys in RSA are based totally on very big (made of
a hundred or greater digits) high numbers. The algorithm itself is simple
(unlike the symmetric-key cryptographic algorithms). however, the actual
project within the case of RSA is the choice and era of the public and
private keys.
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46
Encryption and Decryption process in RSA Algorithms are Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
Step 1) Consider two prime numbers P& Q
Step 2) Calculate N=P X Q
Step 3) For Encryption key such that it is not factor of (P-1) (Q-1)
Step 4) For Decryption key Equation (D X E) mod (P-1) X(Q-1) =1
Step 5) For Encryption calculate cipher text CT from your message or
plain text
CT=PTE mod N
Where PT-Plain Text, CT-Cipher Text, E-Encryption
Step 6) send cipher text that is CT to receiver
Step 7) For decryption, calculate the plain text PT from cipher text CT as,
PT=CTD mod N
Where PT-Plain Text, CT-Cipher Text, E-Encryption
Ex.1) Consider P=7 and Q=17
Consider P=7 and Q=17 are two large prime numbers. (From Step No-1)
N=P X Q (From Step No-2)
=7 X 17
=119
For Encryption key(P-1) (Q-1) (From step 3)
So, (7-1) (17-1)
=6 X 16
=96
we must choose E that is not in factors
As The factors of 96 are 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, and 3 (As 96 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3).
So, we cannot choose 2 and 3 as encryption Key as it is factor of 96. Also,
we cannot choose 8 because 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 same way we cannot choose 9
also as it contains 3 factors so we choose E as 5 because not having factor
2 and 3 so we can go with 5.
For Decryption, (D X E) mod (P-1) X(Q-1) =1(From Step No-4)
Put the values of E, P, Q we get,
(D X 5) mod (7-1) X (17-1) =1
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Information Security (D X 5) mod 6 X 16=1
(D X 5) mod 96 =1
(As we want =1 so we have to put D value so that we get equations equal
to 1)
So, we consider D=77 and put into it
(77 X 5) mod 96 = 1
385 mod 96=1
For Encryption calculate cipher text CT from your message or plain text
CT=PTE mod N (From Step No-5)
Consider plain text =10
CT = 105 mod 119 (PT=10, E=5, N=119)
100000 mod 119 = 40
Send 40 cipher text that is CT to receiver (From Step No-6)
For decryption, calculate the plain text PT from cipher text CT as,
PT=CTD mod N (From Step No-7)
As we are sent 40 to receiver so PT=40 and CT=119, D=77
By putting values, we get,
PT=40 77mod 119
=10 which is original text
3.3 SUMMARY
In stream cipher text each bit or byte converted into encrypted form and
again bit or byte are converted into decrypted. In Block cipher text at a
time converted into encrypted form and text at a time decrypted. Different
mode of operations is used for cryptographic algorithm. There are mainly
four types of modes Electronic Code Book (ECB), Cipher Block Chaining
(CBC), Cipher feedback (CFB) and Output Feedback (OFB). Data
Encryption Algorithm (DES) nothing but Data Encryption Standard which
is a symmetric-key block cipher published by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST). Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
is found at least six time faster than triple DES. It is based on
‘substitution–permutation network’. RSA algorithm is asymmetric
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48
algorithm. The RSA algorithm is set of rules which is based on the Stream Cipher
and Block Cipher
mathematical truth that it is easy to locate and multiply massive prime
numbers collectively
3.4 REFERENCES
1) https://pdf.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/44c8a9f519cb7729d12ed9ad43161f4
5/Cryptography_and_network_security_by_Atul_Kahate)_5472596
_(z-lib.org).pdf
2) https://www.practicalnetworking.net/series/cryptography/rsa-
example/
3) http://www.crypto-it.net/eng/theory/modes-of-block-ciphers.html
4) https://www.tutorialspoint.com/cryptography/block_cipher_modes_
of_operation.htm
5) https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/block-cipher-modes-of-operation/
6) https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~byoung/cs361/lecture45.pdf
7) https://www.coursera.org/lecture/symmetric-crypto/block-cipher-vs-
stream-cipher-1uN46
8) https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/stream-cipher
9) s.uok.edu.in/Files/79755f07-9550-4aeb-bd6f-
5d802d56b46d/Custom/COnfusion and Diffusion.pdf
10) https://www.includehelp.com/cryptography/mode-of-operation.aspx
11) https://www.commonlounge.com/discussion/6747358d828a45c99f6
1f4c09ff2f371
12) http://www.crypto-it.net/eng/theory/modes-of-block-ciphers.html
SELF-LEARNING TOPICS:
Variations of DES – 2DES and 3DES, Symmetric and Asymmetric Key
Cryptography together
QUESTIONS:
1) What is mean by cipher text. Explain its type.
2) Explain type of stream cipher.
3) Difference between Stream Cipher and Block Cipher.
4) Difference between Confusion and Diffusion.
5) Explain different mode of block cipher.
6) Explain Data Encryption Standard (DES) in details.
7) Explain RSA Algorithm.

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4
AUTHENTICATION - I
Unit Structure
4.1 Objective
4.2 Introduction: Authentication
4.3 Types of authentication
4.4 Biometric Authentication and Third Party Authentication using
KDC and Kerberos Version 5
4.5 Summary
4.7 Unit End Exercises
4.1 OBJECTIVE
a. To allow authorized users to access the computer and to deny access

to the unauthorized users
b. To find authorized users though password, Physical identification,
and Biometrics
c. verifying the identity of user or information
d. ensure that the claimants are really what they claim to be
e. avoid compromising security to an imposter
4.2 INTRODUCTION
• Authentication is the process of verifying the identity (here identity

means naming, recognition or specification) of a user or information.
User authentication is the process of verifying or checking the
identity of a user when that user login into a computer system. Here
identity means the set of qualities like distinguishing, fingering and
trust that make one person or group different from others.
• A computer system does not understand something serving as a

signal or suggestion. We do face-to-face communication with our
friends so that they can recognize each other. Alternatively computer
systems depend on data to recognize others.
• Directing who a person really is consists of two separate steps:

a. Identification is the act of declaring who a person is.
b. Authentication is the act of proving that confirmed identity:
that the person is who? He or she says He or she is.
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50
• The process of showing, recognizing or giving proof of who is? Authentication - I
identification and authentication are simply and often confusing
things. Identities, in particular names, are often well familiar, public,
and not protected. Authentication is necessarily protected. If a
person's identity is publicly known, then anyone can claim to be that
person. What separates the claimant from the real person is proof by
authentication.
• An authentication system may include a system using a plain-text
password. It is an insecure authentication mechanism. Complex
system is an authentication system like the kerberos system.
• Advanced authentication systems use thumb impression, iris image
or hash values derived from data related to users.
The Difference between Identification & Authentication:
Sr. Identification Authentication

No.
1 Identities are typically should be private.

public or well known
2 Identification is not Authentication is reliable

reliable
3 Identity is more than just Authentication mechanisms use any

person name: of three qualities to confirm a user’s
A person bank account identity:
number, debit card • Something the user knows
number, email address, • Something the user is
and other things are ways
• Something the user has
by which people and
processes identify you.
• If the information provided by the user and the information stored

with the authenticating system is matched, the user is considered an
authenticated user of the system.
• Authorisation also helps to control the access to various applications

of the system. It provide the following information about user:
• Authorized to access particular resources in the system?
• Authorized to perform particular operations in the system?
• Authorized to perform particular operations on particular resources?
51
Fig. 1. Authentication V/s Authorisation
• In fig 1 graphically represents the inter-relationship between

authentication and authorized system and a distinctive client server
application.
• A user working on a client system first logs on to the authentication

system to prove his /her identity and request to work on the server.
Then the server system communicates to an authorized system to
find about rights and privileges, the client user information available
on the server.
Sr. No. Authentication Authorization
1 Authentication verifies Authorization

who the user is. determines what
resources a user can
access.
2 Authentication works Authorization works

through passwords, through settings that
one-time pins, are implemented and
biometric information, maintained by the
and other information organization.
provided or entered by
the user.
3 Authentication is the Authorization always

first step of a good takes place after
identity and access authentication.
management process.
4 Authentication is Authorization isn’t

visible to and partially visible to or
changeable by the changeable by the
user. user.
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Authentication - I
5 Example: By verifying Example: Once their
their identity, level of access is
employees can gain authorized, employees
access to an HR and HR managers can
application that access different levels
includes their personal of data based on the
pay information, permissions set by the
vacation time, and organization.
401K data.
4.3 TYPES OF AUTHENTICATION
The list below reviews some common authentication methods used to

secure modern systems.
1. Password-based authentication
• Passwords are the most common methods of authentication.

Passwords can be a mixture of a string of letters, numbers, or special
characters. To protect our system we need to create strong
passwords that include a combination of all possible options.
• Keeping passwords the same for all accounts is prone to phishing
attacks and bad hygiene that weakens effectiveness of security. An
average person in this world has about 25 different online accounts,
but only 54% of users use different passwords across their different
accounts.
• The reality is that there are a lot of passwords to remember for a
person. As an output, many people choose convenience over
security. Most people use simple and easy passwords instead of
creating strong & reliable passwords because they are easier to
remember.
• The most important thing is that passwords have a lot of weaknesses
and are not sufficient to protect our online information. Hackers can
easily guess user credentials and track their activity by running
through all possible combinations until they find an exact match.
Fig. 2 Password based authentication.
53
Information Security 2. Multi-factor authentication
• Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) is an authentication method that

requires two or more independent ways to identify or find a user.
Examples include codes or OTP generated from the user’s
smartphone, Captcha tests, fingerprints, voice biometrics or facial
recognition.
• Multi-Factor authentication methods and technologies that increase

the confidence and trust of users by adding multiple layers of
security. This may be a good defense against most account hacks,
but it has its own pitfalls. People may lose their phones or SIM cards
or due to some other problem and not be able to generate an
authentication code.
Fig 3. Multi-factor authentication.

3. Certificate-based authentication
• Certificate-based authentication technologies which identify users,

systems or devices by using digital certificates. A digital certificate
is an electronic document based on the concept of a driver’s license
or a passport.
• The certificate consists of the digital identity of a user including a

public key, and the digital signature of a certification authority.
Digital certificates prove the holding of a public key and are issued
only by a certification authority.
• Users will provide their digital certificates when they are going to
sign in to a server system. The server verifies the credibility or
authenticity of the digital signature and the certificate authority. The
server then uses cryptography techniques to confirm that the user
has a correct private key associated with the certificate.
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Authentication - I
Fig. 4 Certificate-based authentication

4. Biometric authentication
• Biometrics authentication is a security check process that depends

on the unique biological aspect of an individual.
• Advantages of using biometric authentication technologies:
• Biological elements can be easily compared to authorized

features stored in a database.
• Biometric authentication controls physical access to a person
when installed on gates and doors or entrances.
• We can add biometrics features into the multi-factor
authentication task.
• Biometric authentication technologies are used by consumers,
governments and private corporations including airports,
military bases, and national borders to identify authorized
persons.
• The technology is increasingly acquired due to the ability to
achieve a high level of security without creating resistance for
the user.
Common biometric authentication methods include:
• Facial recognition which matches the different face characteristics

of an individual trying to gain access to a valid face stored in a
database. Face recognition can be at odds with when comparing
faces at different angles or comparing people who look similar.
• Fingerprint scanners which match the distinctive patterns on an
individual’s personal fingerprints. Nowadays, new versions of
fingerprint scanners can assess the vascular patterns in people’s
fingers. Fingerprint scanners are currently the most popular
biometric technology for daily consumers, despite their frequent
inaccuracies. These features added to iPhones.
• Speaker Recognition, also called as voice biometrics, examines a
speaker’s speech patterns for the formation of specific shapes and
sound qualities. A voice-protected device usually depends on the
standardized words to identify users, just like a password. 55
Information Security • Eye scanners include automation like iris recognition and retina
scanners. During the Iris scan focusing a bright light towards the eye
and searching for an exact match for unique patterns in the colored
ring around the pupil of the eye. Then this pattern is compared to
correct information stored in a database. Eye-based authentication
may undergo inaccuracies if a person wears glasses or contact
lenses.
Fig. 5 Biometric authentication methods

5. Token-based authentication
Token-based authentication technologies allow the users to enter their
credentials once and receive a unique encrypted string of random
characters in exchange. Then use the token to access protected systems in
lieu of entering your credentials all over again. The digital token validates
that you already have access permission.
Fig. 6 Token-based authentication

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4.3.4 BIOMETRIC AUTHENTICATION AND THIRD Authentication - I
PARTY AUTHENTICATION USING KDC AND

KERBEROS VERSION 5
Before study of Biometric Authentication and Third Party Authentication

let first understand the concept of KDC & Kerberos V5
Key Distribution Center (KDC)
Key Distribution Center (KDC) is a central control to deal with keys for
independent computers in a computer network. It is similar to the idea of
the Authentication Server (AS) and Ticket Granting Server (TGS) in
Kerberos. The core idea is that every node shares a unique secret key with
the KDC.
Example:
When user A wants to communicate securely with user B, the following
things is happens:
1. The background is that A has a shared secret key KA with KDC.
Similarly, B is assumed to share a secret key KB with the KDC.
2. A sends a request to KDC encrypted with KA, which includes
a. identities of A and B
b. A random number R, called a nonce
3. KDC responds with a message encrypted with KA, containing
a. One-time symmetric key KS
b. Original request that was sent by A, for verification
c. Plus, KS encrypted with KB and ID of A encrypted with KB.
4. A and B can now communicate by using KS for encryption
This steps shows below in a diagram
Fig. 7 KDC Concept 57

Information Security KDC is a single process that provides two services:
• Authentication Service (AS)

This service issues ticket-granting tickets (TGTs) for connection to
the ticket-granting service in its own domain or in any trusted
domain.
● Ticket-Granting Service (TGS)
This service issues tickets for connection to computers in its own
domain.
Kerberos
Kerberos is designed for authentication in client server architecture. In this
architecture, the server is not only dependent on the information given by
the client but also verifies the same credential from its database. The
components of kerberos are a server, clients , an authentication server and
ticket granting server.
Fig. 8 Kerberos
Step 1. Client sends request for a ticket to TG service from AS
(AS contain the USer ID & Password)
Step 2. AS returns an encrypted ticket to the client.
Step 3. Client decrypts the ticket using his secret key.
Step 4. If a user wants to use the service from the server for this client
must be allowed to communicate with the server.
Step 5. Client submits the ticket to TG server.
Step 6. TG server verifies the ticket for identifying the client and after
successful verification provides a new ticket to the client.
Step 7. Client then submits this ticket to the server.
Step 8. Server checks the ticket and the authentication credential to ensure
that it is an authenticated client or not.
Step 9. After verification, the server provides the service to the client.
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Authentication - I
Kerberos Ticket-granting System:
Fig. 9 Ticket Granting ticket

Ticket-Granting Server
• Ticket granting server is used to reduce the load on the

authentication server. This solves the problem of password re-entry
every time for a new service.
• TGS provides the ticket and session key so that users can enter their
password only once.
Working of TGS:
• TGS receives a request, reads the ticket , and will validate it. If the
ticket has been supplied by the AS, then the TGS has the AS secret
key and can decrypt the ticket, otherwise it’s potentially a forged
ticket, and it will be discarded.
• The TGS then generates a ticket for the targeted service, and
encrypts it using the service’s secret key, then encapsulates this
encrypted ticket into a response which will be itself encrypted using
the client’s secret key.
• The client will receive this response, will decrypt it and extract the
encrypted ticket, and will send this encrypted ticket to the targeted
service, which will be able to decrypt it and validate it.
• Of course, in the meantime, many checks will be done relative to the
ticket validity, so one can be assured that the service is only
accessible by those with the credential to do so.
Kerberos Version 5
• Version 5 of Kerberos overcomes some of the imperfections of

Version 4. Version 4 requests the use of DES. 59
Information Security • Version 5 allows adaptability in terms of allowing the choice of
other algorithms.
• Version 4 depends on IP addresses as identifiers. However, Version
5 allows the use of other types as well.
Following are key differences between Kerberos Versions 4 and 5.
Kerberos Version 4 Kerberos Version 5
DES encryptions techniques. Any type of encryption can be

employed because the encrypted
text is tagged with an encryption
type identifier.
“Receiver-makes-right” encoding ASN.1 coding system.

system.
For a ticket lifespan is 5 minutes, The ticket lifetime is defined as an

the ticket lifetime must be arbitrary amount of time.
provided in units.
Ticket support is satisfactory Ticket support is excellent and

facilitates forwarding, renewing and
postdating tickets.
Only a few IP addresses and Multiple IP addresses and other

other addresses for other sorts of addresses for various network
network protocols are included. protocols are included.
It now supports forwardable, renewable, and postdatable tickets.
• Forwardable The user can use this ticket to request a new ticket, but
with a different IP address Thus, a user can use his/her current
credentials to get credentials valid on another machine.
• Renewable A renewable ticket can be renewed by asking the KDC
for a new ticket with the extended lifetime. However, we cannot
renew a ticket that has expired, we have to renew it before it expires.
A renewable ticket can be renewed up until maximum renewable
ticket lifetime.
• Postdatabale These are tickets which are initially invalid, and have a
starting time some time in the future. To use a postdatable ticket, the
user must send it back to the KDC to have it validated during the
ticket's valid lifetime.
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60
Kerberos Third-party Authentication model: Authentication - I
• In the Kerberos system, more than one trusted authentication server

may be used (it is also called KDCs or key distribution servers). This
provides third-party authentication services which are cooperative
and have numerous applications.. Client obtained tickets from the
trusted authentication server which can be used to provide the proof
of identification for subsequent requests for service and application.
This ticket is encrypted so it is secured while transmitting.
• The user wants some service so he first sends his request to an
authenticated server. This request contains the user's name and the
name of the service granting server that he will use.
• The user logs in to the client and requests for a TGT.
• After authentication using password and username, the initial
authentication ticket is granted by the AS to the client.
• The ticket-granting service issues a ticket to the client.
• The client now submits the ticket to the particular server for the
desired service.
The fig. 10 illustrates the interaction between different systems involved
in the kerberos network.
Fig. 10 Authentication Model

Kerberos Authentication Model:
• This uses a symmetric key encryption technique.

• Kerberos 4 uses DES algorithm and Kerberos 5 uses DES and IDEA
algorithms.
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Information Security • For more security, we can use double encryption techniques. For
encryption two keys are used, ie., user password and the session key.
• The user password has a long life period and is used only for first
time authentication whereas a session key has a period of 8 to 10
hours approximately and is used for requesting different services
after first time authentication.
• The user first logs on the client system by using user id and
password.
• Client sends the request for a ticket to the authentication server for
the particular user by providing his user id to AS and not the actual
password.
• The authentication server checks the user id and sends the encrypted
ticket to the client.
• If the user is able to decrypt the ticket by his password then the user
is considered as authenticated.
• Then the user sends the ticket to the service they want to use. If a
service is able to decrypt a ticket using its own secret key, the
service may presume that the user is authentic.
• In this way, without passing the password information over the
insecure channel, the authentication takes place in Kerberos
environment. So, it is difficult for the assailant to read the secret
information about the user.
The authentication in Kerberos takes place in 6 steps as shown in Figure
11.
Fig. 11 Kerberos Authentication Model
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1. The user first login on the client by using user is and password. Authentication - I
2. The client sends a request to the AS requesting a ticket for the user.
Thus This request is totally unauthentIcated and it contains only user
id and not the password of the user.
3. The ticketing service verifies tickets. the user's name in its database.
If the user name is the database then he is an authenticated user and
the ticketing service generates a unique session key for later use
during the user's authenticated session. This ticket sends to the client
a double-encrypted ticket-granting ticket and the session key în the
form:
Kuser(Ks, Ktgs {Ttgs, Ks}
The client then decrypts the ticket-granting ticket using the user's
password. If the client successfully decrypts the ticket using the
user's password, then the user is authentic. Then the client stores the
ticket TGT(Ktgs Ttgs, Ks}) for Later use.
4. Then the client sends a ticket request to ticket-granting service

(TGS) for a particular service requested by the user. This request for
ticket is in the form:
TGT, Ks{request, client-IP, timestamp}}
(where TGT = Ktgs{Ttgs, Ks})
5. The ticket-granting service decrypts the TGT using its own secret
key (Ktgs) and the rest of the part of the message is decrypted by
using the session key. If the ticket-granting service successfully
decrypts the ticket, it gets the Following information:
The TGT was issued by an authenticated ticketing service.
The request for the service is from the authenticated user.
Once the authentication is completed the TGS generates a session

key and the ticket for a requested service. The TGS sends the session
key and the ticket to the client machine in the form:
Ks{Ksession, Kser{Tservice, Ksession)}
6. The client machine decrypts the service ticket using the session key
(Ks) and yields the session key (Ksession) and an encrypted service
ticket
(Kser{T'service,Ksession}).
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Information Security 4.5 SUMMARY
• Authentication is one of the key aspects of cryptography. It can be

used to guarantee that communication end-points, i.e., sender and
receiver are the parties who they claim.
• The main objectives of authentication requirements are to ensure
that the claimants are really what they claim to be, and avoid
compromising security to an impostor.
• Authorisation is the mechanism through which a system determines
what level of access to a particular authenticated user should have.
• It is used to secure the resources controlled by the system.
• The password-based authentication method refers to secret
information which the user has to prove that he knows.
• In a two-factor authentication system, identification and
authentication of the user take place in two different ways to
establish his identity and privileges.
• Biometric authentication method uses thumb impression, iris or
voices for authentication. Integrity of a message is checked by using
the hash value or message digest calculated from the message.
4.6 REFERENCE FOR FURTHER READING
Atul Kahate, “Cryptography and Network Security”, McGraw Hill

Network Security and Cryptography: Bernard Menezes, CENGAGE
Learning
4.7 UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What is authentication? What are the objectives of authentication?

2. What is the difference between authentication and authorisation?
3. List the different methods of authentication. Explain each in brief.
4. Explain the password-based authentication method.
5. What are the guidelines for choosing a password or setting up a
password?
6. Discuss the weaknesses of the password-based authentication
method.
7. Explain the two-factor authentication method.
8. Compare the password-based authentication with the two-factor
authentication methods.
9. Discuss the weaknesses of the two-factor authentication method.
10. What is Kerberos? How does TGS work?

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5
AUTHENTICATION - II
Unit Structure
5.1 Objective
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Mutual authentication
5.4 Reflection attack
5.5 Summary
5.1 OBJECTIVE
a. Mutual authentication helps ensure that the data they receive is
accurate and from a legitimate source, reducing the chances that an
attacker has compromised their connections.
b. Authentication ensures that API requests come from a legitimate
source.
c. To authenticate the identities of the client and server application to
each other
5.2 INTRODUCTION
• Mutual authentication is when two or both sides of a

communications channel verify each other's identity, instead of only
one side verifying the other. Mutual authentication is also called a
"two-way authentication process" because the process goes in both
directions.
• Mutual authentication is an important application area of mutual

authentication protocols. Such protocols enable communicating
parties to fulfill themselves mutually about each other’s identity and
to exchange session keys.
• The problem of authenticated key interchange are two issues:

confidentiality and timeliness. To stop masquerade and to stop
compromise of session keys, essential identification and session-key
information must be communicated in the form of encryption. This
requires the earlier survival of secret or public keys that can be used
for this purpose.
● The second problem, timeliness, is essential because of the threat of
message replays. These types of replays, at unpleasants, allow an
enemy to compromise a session key or successfully impersonate
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Information Security another party. At minimum, a successful replay can disrupt
operations by presenting parties with messages that appear genuine
but are not.
● Following are the examples of replay attacks:
1. The simplest replay attack is one in which the enemy simply
copies a message and replays it later.
2. An enemy can replay a time stamped message within the valid
time frame. If both the original and the replay arrive within the
time frame, this type of incident can be logged.
3. As with example 1, an enemy can replay a time stamped
message within the valid time frame, but in addition, the
enemy suppresses the original message. Thus, the repetition
cannot be detected.
4. Another attack includes a backward replay without
modification. This is a reply back to the message sender. This
attack is possible if symmetric encryption is used and the
sender cannot easily realize the difference between messages
sent and messages received on the basis of content.
● One approach to handle replay attacks is to add a sequence number
to each message used during an authentication interchange. A new
message is received only if its sequence number is in the proper
(sequence) order. The problem with this process is that it requires
each party to keep followup of the last sequence number for each
claimant it has assigned with. Due to this overhead, sequence
numbers are generally not used for authentication and key exchange.
rather, one of the following two general approaches is used:
1. Timestamps: Party A accepts a message as fresh only if the
message consists of a timestamp that, in A’s judgment, is close
enough to A’s knowledge of current time. This method
requires that clocks among the various participants be
synchronized.
2. Challenge or response: Party A, expecting a fresh message
from B, first sends B a nonce (challenge) and requires that the
subsequent message (response) received from B contain the
correct nonce value.
5.3 MUTUAL AUTHENTICATION APPROACHES
In mutual authentication, Party A and B both authenticate each other.

Hence, we have the term mutual authentication here. This approach can
also be implemented in different ways, namely shared secret, public keys,
and time stamp-bascd. This is shown in Fig. 1.
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Authentication - II
Fig. 1 Mutual authentication

1. Shared Secret
• This protocol, suppose that A and B have a shared symmetric

key KAB. The protocol works as follows:
• Steps:
1. A sends her username to B.
2. B sends a random challenge R1 to A.
3. A encrypts R1 with KAB and sends it to B.
4. A sends a different random challenge R2 to B.
5. B encrypts R2 with KAB and sends it to A.
● Next, B authenticates A as before, shown in steps 2 and 3.
Nevertheless, what is new is that A also authenticates B,
shown in steps 4 and 5. Hence, it is mutual authentication.
This is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Shared Secret

● Mutual authentication mainly based on a shared secret
● In This example, too many messages are exchanged, making
this protocol ineffective. This will reduce this to just three
messages, by putting more information in those three
messages. This modified approach is described below:
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Information Security 1. A computer sends the user name and a random challenge
(R2) to B computer.
2. B computer encrypts R2 with the shared symmetric key
KAB, generates a new random challenge (R1); and sends
these two to A computer.
3. A computer verifies R2, encrypts Rl with the shared
symmetric key KAB; and sends it to B computer. B
verifies R1. This process is shown in Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Shared Secret Process

● This variety of the protocol reduces the number of messages to
three. However, it suffers from a problem called reflection
attack. Suppose that attacker C wants to pose as 4 to B
computer. At the beginning, the attacker C starts the protocol
as follows:
1. C person sends a message to B person containing the
user id of A and random challenge R2.
2. B encrypts R2 with the shared symmetric key KAB,
generates a new random challenge (R1); and sends these
two to C. B person thinks he is sending these to A.
This is shown in Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Reflection attack-Part 1

● The attacker C cannot encrypt R1 with KAB. However, C has
managed to have B encrypt R2.
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● Next, the attacker C opens a second session with B, distinct Authentication - II
from the first session, which is still active. Then the following
things happen.
1. sends a message to B containing the user id of A and
random challenge R1.
2. B encrypts R1 with the shared symmetric key KAB,
generates a new random challenge, and sends these two
to C. B thinks he is sending these to A.
• The attacker C cannot proceed with this second session, since

C cannot encrypt the new random challenge R3. However, C
need not proceed with this session. Instead, C can go back to
her first session opened with B earlier. Remember this could
not encrypt R1 with KAB in that session, and was hence
waiting? Now Chas R1l is encrypted with KAB, thanks to this
second session. C sends it to B and completes authentication!
• Thus, C is able to convince B that C is A! How can one

resolve this reflection attack? One idea is to use different keys
(say KAB andN should be used when A wants to encrypt
something and send it to B. KBA should be usea se it
direction. Therefore, B will not be able to encrypt Rl using
KAB. This means that C cannot be misused later, as it
happens in the case of the reflection attack.
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Information Security 2. Public Keys
Mutual authentication can also be achieved by using the public-key
technology. If A and B recognize each other's public key, 3
messages are need to complete the mutual-authentication process as
follows:
1. A sends her username and a random challenge (R2) encrypted
with B's public Key.
2. B decrypts the random challenge (R2) with his private key. B
make a new random challenge (R1) and encrypts it with A's
public key. B sends these two objects (decrypted R2 and
encrypted R1) to A.
3. A decrypts the random challenge (R1) with her private key and
sends it to B. B verifies R1.
4. This process is shown in Fig. 7
Fig. 7 Mutual authentication using public keys

As routinely, we can have a variation of this scheme, where:
1. A sends her username and R2 to B.
2. B encrypts R2 with his private key and sends it and RI to A.
3. A signs Rl and returns it back to A.
Fig. 8 Mutual authentication using public keys

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3. Time Stamps Authentication - II
● This can reduce the mutual-authentication process to just two

steps by using time stamps, instead of random numbers as
challenges. This would work as follows:
1. A sends her username and the current timestamp
encrypted with a shared symmetric key (KAB) to B.
2. B retrieves the time stamp by decrypting the above block
using the KAB and adds one to the timestamp. B
encrypts the result with KBA (not KAB!) er name, and
sends it to A, along with his username
This approach is shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Mutual authentication using time stamps

Working of mutual authentication:
The three main methods for mutually authenticating the ends of a
communications channel:
1. Public key authentication:
• This method depends on public key encryption. Encryption is the

process of climbing data by use of a key.
• Public key encryption uses two keys in lieu of one: a public key and
a private key.
• Data encrypted with the public key is decrypted with the private key,
and data encrypted with the private key is decrypted with the public
key.
• In public key mutual authentication, both sides of the
communication advertise a public key, and both have to prove they
possess the private key that goes with their public key like someone
showing a government-issued ID card to verify their name or
authenticity. Each side sends a piece of data called a "signature" and
encrypts that signature with their private key, and the other side
decrypts the signature using the public key.
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Information Security ● If the signature can be decrypted properly with the public key, then
the correct private key was used, and the party that sent the signature
is appropriate.
2. Certificate authentication:
• This method is similar to public key authentication, except instead of

just a public key, both parties have a public key certificate for
authentication.
• The certificate consists of additional information that helps verify
the parties name including who issued the certificate and public key,
whom the certificate registers to, when the certificate expires, and so
on.
• TLS certificates used for this type of mutual authentication
mechanism if both sides have one.
3. Username and password:
• Despite the name, this method of mutual authentication nevertheless

uses a certificate on the server side.
• The server hands over a certificate to the client, which verifies the
certificate. On the other hand, it is just like typical username or
password authentication, the client sends its username and password
combination to the server, which verifies the credentials.
Uses of mutual authentication
• One-way authentication happens all the time on the Internet. Every

time someone loads a website that uses HTTP, their machine
authenticates the identity of the web server by checking the server's
TLS certificate. Another example would be a person signing in to
their account on an application in this instance, the application is
authenticating the person.
• While mutual authentication eliminates some security defects and
makes some types of attacks far more difficult to carry out, it adds
more time and computing power to the interchange of
information.
• It also requires some advanced setup. Both sides of the
communication need
• a set of credentials,
• a public-private key pair, or a public key certificate.
• This makes mutual authentication difficult to implement for the

average number of users, and this is why mutual authentication is
not normally a part of TLS when someone is using a web
application.
• The main use cases for mutual authentication include:
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A. IoT: Authentication - II
1. Many IoT devices need to connect to a remote server in order

to function properly.
2. They may need to connect to other IoT devices as well. IoT
devices have to do so over an unsecured network (Internet).
3. Mutual authentication helps ensure that the data they receive is
accurate and from a lawful source, reducing the chances that
an attacker has compromised their connections.
B. API security:
1. Authentication ensures that API requests come from a
legitimate source.
2. Mutual authentication is one way to make sure that an API is
not accepting requests from attackers, and that an API user is
not accepting spoofed API responses.
C. Zero Trust security:
1. Zero Trust is a belief that assumes any user or device could
present a threat.
2. By requiring both sides of a connection to authenticate, mutual
authentication ensures only legitimate users are connected to
the network, server, or application. consequently, users can be
assured they have connected to the true network, server, or
application.
Attacks prevented by mutual authentication:
A. On-path attacks:
1. In this attack, an attacker resides in the middle of a connection
between two parties.
2. The attacker heads off communications in both directions and
impersonates the two ends of the conversation to each other.
3. Mutual authentication helps to stop this type of attack because
the attacker will not be able to authenticate to both ends of the
communication.
B. Spoofing and impersonation:
1. Attackers use these types of attacks to play a game with a
server or a user into thinking they are a known and trusted
party.
2. An attacker can spoof a web server to a user, or vice versa.
Such attacks are a long way more difficult when both sides
have to authenticate.
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Information Security C. Credential theft:
1. In mutual authentication Some forms are password-based, and
these could still be subject to credential theft (when an attacker
steals a legitimate user's password).
2. Mutual authentication is usually public key based, credential
theft is not feasible because there are no credentials to steal.
Protocols that support mutual authentication:
1. Secure Shell Protocol (SSH):
a. SSH is a tunneling protocol for securely connecting to a
remote server or device.
b. SSH can use either public key authentication or certificate
authentication.
c. Different ways we can say that, it is possible to mutually
authenticate in SSH with either a public key or with a public
key certificate.
2. Transport Layer Security(TLS):
a. TLS does not mutually authenticate both ends devices of a
connection by default, it can be used for this purpose.
b. Mutual TLS is one of the most commonly applied types of
mutual authentication.
c. In mutual TLS, both sides of a connection have a TLS
certificate. Mutual TLS is commonly used for API security,
IoT security, and Zero Trust security applications.
5.4 Reflection attack
• A reflection attack is an understanding of a server's security

accomplished by tricking it into giving up a security code to allow a
hacker to access it.
• Reflection attacks are made possible when servers use a simple
protocol to authenticate guests. Adding some steps to increase
security can make such attacks more difficult, pressurizing hackers
to pursue other avenues of attack.
• Security professionals can assess a system to find if the security is
enough for the application.
The example used to explain the concept of a reflection attack is the MIG
in the middle.
• A military decides to implement a system that allows them to tell

immediately if an aircraft on their radar is a good guy or a bad guy
(referred to as Identify Friend from Foe (IFF) systems).
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• The system they implement goes something like; Authentication - II
1. Alice > Bob: n <-- challenge

2. Bob > Alice: E(K, n) <-- response
Where n is a unique random nonce,
K is a pre-shared key, and
E is a suitable encryption/derivation function.
• Since only friendly aircraft know the value of the secret key K, only
friendly aircraft can calculate the correct response to a given nonce
n. If Bob fails to generate and send the correct response within a few
seconds, Alice promptly shoots him down.
• Otherwise, Alice knows that Bob must have known the value of K in
order to generate the response he sent, and that Bob must therefore
be on the same team.
• This process can be repeated in reverse so that Alice and Bob are
mutually authenticated.
The Reflection Attack
• An enemy aircraft can defeat the system by reflecting the challenge

back to some other member of the good guys team.
1: Alice > Bob: n
2: Bob > Charlie: n <-- reflection attack
3: Charlie > Bob: E(K, n) <-- bob receives the correct
response to Alice's challenge
4: Bob > Alice: E(K, n) <-- and authenticates himself to
Alice
● At the 4th communication, Bob has authenticated himself to Alice
who lets him fly past peacefully. Bob did this without knowledge of
K, simply by sending the same challenge to someone other, hence
the name reflection. Bob reflects the challenge to Charlie, who is on
Alice's team and therefore knows the value of K and can generate
the correct response. Charlie answers Bob's IFF challenge as he
normally would, giving Bob the correct response to the original
challenge.
5.5 SUMMARY
• Mutual authentication involves authentication of both parties.

• Mutual authentication is more flexible.
• Mutual authentication can be classified into shared secret , public
keys and time-stamp-based.
• Reflection attack involves an attacker opening two sessions to
impersonate a user.
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Information Security 5.6 REFERENCE FOR FURTHER READING

Network Security and Cryptography: Bernard Menezes, CENGAGE
Learning
1. What is mutual authentication? What are the objectives of mutual

authentication?
2. Explain the different approaches of mutual authentication?
3. Write a short note on Reflection attack?
4. What are the uses of mutual authentication?

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6
DIGITAL SIGNATURE
Unit Structure
6.1 Concept
6.1.1 Digital Signature work
6.1.2 Benefits of digital signature
6.1.3 Use of digital signature
6.1.4 Tools and vendors of digital signature
6.1.5 Model of Digital Signature
6.2 Compare digital signature with public key
6.3 Digital signature schema
6.1 CONCEPT
A digital signature is a mathematical technique used to validate the
authenticity and integrity of a message, software or digital document. It's
the digital equivalent of a handwritten signature or stamped seal, but it
offers far more inherent security. A digital signature is intended to solve
the problem of tampering and impersonation in digital communications.
Digital signatures can provide evidence of origin, identity and status of
electronic documents, transactions or digital messages. Signers can also
use them to acknowledge informed consent. In many countries, including
the United States, digital signatures are considered legally binding in the
same way as traditional handwritten document signatures.
6.1.1 How do digital signatures work?
Digital signatures are based on public key cryptography, also known
as asymmetric cryptography. Using a public key algorithm, such as RSA
(Rivest-Shamir-Adleman), two keys are generated, creating a
mathematically linked pair of keys, one private and one public.
Digital signatures work through public key cryptography's two mutually
authenticating cryptographic keys. The individual who creates the digital
signature uses a private key to encrypt signature-related data, while the
only way to decrypt that data is with the signer's public key. If the
recipient can't open the document with the signer's public key, that's a sign
there's a problem with the document or the signature. This is how digital
signatures are authenticated. Digital signature technology requires all
parties trust that the individual creating the signature has kept the private
key secret. If someone else has access to the private signing key, that party
could create fraudulent digital signatures in the name of the private key
holder.
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Information Security 6.1.2 What are the benefits of digital signatures?
Security is the main benefit of digital signatures. Security capabilities
embedded in digital signatures ensure a document is not altered and
signatures are legitimate. Security features and methods used in digital
signatures include the following:
1. Personal identification numbers (PINs), passwords and
codes. Used to authenticate and verify a signer's identity and
approve their signature. Email, username and password are the most
common methods used.
2. Asymmetric cryptography. Employs a public key algorithm that
includes private and public key encryption and authentication.
3. Checksum. A long string of letters and numbers that represents the
sum of the correct digits in a piece of digital data, against which
comparisons can be made to detect errors or changes. A checksum
acts as a data fingerprint.
4. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC). An error-detecting code and
verification feature used in digital networks and storage devices to
detect changes to raw data.
5. Certificate authority (CA) validation. CAs issue digital signatures
and act as trusted third parties by accepting, authenticating, issuing
and maintaining digital certificates. The use of CAs helps avoid the
creation of fake digital certificates.
6. Trust service provider (TSP) validation. A TSP is a person or
legal entity that performs validation of a digital signature on a
company's behalf and offers signature validation reports.
7. Other benefits to using digital signatures include the following:
8. Timestamping. By providing the data and time of a digital
signature, timestamping is useful when timing is critical, such as for
stock trades, lottery ticket issuance and legal proceedings.
9. Globally accepted and legally compliant. The public key
infrastructure (PKI) standard ensures vendor-generated keys are
made and stored securely. Because of the international standard, a
growing number of countries are accepting digital signatures as
legally binding.
10. Time savings. Digital signatures simplify the time-consuming
processes of physical document signing, storage and exchange,
enabling businesses to quickly access and sign documents.
11. Cost savings. Organizations can go paperless and save money
previously spent on the physical resources and on the time,
personnel and office space used to manage and transport them.
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12. Positive environmental impact. Reducing paper use also cuts down Digital Signature
on the physical waste generated by paper and the negative
environmental impact of transporting paper documents.
13. Traceability. Digital signatures create an audit trail that makes
internal record-keeping easier for business. With everything
recorded and stored digitally, there are fewer opportunities for a
manual signee or record-keeper to make a mistake or misplace
something.
How do you create a digital signature?
To create a digital signature, signing software, such as an email program,
is used to provide a one-way hash of the electronic data to be signed. A
hash is a fixed-length string of letters and numbers generated by an
algorithm. The digital signature creator's private key is then used to
encrypt the hash. The encrypted hash -- along with other information, such
as the hashing algorithm -- is the digital signature. The reason for
encrypting the hash instead of the entire message or document is a hash
function can convert an arbitrary input into a fixed-length value, which is
usually much shorter. This saves time as hashing is much faster than
signing.
The value of a hash is unique to the hashed data. Any change in the data,
even a change in a single character, will result in a different value. This
attribute enables others to use the signer's public key to decrypt the hash to
validate the integrity of the data.
If the decrypted hash matches a second computed hash of the same data, it
proves that the data hasn't changed since it was signed. If the two hashes
don't match, the data has either been tampered with in some way and is
compromised or the signature was created with a private key that doesn't
correspond to the public key presented by the signer -- an issue with
authentication.
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Information Security A person creates a digital signature using a private key to encrypt the
signature. At the same time, hash data is created and encrypted. The
recipient uses the signer's public key to decrypt the signature.
A digital signature can be used with any kind of message, whether it is
encrypted or not, simply so the receiver can be sure of the sender's identity
and the message arrived intact. Digital signatures make it difficult for the
signer to deny having signed something as the digital signature is unique
to both the document and the signer and it binds them together. This
property is called nonrepudiation.
Digital signatures are not to be confused with digital certificates. A digital
certificate is an electronic document that contains the digital signature of
the issuing CA. It binds together a public key with an identity and can be
used to verify that a public key belongs to a particular person or entity.
Most modern email programs support the use of digital signatures and
digital certificates, making it easy to sign any outgoing emails and validate
digitally signed incoming messages. Digital signatures are also used
extensively to provide proof of authenticity, data integrity and
nonrepudiation of communications and transactions conducted over the
internet.
6.1.3 Uses for digital signatures
Industries use digital signature technology to streamline processes and
improve document integrity. Industries that use digital signatures include
the following:
• Government. The U.S. Government Publishing Office (GPO)

publishes electronic versions of budgets, public and private laws,
and congressional bills with digital signatures. Digital signatures are
used by governments worldwide for a variety of reasons, including
processing tax returns, verifying business-to-government (B2G)
transactions, ratifying laws and managing contracts. Most
government entities must adhere to strict laws, regulations and
standards when using digital signatures. Many governments and
corporations also use smart cards to ID their citizens and employees.
These are physical cards endowed with a digital signature that can
be used to give the cardholder access to an institution's systems or
physical buildings.
• Healthcare. Digital signatures are used in the healthcare industry to

improve the efficiency of treatment and administrative processes, to
strengthen data security, for e-prescribing and hospital admissions.
The use of digital signatures in healthcare must comply with the
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of
1996.
• Manufacturing. Manufacturing companies use digital signatures to

speed up processes, including product design, quality assurance
(QA), manufacturing enhancements, marketing and sales. The use of
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digital signatures in manufacturing is governed by the International Digital Signature
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) Digital Manufacturing Certificate
(DMC).
• Financial services. The U.S. financial sector uses digital signatures

for contracts, paperless banking, loan processing, insurance
documentation, mortgages and more. This heavily regulated sector
uses digital signatures with careful attention to the regulations and
guidance put forth by the Electronic Signatures in Global and
National Commerce Act (E-Sign Act), state Uniform Electronic
Transactions Act (UETA) regulations, the Consumer Financial
Protection Bureau (CFPB) and the Federal Financial Institutions
Examination Council (FFIEC).
• Cryptocurrencies. Digital signatures are also used in bitcoin and

other cryptocurrencies to authenticate the blockchain. They are also
used to manage transaction data associated with cryptocurrency and
as a way for users to show ownership of currency or their
participation in a transaction.
6.1.4 Digital signature tools and vendors
Digital signature tools and services are commonly used in contract-heavy
industries. For example, when freelance writers sign a contract, they can
agree to word count and payment, using Adobe Sign to put their e-
signature on the document.
Digital and e-signature service providers include the following:
• Adobe Sign is designed to provide secure, legal e-signatures across

all device types.
• DocuSign standards-based services ensure e-signatures are

compliant with existing regulations. Its services include Express
Signature for basic global transactions and the EU Qualified
Signature, which complies with EU standards.
• Global Sign provides a host of management, integration and

automation tools to implement PKI across enterprise environments.
• Sign Easy offers an e-signing service of the same name to

businesses and individuals, as well as providing application
programming interfaces (APIs) for developers.
• Sign Now, which is part of the airSlate business cloud, provides an

easy-to-use Portable Document Format (PDF) signing tool for
businesses.
• Vasco provides its eSignLive e-signature product as a cloud service

and on premises.
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Information Security 6.1.5 Model of Digital Signature
The digital signature scheme is based on public key cryptography. The
model of digital signature scheme is depicted in the following illustration
−
The following points explain the entire process in detail −
• Each person adopting this scheme has a public-private key pair.
• Generally, the key pairs used for encryption/decryption and

signing/verifying are different. The private key used for signing is
referred to as the signature key and the public key as the verification
key.
• Signer feeds data to the hash function and generates hash of data.
• Hash value and signature key are then fed to the signature algorithm
which produces the digital signature on given hash. Signature is
appended to the data and then both are sent to the verifier.
• Verifier feeds the digital signature and the verification key into the
verification algorithm. The verification algorithm gives some value
as output.
• Verifier also runs same hash function on received data to generate

hash value.
• For verification, this hash value and output of verification algorithm

are compared. Based on the comparison result, verifier decides
whether the digital signature is valid.
• Since digital signature is created by ‘private’ key of signer and no

one else can have this key; the signer cannot repudiate signing the
data in future.
It should be noticed that instead of signing data directly by signing
algorithm, usually a hash of data is created. Since the hash of data is a
unique representation of data, it is sufficient to sign the hash in place of
data. The most important reason of using hash instead of data directly for
signing is efficiency of the scheme.
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Signing large data through modular exponentiation is computationally Digital Signature
expensive and time consuming. The hash of the data is a relatively small
digest of the data, hence signing a hash is more efficient than signing
the entire data.
Importance of Digital Signature
Out of all cryptographic primitives, the digital signature using public key
cryptography is considered as very important and useful tool to achieve
information security.
Apart from ability to provide non-repudiation of message, the digital
signature also provides message authentication and data integrity. Let us
briefly see how this is achieved by the digital signature −
• Message authentication − When the verifier validates the digital

signature using public key of a sender, he is assured that signature
has been created only by sender who possess the corresponding
secret private key and no one else.
• Data Integrity − In case an attacker has access to the data and
modifies it, the digital signature verification at receiver end fails.
The hash of modified data and the output provided by the
verification algorithm will not match. Hence, receiver can safely
deny the message assuming that data integrity has been breached.
• Non-repudiation − Since it is assumed that only the signer has the
knowledge of the signature key, he can only create unique signature
on a given data. Thus the receiver can present data and the digital
signature to a third party as evidence if any dispute arises in the
future.
By adding public-key encryption to digital signature scheme, we can
create a cryptosystem that can provide the four essential elements of
security namely − Privacy, Authentication, Integrity, and Non-repudiation.
Encryption with Digital Signature
In many digital communications, it is desirable to exchange an encrypted
messages than plaintext to achieve confidentiality. In public key
encryption scheme, a public (encryption) key of sender is available in
open domain, and hence anyone can spoof his identity and send any
encrypted message to the receiver.
This makes it essential for users employing PKC for encryption to seek
digital signatures along with encrypted data to be assured of message
authentication and non-repudiation.
This can archive by combining digital signatures with encryption scheme.
Let us briefly discuss how to achieve this requirement. There are two
possibilities, sign-then-encrypt and encrypt-then-sign.
However, the crypto system based on sign-then-encrypt can be exploited
by receiver to spoof identity of sender and sent that data to third party.
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Information Security Hence, this method is not preferred. The process of encrypt-then-sign is
more reliable and widely adopted. This is depicted in the following
illustration −
The receiver after receiving the encrypted data and signature on it, first
verifies the signature using sender’s public key. After ensuring the validity
of the signature, he then retrieves the data through decryption using his
private key.
6.2 COMPARE DIGITAL SIGNATURE WITH PUBLIC

KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY
Public key cryptography: Public key cryptography is a cryptographic

system that uses private/public keys. The advantage of this approach is in
not requiring some sort of secure channel for the initial exchange of secret
keys between communicators. This makes secure communication with
strangers on open networks possible.
The private key is a random hexadecimal number that must be kept
private by the account holder.
A public key is another hexadecimal number that can be shared publicly.
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Pick a number, any number Digital Signature
In most common encryption systems, the public and private keys are both
generated at the same time. In others, the public key is generated from the
private key. The public and private keys are associated with each other
through a mathematical relationship. However, there is no way use the
public key to figure out the private key. That is because these systems
are based on math problems with no efficient solutions which can take
outputs and work backwards from to get the original inputs.
RSA and Prime Numbers: One example of a hard math problem
providing security for an encryption system is found in the popular RSA
cryptography system. RSA uses prime numbers to ensure security. A
public-key cryptographic system needs a set of algorithms that is easy
to do in one direction, but difficult to undo. RSA uses an easy algorithm
that multiplies two prime numbers.
If multiplication is easy, then the difficult part is factoring the product of
the multiplying those two primes.
A prime number is a natural number (aka whole number used in
counting) greater than 1 and can only be divided by 1 and itself. Examples
of prime numbers are 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, etc.
A product is a result of multiplying two factors. Ex: A * B = C.
The factors are A and B. The product is C.
A composite number is a positive integer that is formed when
multiplying two or more other positive integers. Thus, composite numbers
are divisible by more than 1 and itself. When two primes (or any number
of positive integers) are multiplied, we get a composite number.
Factoring out a number just means finding the numbers that make up the
composite number.
Factoring out the two prime numbers that makeup RSA’s 232 digits length
number will take a very long time. However, generating and checking
those two primes is relatively easy.
Algorithms that have this property, easy in one direction and hard in the
other, are known as trapdoor functions. Other algorithms use other types
of hard math problems with this one-way property to provide security to
their system. Ethereum uses something called Elliptical Curve
Cryptography which will be described in a future post.
Public key cryptography with digital signatures: A digital signature
with public-key cryptography securing a message is created in the
following way. First, the message is digitally signed like explained above.
Then, this bundle is encrypted with the sender’s private key, and again
with the receiver’s public key
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Looking at it like hypothetical function calls, it may look something

like this:
public_key_of_recipient(private_key(message_hashing(message) +
message + type of hashing algorithm))
Keep this a secret

Decrypting secured messages with digital signatures:
When the recipient receives the information, the recipient can decrypt the
outer layer with his private key. This ensures that only the receiver can
read the information. Then, the receiver can decrypt the inner layer with
the sender’s public key. This assures that the sender was indeed the
expected person. This is possible because the private and public keys are
linked mathematically.
After decryption, the receiver can verify the message was not tampered
with en-route by running the message through the same hashing algorithm
as the sender. If they match, we have a valid message.
6.3 DIGITAL SIGNATURE SCHEME
Digital signature schemes are techniques to assure an entity’s

acknowledgment of having seen a certain digital message. Typically, an
entity has a private key and a corresponding public key that is tied to the
entity’s name (Public Key Infrastructure). The entity generates a string
called signature, which depends on the message to sign and his
private key.
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The fact that the entity acknowledged, that is, that he signed the message, Digital Signature
can be verified by anyone using the entity’s public key, the message, and
the signature. Data Authentication and signature schemes are sometimes
distinguished in the sense that in the latter, verification can be done by
anyone at any time after the generation of the signature. Due to this
property, the digital signature scheme achieves Non-Repudiation property,
that is, a signer cannot later deny the fact of signing.
The conventional handwritten signature on a document is used to certify

that the signer is responsible for the content of the document. The
signature is physically a part of the document and while forgery is
certainly possible, it is difficult to do so convincingly. Trying to mimic a
handwritten signature in a digital medium leads to a difficulty since cut
and paste operations can be used to create a perfect forgery. Thus, we need
to have a way of signing messages digitally which is functionally
equivalent to a physical signature, but which is at least as resistant to
forgery as its physical counterpart.
Schemes which provide this functionality are called Digital Signature

Schemes. A Digital Signature Scheme will have two components, a
private signing algorithm which permits a user to securely sign a message
and a public verification algorithm which permits anyone to verify that the
signature is authentic. The signing algorithm needs to "bind" a signature to
a message in such a way that the signature cannot be pulled out and used
to sign another document, or have the original message modified and the
signature remain valid. For practical reasons it would be necessary for
both algorithms to be relatively fast and if small computers such as smart
cards are to be used, the algorithms cannot be too computationally
complex. There are many Digital Signature Schemes which meet these
conditions, but we shall only investigate a few of the most popular ones.
RSA Signatures
As we have previously noted, in order for Bob to sign a message m, he

raises m to his private decryption exponent mod n. This is the signature
algorithm. Anyone can verify this signature by raising md to Bob's public
encryption exponent mod n. This is the verification algorithm. Application
of the verification algorithm to a valid signature yields the message m.
The verifier must know the message m in order to be sure that this is the
message that Bob signed, so in this application Bob must send the ordered
pair (m, md mod n). Some care must be taken in the construction of the
message to be signed in this way. For instance, if m is the instruction to
Bob's bank to issue a check to Alice, then if Alice intercepts the ordered
pair, she can send the same pair to Bob's bank whenever she is a little low
on cash. To prevent this kind of abuse, when it matters, messages should 87
Information Security include dates and other such items which prevent the message from being
reused.
Forgeries of Bob's signature are easy to construct. The requirement for a

valid signature is that raising the second coordinate to Bob's public
encryption exponent e gives the first coordinate. Frank the "forger" can
take any number y, calculate x = y e mod n and send the pair (x,y). This
will be verified as Bob signing the message x. Frank's problem is that he
has no control over the "message" x, which will normally be just random
nonsense. Without breaking the RSA crypto system, Frank has only a
negligible chance of finding a meaningful message, let alone a desired
message.
El-Gamal Signature Scheme
Unlike the RSA Signature scheme, which can be used as both a

cryptosystem and a signature scheme, this signature scheme is designed
specifically for signatures and is based on the discrete logarithm problem.
As with the El-Gamal cryptosystem, computations are carried out in Z p ,
where p is a prime such that the discrete log problem is intractable in Z p .
A generator α of Z p * is fixed, and each user selects a secret exponent a,
and publishes the value β = α a mod p. If Alice wishes to sign a message
m, she will first select a random secret integer k with gcd(k,p-1) = 1. She
then computes r = α k mod p and then computes s = k -1 (m -ar) mod (p-
1). The signature is the triple (m,r,s).
The verification algorithm compares β r r s mod p and α m mod p. Noting

that from the definition of s, we have m = sk + ar mod (p-1), we see that: α
m =α sk+ar = (α k ) s (α a ) r = r sβ r mod p.
Now suppose that Frank wants to forge Alice's signature on a message m

without knowing Alice's secret exponent a. He can pick r randomly (just
as Alice does) and then has to find an s so that β r r s = α m mod p.
Rewritten, this amounts to solving r s = β -rα m mod p. Which is the
discrete logarithm problem. On the other hand, if he first selects a random
s, then he must solve the congruence β r r s = α m mod p for r. This is a
problem for which no feasible solution is known and it does not seem to
be related to any well studied problem such as the Discrete Log problem.
There remains the possibility that Frank can choose r and s simultaneously
to get a valid signature. No one has discovered a way to do this, but then
again, no one has proved that it can't be done.
Unlike the RSA signature scheme, Frank cannot forge Alice's signature on
"random messages" by randomly picking r and s and calculating a
message m so that (m,r,s) is a valid Alice signature [to do this would
require solving the discrete log problem]. However, Frank can create valid
Alice signatures by selecting r,s and m simultaneously. To do this, Frank
picks two integers, i and j (less
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Digital Signature
There are some protocol failures that would compromise the El-Gamal
signature scheme. The first involves the secret exponent k. Should this
become known, then given a signature (m,r,s) the congruence ar = m-ks
mod (p-1), has d = gcd(r,p-1) possible solutions for a. The correct one can
be found by verifying that β = α a mod p. This gives Alice's secret
exponent a and so breaks the system.

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7
PUBLIC KEY INFRASTRUCTURE

Unit Structure
7.1 Public key infrastructure
7.2 Public key management
7.3 Public key cryptography standard
7.3.1 List of Public Key Cryptography Standards
7.4 Digital certificate creation steps
7.5 X.509 certificate
7.6 Certificate revocation
7.1 PUBLIC KEY INFRASTRUCTURE
Cryptography lies at the heart of the modern business - protecting

electronic communications and financial transactions, maintaining the
privacy of sensitive data and enabling secure authentication and
authorization. New regulations like GDPR and PSD2, the commercial
pressure for digital transformation, the adoption of cloud technology and
the latest trends in IoT and blockchain/DLT all help drive the need to
embed cryptography into virtually every application – from toasters to
core banking systems!
The good news is that modern cryptographic algorithms, when
implemented correctly, are highly-resistant to attack – their only weak
point is their keys. However, if a key is compromised, then it’s game over!
This makes such cryptographic keys one of your company’s most precious
assets, and they should be treated as such. The value of any key is
equivalent to the value of all the data and/or assets it is used to protect.
There are three primary types of keys that need to be kept safe and secure:
1. Symmetric keys – typically used to encrypt bulk data with
symmetric algorithms like 3DES or AES; anyone with the secret key
can decrypt the data
2. Private keys – the secret half of public/private key pairs used in
public-key cryptography with asymmetric algorithms like RSA or
ECDSA; anyone with the private key can impersonate the owner of
the private key to decrypt private data, gain unauthorized access to
systems or generate a fraudulent digital signature that appears
authentic
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3. Hash keys – used to safeguard the integrity and authenticity of data Public Key Infrastructure
and transactions with algorithms like HMAC-SHA256; anyone with
the secret key can impersonate the originator of the data/transactions
and thus modify the original data/transactions or create entirely false
data/transactions that any recipient will believe is authentic
With an ever-increasing number of keys to protect, and an ever-increasing
value of data being protected by those keys, not to mention the demands of
PCI-DSS or GDPR, this is a challenge that nearly every business needs to
face and address as a matter of urgency.
The most distinct feature of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is that it uses
a pair of keys to achieve the underlying security service. The key pair
comprises of private key and public key. Since the public keys are in open
domain, they are likely to be abused. It is, thus, necessary to establish and
maintain some kind of trusted infrastructure to manage these keys.
Key Management
It goes without saying that the security of any cryptosystem depends upon
how securely its keys are managed. Without secure procedures for the
handling of cryptographic keys, the benefits of the use of strong
cryptographic schemes are potentially lost.
It is observed that cryptographic schemes are rarely compromised through
weaknesses in their design. However, they are often compromised through
poor key management.
There are some important aspects of key management which are as
follows −
Cryptographic keys are nothing but special pieces of data. Key
management refers to the secure administration of cryptographic keys.
Key management deals with entire key lifecycle as depicted in the
following illustration −
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Information Security There are two specific requirements of key management for public key
cryptography.
Secrecy of private keys. Throughout the key lifecycle, secret keys must
remain secret from all parties except those who are owner and are
authorized to use them.
Assurance of public keys. In public key cryptography, the public keys are
in open domain and seen as public pieces of data. By default, there are no
assurances of whether a public key is correct, with whom it can be
associated, or what it can be used for. Thus, key management of public
keys needs to focus much more explicitly on assurance of purpose of
public keys.
The most crucial requirement of ‘assurance of public key’ can be achieved
through the public-key infrastructure (PKI), a key management systems
for supporting public-key cryptography.
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
PKI provides assurance of public key. It provides the identification of
public keys and their distribution. An anatomy of PKI comprises of the
following components.
• Public Key Certificate, commonly referred to as ‘digital certificate’.

• Private Key tokens.
• Certification Authority.
• Registration Authority.
• Certificate Management System.
Digital Certificate
For analogy, a certificate can be considered as the ID card issued to the
person. People use ID cards such as a driver's license, passport to prove
their identity. A digital certificate does the same basic thing in the
electronic world, but with one difference.
Digital Certificates are not only issued to people but they can be issued to
computers, software packages or anything else that need to prove the
identity in the electronic world.
Digital certificates are based on the ITU standard X.509 which defines a
standard certificate format for public key certificates and certification
validation. Hence digital certificates are sometimes also referred to as
X.509 certificates.
Public key pertaining to the user client is stored in digital certificates by
The Certification Authority (CA) along with other relevant information
such as client information, expiration date, usage, issuer etc.
CA digitally signs this entire information and includes digital signature in
the certificate.
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Anyone who needs the assurance about the public key and associated Public Key Infrastructure
information of client, he carries out the signature validation process using
CA’s public key. Successful validation assures that the public key given in
the certificate belongs to the person whose details are given in the
certificate.
The process of obtaining Digital Certificate by a person/entity is depicted
in the following illustration.
As shown in the illustration, the CA accepts the application from a client

to certify his public key. The CA, after duly verifying identity of client,
issues a digital certificate to that client.
Certifying Authority (CA)
As discussed above, the CA issues certificate to a client and assist other
users to verify the certificate. The CA takes responsibility for identifying
correctly the identity of the client asking for a certificate to be issued, and
ensures that the information contained within the certificate is correct and
digitally signs it.
Key Functions of CA
The key functions of a CA are as follows −
• Generating key pairs − The CA may generate a key pair

independently or jointly with the client.
• Issuing digital certificates − The CA could be thought of as the

PKI equivalent of a passport agency − the CA issues a certificate 93
Information Security after client provides the credentials to confirm his identity. The CA
then signs the certificate to prevent modification of the details
contained in the certificate.
• Publishing Certificates − The CA need to publish certificates so

that users can find them. There are two ways of achieving this. One
is to publish certificates in the equivalent of an electronic telephone
directory. The other is to send your certificate out to those people
you think might need it by one means or another.
• Verifying Certificates − The CA makes its public key available in

environment to assist verification of his signature on clients’ digital
certificate.
• Revocation of Certificates − At times, CA revokes the certificate

issued due to some reason such as compromise of private key by
user or loss of trust in the client. After revocation, CA maintains the
list of all revoked certificate that is available to the environment.
Classes of Certificates
There are four typical classes of certificate −
Class 1 − These certificates can be easily acquired by supplying an email
address.
Class 2 − These certificates require additional personal information to be
supplied.
Class 3 − These certificates can only be purchased after checks have been
made about the requestor’s identity.
Class 4 − They may be used by governments and financial organizations
needing very high levels of trust.
Registration Authority (RA)
CA may use a third-party Registration Authority (RA) to perform the
necessary checks on the person or company requesting the certificate to
confirm their identity. The RA may appear to the client as a CA, but they
do not actually sign the certificate that is issued.
Certificate Management System (CMS)
It is the management system through which certificates are published,
temporarily or permanently suspended, renewed, or revoked. Certificate
management systems do not normally delete certificates because it may be
necessary to prove their status at a point in time, perhaps for legal reasons.
A CA along with associated RA runs certificate management systems to
be able to track their responsibilities and liabilities.
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7.2 PRIVATE KEY MANAGEMENT Public Key Infrastructure
What is a private key?

A private key, also known as a secret key, is a variable in cryptography
that is used with an algorithm to encrypt and decrypt data. Secret keys
should only be shared with the key's generator or parties authorized to
decrypt the data. Private keys play an important role in symmetric
cryptography, asymmetric cryptography and cryptocurrencies.
A private key is typically a long, randomly or pseudo-randomly generated
sequence of bits that cannot be easily guessed. The complexity and length
of the private key determine how easily an attacker can execute a brute-
force attack, where they try out different keys until the right one is found.
How does a private key work?
Private key encryption is also referred to as symmetric encryption, where
the same private key is used for both encryption and decryption. In this
case, a private key works as follows:
• Generating a new private key. Prior to encryption, generate a new

key that is as random as possible; encryption software is typically
used to generate private keys.
• Securely storing the private key. Once generated, the private key
must be stored securely. Depending on the application, keys may be
stored offline or on the computer used to generate, encrypt and
decrypt data. Private keys may be protected with a password,
encrypted or hashed for security -- or all three.
• Key exchange. The private key is used to decrypt, as well as to

encrypt, so using it for symmetric encryption requires a key
exchange to share that key securely with trusted parties authorized to
exchange secured data. Cryptographic software is usually used to
automate this process.
• Key management. Private key management is required to prevent

any individual key from being used for too long. It helps to securely
retire keys after their useful lifetime is reached.
• A private key is also used in asymmetric cryptography, which is also

known as public key cryptography. In this case, the private key
refers to the secret key of a public key pair. In public key
cryptography, the private key is used for encryption and digital
signatures. It works as follows for asymmetric cryptography:
• Generating a public-private key pair. Randomness is even more

important for this process. Encryption application software is usually
used to generate key pairs. It should require a source of randomness,
such as mouse movement.
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Information Security • Securely storing the private key. Once generated, the private key
must be stored securely. Like the symmetric cryptography process,
keys may be stored offline or on the computer used to generate,
encrypt and decrypt data. Here, too, private keys should be protected
with a password, encrypted or hashed for security.
• Key exchange. The private key of a public key pair should almost
never be shared with others. Public key cryptography, including
digital signatures, is typically used to securely share session keys
used for symmetric encryption. However, other protocols for public
key infrastructure are used to authoritatively share public keys
between cooperating parties.
• Using the private key. The owner of a public key pair uses their
private key for decrypting data that has been encrypted with the
public key of the pair. Only the holder of the private key should be
able to decrypt data encrypted with the public key. For digital
signatures, the owner of the key pair uses their private key to encrypt
the signature. In this way, anyone with access to the public key can
decrypt the signature and verify that it was signed by the private key
owner.
• Key management. Public key pairs are often generated with

expiration dates, and key management is vital to maintaining access
to data protected with a key pair. For example, an expired public key
certificate, which depends on a public key pair, may cause browsers
to flag access to a website as insecure. Secret keys should be stored
with the highest security, and public key pairs should be managed to
avoid compromise or issues related to key pair expiration.
Advantages of private encryption keys
Private key encryption provides several useful features. They include the
following four benefits:
1. More secure. Private keys that are longer and have greater entropy,
or randomness, are more secure from brute-force or dictionary
attacks.
2. Faster. Symmetric key encryption is faster computationally than
asymmetric encryption with its public-private key pairs.
3. Best for encryption. Most cryptographic processes use private key
encryption to encrypt data transmissions. They typically use a public
key algorithm to securely share secret keys.
4. Work for stream and block ciphers. Secret key ciphers -- the
algorithm for encrypting and decrypting data -- generally fall into
one of two categories: stream ciphers or block ciphers. A block
cipher applies a private key and algorithm to a block of data
simultaneously, whereas a stream cipher applies the key and
algorithm one bit at a time.
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Private keys vs. public keys Public Key Infrastructure
Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public key cryptography, uses

pairs of public and private keys. These two different but mathematically
linked keys are used to transform plaintext into encrypted ciphertext or
encrypted text back to plaintext.
When the public key is used to encrypt ciphertext, that text can only be
decrypted using the private key. This approach enables anyone with access
to the public key to encrypt a message, and only the private key holder
will be able to decrypt it.
Two keys, public and private, are required to encrypt and decrypt a
ciphertext encrypted with a public key algorithm. Symmetric encryption
uses a single secret key.
When the private key is used to encrypt ciphertext, that text can be
decrypted using the public key. That ciphertext can be a component of a
digital signature and used to authenticate the signature. Only the holder of
the private key could have encrypted ciphertext, so if the related public
key successfully decrypts it, the digital signature is verified.
The public key is made available to everyone that needs it in a publicly
accessible repository. The private key is confidential and should only be
accessible to the public key pair owner. In this method, whatever is
encrypted with the public key requires the related private key for
decryption and vice versa. Public key encryption is typically used for
securing communication channels, such as email.
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Information Security 7.3 PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY STANDARDS (PKCS)
Public Key Cryptography

Unlike symmetric key cryptography, we do not find historical use of
public-key cryptography. It is a relatively new concept. Symmetric
cryptography was well suited for organizations such as governments,
military, and big financial corporations were involved in the classified
communication. With the spread of more unsecure computer networks in
last few decades, a genuine need was felt to use cryptography at larger
scale. The symmetric key was found to be non-practical due to challenges
it faced for key management. This gave rise to the public key
cryptosystems.
Public key cryptography standards (PKCS) are a group of specifications

developed with the aim of accelerating the deployment of algorithms
featuring two separate keys - one private and one public. PKCS were first
developed by RSA Laboratories with the cooperation of security
developers from around the world.
The first published release of PKCS was in 1991 as a result of the
cooperation of early adaptors. The standards promote the use of
cryptography techniques such as the RSA algorithm and the Schnorr
signature. PKCS are a group of non-vendor dependent standards that are
aimed to foster better secure communications through the use of extensive
cryptography.
PKCS did not become industry standards initially because RSA retained
control over them, but many of the standards were adapted by other
working groups.
The standards were developed by RSA with the cooperation of industry
partners which included Apple, Microsoft, Lotus, Sun, DEC and MIT.
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PKCS stands for public-key cryptography standard, is a model developed Public Key Infrastructure
by RSA laboratories in early 1990, design to standardize the public key
infrastructure. Public Key Cryptography Standard provides a total of 15
standards named as a number like PKCS#1, PKCS#2, PKCS#3, …..
PKCS#15.
7.3.1 List of Public Key Cryptography Standards
There is a total of 15 Public Key cryptography standards. Let’s discuss
those Public Key cryptography standards one by one.
PKCS #1
The main purpose of this standard is the RSA encryption standard. This
standard defines the basic rules for RSA Public Key functions, more
specifically, the digital certificates. This standard also defines the syntax
for the RSA private and Public Keys, which helps to choose and calculate
the RSA algorithm’s key pair. It also defines how digital certificates
should be calculated, how the structure of the data should be signed, the
format of the digital signature.
PKCS #2
The main purpose of this standard is the RSA encryption standard for
message digest. This standard defines the calculation for message digest.
Now PKCS#2 is merged with PKCS#1. As it merges with standard 1, it
does not have an independent existence.
PKCS #3
The main purpose of this standard is the Diffie-Hellman key agreement
standard. This standard defines the mechanism to implement the Diffie
Hellman key agreement protocol.
PKCS #4
This Public Key cryptography standard also merged with PKCS#1, so it
also does not have an independent existence.
PKCS #5
The main purpose of this standard is password-based encryption. It defines
the method for encrypting an octet string using a symmetric key which is
derived from the password.
PKCS #6
The main purpose of this standard is the extended certificate syntax
standard. It defines the syntax for extending the attributes of the X.509
digital certificate.
PKCS #7
The main purpose of this standard is the cryptographic message syntax
standard. It defines the syntax for the data, which is the resultant form of
cryptographic operations, for example, digital signature and digital
envelopes. This standard also provides various formatting options like
messages that are only enveloped, only signed, signed.
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Information Security PKCS #8
The main purpose of this standard is the private key information standard.
It defines the syntax for private-key information. In other words, we can
say that it defines the algorithms and attributes that are being used to
generate the private key.
PKCS #9
The main purpose of this standard is to select attribute types. It defines the
selected attribute types that are used in PKCS#6 extended certificates. For
example, email address, unstructured address, and name.
PKCS #10
The main purpose of this standard is the certificate request syntax
standard. It defines the syntax yo request the digital certificate. The
certificate request contains a Distinguished name and Public Key.
PKCS #11
The main purpose of this standard is the cryptographic token interface
standard. This standard is also known for Cryptok. It defines API for
single-user user devices that contain information about cryptography, such
as digital certificates and Public Key. These devices can perform
cryptographic functions. For example, smart cards.
PKCS #12
The main purpose of this standard is personal information exchange
syntax. It defines the syntax for personal identification such as digital
certificates, private keys, etc. In words, we can say that this standard
allows users to transfer their data from one device to another using the
standard mechanism.
PKCS #13
The main purpose of this standard is the elliptic curve cryptography
standard. This standard is used to deal with a new upcoming cryptographic
mechanism called elliptic curve cryptography.
PKCS #14
The main purpose of this standard is the pseudo-random number
generation standard. This standard defines the requirements and processes
for random number generation. As random number generation is
extremely used in cryptography, standardizing their generation becomes
so much important.
PKCS #15
The main purpose of this standard is the cryptographic token information
syntax standard. This standard defines the tokes that are used in the
cryptographic process so that they can interoperate.
7.4 DIGITAL CERTIFICATE CREATION STEPS
The steps required to create a digital certificate involves three parties first
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authority. The end user request for a digital certificate and the request goes Public Key Infrastructure
to the registration authority(RA) which then assist the certificate
authority(CA) to create the digital certificate. Registration authority act as
a intermediate between end user and the certificate authority. It also assist
in day to day task of certificate authority.
Services of Registration Authority:
• Accepting and verifying the details of new user’s registration.

• User key generation.
• Backups and recovery of key.
• Certificate cancellation.
Steps for Digital Certificate Creation:

Step-1: Key generation is done by either user or registration authority.
The public key which is generated is sent to the registration authority and
private key is kept secret by user.
Step-2: In the next step the registration authority registers the user.
Step-3: Next step is verification which is done by registration authority in
which the user’s credentials are being verified by registration authority. It
also checks that the user who send the public key have corresponding
private key or not.
Step-4: In this step the details and sent to certificate authority by
registration authority who creates the digital certificate and give it to users
and also keeps a copy to itself.
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Information Security 7.5 X.509 CERTIFICATE
An X.509 certificate is a digital certificate based on the widely

accepted International Telecommunications Union (ITU) X.509 standard,
which defines the format of public key infrastructure (PKI) certificates.
They are used to manage identity and security in internet communications
and computer networking. They are unobtrusive and ubiquitous, and we
encounter them every day when using websites, mobile apps, online
documents, and connected devices.
Secure Messaging & Web Browsing
One of the structural strengths of the X.509 certificate is that it is
architected using a key pair consisting of a related public key and a private
key. Applied to cryptography, the public and private key pair is used to
encrypt and decrypt a message, ensuring both the identity of the sender
and the security of the message itself. The most common use case of
X.509-based PKI is Transport Layer Security (TLS)/Secure Socket Layer
(SSL), which is the basis of the HTTPS protocol, which enables secure
web browsing. But the X.509 protocol is also applied to code signing
for application security, digital signatures, and other critical internet
protocols.
Version History
The first version of the X.509 standard was published back in 1988.
Looking to formalize the rules for certificate issuance, the
Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the ITU (ITU-T) developed
a hierarchical system for distinguished names that followed the electronic
directory service rules for X.500 and was inspired by the systems used to
assign telephone numbers globally but applied to the more flexible
organizational requirements of the Internet.
In 1996, version 3 of the standard provided a major update with the
addition of multiple extensions that are still used today to support the
expansion and new applications of internet use.
Now version 9 is the current version of the standard, having been defined
in October 2019.
Additionally, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) public-key
infrastructure working group, known as PKIX, adapted the X.509 v3
certificate standard in the development of its own Internet X.509 Public
Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL)
Profile standard (RFC 5280).
The Benefits of X.509 Certificates
Trust - Digital certificates allow individuals, organizations, and even
devices to establish trust in the digital world. As the foundation for all
digital identities, X.509 certificates are everywhere and are essential to
every connected process from websites to applications to endpoint devices
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and online documents. For example, without these, we wouldn't be able to Public Key Infrastructure
trust that www.amazon.com is actually Amazon's website.
This level of trust is established both by how X.509 certificates work and
by how they are issued. The key usage architecture lets certificates verify
that:
A public key belongs to the hostname/domain, organization, or individual
contained within the certificate
It has been signed by a publicly trusted issuer Certificate Authority (CA),
like Sectigo, or self-signed.
When a certificate is signed by a trusted CA, the certificate user can be
confident that the certificate owner or hostname/domain has been
validated, while self-signed certificates can be trusted to a lesser extent as
the owner doesn't go through any additional validation before issuance.
Scalability - An additional benefit of this certificate-based approach to
identity is scalability. The PKI architecture is so scalable that it can secure
billions of messages exchanged daily by organizations over their own
networks and across the internet. What enables this is that public keys can
be distributed widely and openly without malicious actors being able to
discover the private key required to decrypt the message.
How Do X.509 Certificates Work?
The X.509 standard is based on an interface description language known
as Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), which defines data structures
that can be serialized and deserialized in a cross-platform way. Leveraging
ASN, the X.509 certificate format uses a related public and private key
pair to encrypt and decrypt a message.
The Basis of Public Key Infrastructure
The public key is comprised of a string of random numbers and can be
used to encrypt a message. Only the intended recipient can decipher and
read this encrypted message and it can only be deciphered and read by
using the associated private key, which is also made of a long string of
random numbers. This private key is secret and is known only to the
recipient. As the public key is published for all the world to see, public
keys are created using a complex cryptographic algorithm to pair them
with an associated private key by generating random numeric
combinations of varying lengths so that they cannot be exploited through a
brute force attack. The most common algorithms used to generate public
keys are:
Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA)
Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
Digital signature algorithm (DSA)
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Information Security The key size or bit length of public keys determines the strength of
protection. For example, 2048-bit RSA keys are often employed in SSL
certs, digital signatures, and other digital certificates. This key length
offers sufficient cryptographic security to keep hackers from cracking the
algorithm. Standards organizations like the CA/Browser Forum define
baseline requirements for supported key sizes.
Figure: X.509 certificates use a related public and private key pair for
identity authentication and security for internet communications and
computer networking
Issuance Fields
X.509 certificate fields contain information about the identity that the
certificate is issued to as well as the identity of the issuer CA. The
standard fields include:
Version – the X.509 version that applies to the certificate
Serial number – the unique serial number identifier provided by the CA
that distinguishes the certificate from others
Algorithm information – the cryptographic algorithm used by the issuer
to sign the certificate
Issuer distinguished name – the name of the CA issuing the certificate
Validity period of the certificate – the start/end date and time it's valid
and can be trusted
Subject distinguished name – the name of the identity the certificate is
issued to
Subject public key information – the public key associated with the
identity
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Public Key Infrastructure
Figure: Standard certificate information fields displayed in TLS/SSL

certificates
Common Digital Certificate Extensions
In addition to its standard information fields, the X.509 version 3 defined
multiple extensions aimed at supporting expanded ways client applications
can use the internet. Two common X.509 certificate extensions in use
today are Subject Alternative Name and Key Usage.
The Subject Alternative Name extension allows other identities to also
be associated with a certificate's public key. This could include other
domains, DNS names, email addresses, and IP addresses. Based on this
extension, multiple-domain certificates offered by CAs are frequently
referred to as SAN certificates.
Key Usage limits the use of the keys to particular purposes such as
"signing-only."
Digital Certificates Apply Hierarchical Trust Chains
To further establish the trust of an identity, multiple digital certificates are
often combined to build a hierarchical chain of trust that provides a series
of verification layers. As previously mentioned, each must be signed by an
issuer CA as part of the X.509 verification process. The CA is named and
stored in the root of the certificate. Additional intermediate certificates can
be included in the trust chain and must be validated.
For example, when a web browser client reads the certificate, it must be
able to follow the hierarchical path of certification including any
intermediates required for validation that are recursively linked back to the
root CA listed in the client's trust store, resulting in a complete chain of
trust.
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Figure: SSL/TLS certificates often combine intermediate certificates to

create a hierarchical trust chain
Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs)
The X.509 standard also defines the use of a certificate revocation list,
which identifies all of the digital certificates that have been revoked by the
issuing CA prior to the scheduled expiration date.
These revoked certificates should no longer be trusted.
CRLs offer a simple way to distribute information about these invalid
certificates. However, their use is increasingly deprecated by popular web
browsers and clients in favor of the Online Certificate Status Protocol
(OCSP) and OCSP stapling, which offer complete revocation features.
PKI Certificate Encoding
One notable element not defined in the X.509 standard is how the
certificate contents should be encoded to be stored in files.
However, there are two encoding schemas commonly used to store digital
certificates in files:
Distinguished Encoding Rules (DER) - most common, as the schema
addresses most data objects. Certificates encoded by DER are binary files
and cannot be read by text editors but can be processed by web browsers
and many client applications.
Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM) is an encrypted email encoding schema
that can be used to convert DER-encoded certificates into text files.
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Common Applications of X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Public Key Infrastructure
Many internet protocols rely on X.509, and there are many applications of
the PKI technology that are used every day, including Web server
security, digital signatures and document signing, and digital identities.
Web Server Security with TLS/SSL Certificates
PKI is the basis for the secure sockets layer (SSL) and transport layer
security (TLS) protocols that are the foundation of HTTPS secure browser
connections. Without SSL certificates or TLS to establish secure
connections, cybercriminals could exploit the Internet or other IP networks
using a variety of attack vectors, such as man-in-the-middle attacks, to
intercept messages and access their contents.
Digital Signatures and Document Signing
In addition to being used to secure messages, PKI-based certificates can be
used for digital signatures and document signing.
Digital signatures are a specific type of electronic signature that leverages
PKI to authenticate the identity of the signer and the integrity of the
signature and the document. Digital signatures cannot be altered or
duplicated in any way, as the signature is created by generating a hash,
which is encrypted using a sender's private key. This cryptographic
verification mathematically binds the signature to the original message to
ensure that the sender is authenticated and the message itself has not been
altered.
Code Signing
Code signing enables application developers to add a layer of assurance by
digitally signing applications, drivers, and software programs so that end
users can verify that a third party has not altered or compromised the code
they receive. To verify the code is safe and trusted, these digital
certificates include the software developer's signature, the company name,
and timestamping.
Email Certificates
S/MIME certificates validate email senders and encrypt email contents to
protect against increasingly sophisticated social engineering and spear
phishing attacks. By encrypting/decrypting email messages and
attachments and by validating identity, S/MIME email certificates assure
users that emails are authentic and unmodified.
SSH Keys
SSH keys are a form of X.509 certificate that provides a secure access
credential used in the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol. As the SSH protocol is
widely used for communication in cloud services, network environments,
file transfer tools, and configuration management tools, most
organizations use SSH keys to authenticate identity and protect those
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Information Security services from unintended use or malicious attacks. SSH keys not only
improve security, but also enable the automation of connected processes,
single sign-on (SSO), and identity and access management at the scale that
today's businesses require.
Digital Identities
X.509 digital certificates also provide effective digital identity
authentication. As data and applications expand beyond traditional
networks to mobile devices, public clouds, private clouds, and Internet of
Things devices, securing identities becomes more important than ever.
And digital identities don't have to be restricted to devices; they can also
be used to authenticate people, data, or applications. Digital identity
certificates based on this standard enable organizations to improve
security by replacing passwords, which attackers have become
increasingly adept at stealing.
How Do I Get an X.509 Certificate?
A critical component of deploying X.509 certificates is a trusted
certification authority or agent to issue certificates and publish the public
keys associated with individuals' private keys. Without this trusted CA, it
would be impossible for senders to know they are in fact, using the correct
public key associated with the recipient's private key and not the key
associated with a malicious actor intending to intercept sensitive
information and use it for nefarious purposes.
Trusted, third-party CAs like Sectigo act as certificate authorities, but
many enterprises and technology providers also choose to act as their own
CA. They may also decide to use self-signed certificates. Either way, the
certificate authority must be trusted to check and vouch for the identity of
all senders whose public keys they publish, ensure that those public keys
are indeed associated with the private keys of the senders, and safeguard
the levels of information security within their own organization to guard
against malicious attack.
Managing X.509 Certificates
One of the most critical aspects of x.509 certificates is effectively
managing these certificates at scale using automation. Without great
people, processes, and technology in place, companies are leaving
themselves open to security breaches, outages, damage to their brand, and
critical infrastructure failures. Discover how Sectigo Certificate
Manager(SCM) allows you to easily manage the lifecycles of public and
private digital certificates to secure every human and machine identity
across the enterprise, all from a single platform.
7.6 CERTIFICATE REVOCATION
Certificate revocation is the act of invalidating a TLS/SSL before its

scheduled expiration date. A certificate should be revoked immediately
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when its private key shows signs of being compromised. It should also be Public Key Infrastructure
revoked when the domain for which it was issued is no longer operational.
Certificates that are revoked are stored on a list by the CA, called the
Certificate Revocation List(CRL). When a client attempts to initiate a
connection with a server, it checks for problems in the certificate, and part
of this check is to ensure that the certificate is not on the CRL. The CRL
contains the certificates’ serial number and the revocation time.
CRLs may be exhaustive, and the client that conducts the check has to
parse the whole list to find (or not find) the requested site’s certificate.
This results in a lot of overhead, and sometimes, a certificate could be
revoked within that interval. In such a scenario the client might
unknowingly accept the revoked certificate.
A more recent and sophisticated method of detecting revoked certificates
is the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP). Here, instead of
downloading and parsing the entire CRL, the client can send the certificate
in question to the CA. The CA then returns the status of the certificate as
“good,” “revoked,” or “unknown.” This method involves far less overhead
than CRL and is also more reliable.
The CRL file is signed by the CA to prevent tampering.
What is a digital certificate?
Digital certificates are used in the encryption process to secure
communications and create trust in online transactions -- most often, by
using the Transport Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer (TLS/SSL)
protocol. The certificate, which is signed by the issuing CA, also provides
proof of the certificate owner's identity.
When a web browser connects to a site using TLS, its digital certificate is
checked for anomalies or problems. Part of this process involves checking
that the certificate is not listed in a CRL.
These checks are crucial for certificate-based transactions because they
allow a user to verify the identity of the site owner and discover if the
digital certificate is trustworthy.
What is a certificate revocation list?
A certificate revocation list (CRL) is a list of digital certificates that have
been revoked by the issuing certificate authority (CA) before their actual
or assigned expiration date.
It is a type of blocklist that includes certificates that should no longer be
trusted and is used by various endpoints, including web browsers, to verify
if a certificate is valid and trustworthy.

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8
INTEGRITY
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Message Integrity
8.2 Hash Function Properties
8.3 MAC
8.4 HMAC
8.5 MD5
8.6 SHA-512
8.7 Summary
8.8 Multiple Choice Question Answers
8.9 True or False
8.10 Sample Questions
8.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this module is to learn the concept of Message Integrity.

What are the properties of Hash Functions? Cryptographic hash functions
that are used to create a message digest from a message. Message digest
guarantee the integrity of the message. After that we will also study
variation of this, called as MAC and HMAC. Then we will start discussing
the different message digest algorithm algorithms such as MD5, SHA-512.
8.1 MESSAGE INTEGRITY
As we know the three primary security goals are confidentiality, integrity,

and availability. There are some situations in which we may not need
confidentiality but integrity is a must. Message/data integrity means that a
message/data has not been tampered with or altered. This means we can
say that message is protected from unauthorized change.
Consider an example, Leena may write a will to distribute her estate upon
her death. There is no need to encrypt the will because after her death
anyone can examine the will. So, the integrity of the will needs to be
preserved so that the contents of the will are not to be changed.
One way to preserve the integrity of her document is through the use of a
fingerprint. If Leena needs to be sure the content of her document will not
be changed, she can put her fingerprint at the bottom of the document. The
third person (attacker) cannot modify the contents of the document or
create a false document because he cannot forge Leena’s fingerprint. To
ensure that the document has not been changed, Leena’s fingerprint on the
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document can be compared with Leena’s fingerprint on file. If they are not Integrity
the same, the document is not from Leena.
A variety of mechanisms are used to assure the integrity of a data unit or
stream of data units. The most common approach is to use a hash function
that combines all the bytes in the message with a secret key and produces
a message digest that is difficult to reverse. When a message is passed
through such hash function, it produces compressed image of the message
that can be used as a fingerprint called as a message digest or message
detection code (MDC). A modification detection code (MDC) is a
message digest that can prove the integrity of the message: that message
has not been changed.
A hash function H accepts a variable-length block of data M as input and
produces a fixed-size hash value D = H (M).
Fig. 8.1.1 Message and Digest

The two pairs (document/fingerprint) and (message/ message digest) are
similar, with some differences:
• The (document/fingerprint) are physically linked together.

• (message/message digest) can be unlinked and sent separately
And the most important point is, message digest needs to be safe from any
change.
The general idea to check the integrity of the message is as shown in Fig.
8.3.1.2. At the sender side while transmitting the message the initial
message digest is calculated by applying the cryptographic hash function
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Information Security and it’s appended at the end of the message. And message along with
message digest sent to the receiver. Here to check the integrity of the
message, the receiver runs the cryptographic hash function again on the
received message and compares the new message digest with the previous
one. If both are the same, we are sure that the original message has not
been changed.
Fig. 8.1.2 Integrity Checking
8.2 HASH FUNCTION PROPERTIES
A hash function is a mathematical function that converts a numerical input

value into another compressed numerical value. The hash function takes
the message as input and returns a unique, short, and random-looking
output.
For secure cryptographic hash function:
• Practically impossible to find the original input given the hash value
• Practically impossible to find two inputs that produce the same hash
value
A hash function is an algorithm that usually takes any sized input, like a
message or a file, and produces a short random output, the hash value. If
you apply the hash function on the same input, we will always get the
same hash value as the output. If we apply the hash function on two
different inputs, we will get two different hash values as output.
Applications of Hash Function
• Message authentication
• Digital signatures
• Storing passwords
• Signatures of data for malicious behavior detection (e.g. virus,
intrusion)
• Generating pseudorandom number
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Properties of cryptographic hash functions: Integrity
1. Pre-image Resistant Property(One-wayness):

For any given h (hash value), it is computationally infeasible to find
m (message) such that H (m) = h. It is called a one-way property. In
short, it is hard to find the original input message given the output
hash value.
2. Second Pre-image Resistant Property (Weak Collision
Resistance):
For any given m1, it is computationally infeasible to find m2≠m1
with H (m2) = H (m1). It is also called a weak collision-resistant
property. To break this property, the attacker is trying to find a
collision. That is two input messages m1and m2 that produce the
same output hash value. Importantly, the attacker cannot choose m1.
They are given m1 and must find a different message m2 that
produces a collision.
3. Collision Resistant Property (Strong Collision Resistance):
It is infeasible to find any pair (m1, m2) such that H (m1) = H (m2).
It is also called a strong collision-resistant property. The attacker
tried to find a collision, to break this property. However in this case
the attacker has the freedom to find any messages m1 and m2 that
produce a collision. Because of this freedom, it makes it easier for
the attacker to perform an attack against this property than against
the Second Pre-image Resistant property.
The basic requirements for a cryptographic hash function are:
1. The input of the hash function can be of any length.
2. The output of the hash function has a fixed length.
3. H (m) is relatively easy to compute for any given m.
4. H (m) is one-way.
5. H (m) is collision-free.
8.3 MESSAGE AUTHENTICATION CODE (MAC)
Message Authentication Code (MAC) is a tag attached to a message which

is used to ensure the integrity and authenticity of the message. In short,
MAC is a piece of information that can be used to authenticate a message.
MAC is similar to a message digest with one difference. A message digest
is simply a fingerprint of a message; no cryptographic process is involved
in the case of message digests. In contrast, a MAC requires that the sender
and the receiver should know a shared symmetric (secret) key, which is
used in the creation of the MAC. Thus, MAC involves cryptographic
processing. MAC is sometimes also called a keyed hash.
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Information Security MAC processing works are shown in Fig. 8.3.1.
Let us assume that sender A wants to send a message M to receiver B.
Fig 8.3.1 Message Authentication Code

1. sender A and receiver B share a secret key K, which is known by
only A and B. Sender A calculate the MAC by applying key K and
message M to the MAC algorithm.
2. Sender A then sends the original message M and the MAC H1 to
receiver B.
3. When receiver B receives the message, B also uses K to calculate its
own MAC H2 over M.
4. Receiver B now compares received H1 with computed H2. If the
two match, receiver B concludes that message M has not been
changed during transit. If H1 ≠ H2 then receiver B rejects the
message, realizing that the message was changed during transit.
The importance of a MAC is as follows:
1. The MAC assures that message is not altered by the receiver (B),
because if an attacker alters the message but does not alter the MAC
then the receiver’s calculation of the MAC will differ from it. There
is no chance to alter the MAC by attackers since the key used in the
calculation of the MAC is assumed to be known only to sender A
and receiver B. As the attackers do not know the key, K and
therefore, they cannot alter the MAC.
2. The receiver B is assured that the message indeed came from the
correct sender A. Since only sender A and receiver B know the
secret key, no one else could have calculated the MAC sent by
sender A.
Though the calculation of the MAC is quite similar to an encryption
process, in symmetric key cryptography the cryptographic process must be
reversible. This Means the sender performs encryption and the receiver
performs decryption. But in the case of MAC, both the sender and the
receiver are performing the encryption process only. Thus, a MAC
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algorithm need not be reversible – it is sufficient to be a one-way function Integrity
(encryption) only.
Limitations of a MAC are as follows:
1. MAC does not provide Non-Repudiation. Non-repudiation is the
assurance that a message originator cannot deny any previously sent
messages and actions or commitments.
2. MAC can provide message authentication among pre-decided
legitimate users who have shared key. This requires establishment of
shared prior to use the MAC.
8.4 HASH-BASED MESSAGE AUTHENTICATION

CODE (HMAC)
A Hash-based Message Authentication Code (HMAC) is a nested MAC

that includes a cryptographic hash function and a secret key in deriving the
message authentication code (MAC). Like any of the MAC, it is used for
both data integrity and data origin authentication of the message. The idea
behind HMAC is to reuse the existing message digest algorithms such as
MD5, SHA-1, and SHA-256. This means it treats the message digest as a
black box. It also uses the shared symmetric key to encrypt the message
digest, which produces the output MAC. This is shown in Fig. 8.4.1
Fig. 8.4.1 HMAC concept

FTPS, SFTP, HTTPS, and other transfer protocols use HMAC. HMAC
has been chosen as a mandatory security implementation for the Internet
Protocol (IP) security and also used in the Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
protocol, widely used on the Internet.
Internal working of HMAC:

Various variables that will be used in our HMAC discussion are as
follows:
MD = Message digest/hash function used (e.g. MD5, SHA-1, etc.)
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Information Security M = Input message whose MAC is to be calculated
L = Number of blocks in the message M
b = number of bits in each block
K =Shared symmetric key to be used in HMAC
ipad = A string 00110110 (36 in hexadecimal) repeated b/8 times
opad = A string 01011010 (5C in hexadecimal) repeated b/8 times
Now we will use a step-by-step approach to understand the HMAC
operation.
Step 1: Make the length of the Shared symmetric key (K) equal to b
There are three cases, depending on the length of the key K:
Case 1: Length of K < b
Here we have to expand the key (K) to make the length of K equal to the
number of bits in the original message block (i.e. b). For this, we add have
to as many 0 bits as required to the left of K.
For example,
if the initial length of K = 150 bits and b = 512 bits, then we have to add
362 bits, all with a value 0, to the left of K.
Case 2: Length of K = b
Here we do not require taking any action and directly proceeding to Step
2.
Case 3: Length of K > b
Here we need to trim (reduce length) K to make the length of K equal to
the number of bits in the original message block. For this, we pass K
through the message digest algorithm (H) selected for this particular
instance of HMAC, which will give us a key K, trimmed so that its length
is equal to b. This is shown in 8.4.2
For this, we give K as input to the message digest algorithm (H) which
will give us a trimmed key K, so that its length is equal to b.
Fig. 8.4.2 Step 1 of HMAC

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Integrity
Step 2: XOR K with ipad to produce S1

In this step, we XOR K (the output of Step 1) and ipad to produce a
variable called S1. This is shown in Fig. 8.3.4.3

Step 3: Append M to S1
In this step, we now take the original message (M) and simply append it to
the end of S1. This is shown in Fig. 8.3.4.4

Step 4: Message digest algorithm
In this step, the selected message-digest algorithm (e.g. SHA-1, MD5 etc)
is applied to the output of Step 3 (i.e. to the combination of S1 and M). Let
us call the output of this operation H. This is shown in Fig. 8.3.4.5

Step 5: XOR K with opad to produce S2
Now, we XOR K (the output of Step 1) with opad to produce a
variable called S2. This is shown in Fig. 8.3.4.6
117

Step 6: Append H to S2
In this step, we take the message digest calculated in step 4 (i.e. H) and
simply append it to the end of S2. This is shown in Fig. 8.3.4.7

Step 7: Message digest algorithm
In this step, the selected message-digest algorithm (e.g. MD5, SHA-1, etc)
is applied to the output of Step 6 (i.e. to the concatenation of S2 and H).
This is the final MAC that we want. This is shown in Fig. 8.3.4.8
118
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Integrity
Fig. 8.4.9 Complete HMAC operation

Advantage of HMAC:
• As it uses the hashing concept twice, it is a great resistance towards

cryptanalysis attacks
• HMAC consists of twin benefits of Hashing and MAC and thus is
more secure than any other authentication code
• Due to the use of hash functions, HMACs are considered to be good
high-performance systems.
The Disadvantage of HMAC:
• The main issue is with key exchange
• Since it uses a symmetric key for encryption of message digest, the
problem of key distribution is there.
• Somehow the key-exchange problem is resolved; HMAC cannot be
used if the number of receivers is greater than one.
• If multiple parties share the same symmetric key. How does a
receiver know that the message was prepared and sent by the sender.
• There is also a need for periodic refreshments of keys.
• A replay of the message.
• Lack of authentication is one of the problems.
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Information Security 8.5 MD 5
Ron Rivest developed an MD5 (Message Digest 5) cryptographic hash

algorithm. MD5 is quite fast and produces 128-bit message digests from a
string of any length.
MD5 is the third message-digest algorithm created by Rivest. MD2, MD4,
and MD5 have similar structures, but MD2 was found to be quite weak so
he began working on MD3, which failed (so never released). Then Rivest
Developed MD4. The MD5 algorithm is an extension of MD4, which the
critical review found to be fast but potentially insecure. In comparison,
MD5 is not quite as fast as the MD4 algorithm but offered much more
assurance of data security. Over the years, researchers have developed
potential weaknesses in MD5.
MD5 processes input text in 512-bit blocks which are further divided into
16 32-bit sub-blocks. The output of the algorithm is a set of four 32-bit
blocks, which make up the 128-bit message digest.
The digest size is always 128 bits. If there is a minor change in the input
string, then it generates a drastically different digest. This is essential to
prevent similar hash generation as much as possible, also known as a hash
collision.
Working of MD5 Algorithm:
Step 1: Padding Bits
In the MD5 algorithm, the first step is to add padding bits to the original
message. The aim is here to make the length of the original message equal
to a value, which is 64 bits less than an exact multiple of 512.
For example, if the length of the original message is 1200 bits, we add
padding of 272 bits to make the length of the message 1472 bits.
This is because, if we add 64 to 1472, we get 1536, which is a multiple of
512 (because 1536 = 512 * 3).
120
120 Figure 8.5.1 Padding Bits
Step 2: Append length Integrity
The next step is to calculate the length of the original message and add it
to the end of the message, after padding. The length of the message is
calculated; excluding the padding bits (i.e. it is the length original
message).
For example, if the original message consisted of 1200 bits and we added
a padding of 272 bits to make the length of the message 64 bits less than
1536 (a multiple of 512), the length is considered as 1200 and not 1472 for
this step. This length of the original message is now expressed as a 64-bit
value and these 64 bits are appended to the end of the original message +
padding.
This is shown in Fig. 8.3.5.2
Fig 8.5.2 Append length

Note that if the length of the message exceeds 264 bits then, we use only
the low-order 64 bits of the length. The length of the message is now an
exact multiple of 512. This now becomes the message whose digest will
be calculated.
Step 3: Divide the input into 512-bit blocks
In this step, the input message is divided into blocks, each of length 512
bits.
This is shown in Fig. 8.5.3
Fig. 8.5.3 Data divided into 512-bit blocks

121
Information Security Step 4: Initialize chaining variables
Here four variables also called chaining variables are initialized. They
are denoted as A, B, C, and D. Each of these is a 32-bit number. The
initial hexadecimal values of these chaining variables are shown in Fig.
8.5.4
Fig. 8.5.4 Chaining variables

Step 5: Process Each block
After all the initializations, the real algorithm begins. It is quite
complicated and we shall now we will discuss it step-by-step. There is a
loop that runs for as many 512-bit blocks as are in the message.
Step 5.1: Initially the four chaining variables are copied into four
corresponding variables, a, b, c and d (note the smaller case). Means, we
have now have a = A, b = B, c = C and d = D.
This is shown in Fig. 8.5.5.
Fig. 8.5.5 Copying chaining variables into temporary variables

The algorithm considers the combination of a, b, c, and d as a 128-bit
single register (which we shall call abcd). This register (abcd) is useful in
the actual algorithm operation for holding final as well as intermediate
results. This is shown in Fig. 8.5.6
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122
Integrity
Fig. 8.5.6 Abstracted view of the chaining variables
Step 5.2: Current 512-bit block is divided into 16 sub-blocks. Thus, each
sub-block contains now 32 bits, as shown in Fig. 8.5.7
Fig. 8.5.7 Sub-blocks within a block

Step 5.3: Now, we have four rounds. In each round, we process all the 16
sub-blocks belonging to a block. The inputs to each round are:
(a) All the 16 sub-blocks
(b) The variables a, b, c, d
(c) Some constants, designated as t.
Fig. 8.5.8 Conceptual process within a round

123
Information Security All the four rounds vary in one major way: Step 1 of the four rounds has
different processing. The other steps in all the four rounds are the same.
a) In each round, we have 16 input sub-blocks, named M[0], M[1], …,
M[15] or in general, M[i], where i varies from 0 to 15.
b) Also, it is an array of constants. It contains 64 elements, with each
element consisting of 32 bits. The elements of this array t as t[1],
t[2], … t[64] or in general as t[k], where k varies from 1 to 64. Since
there are four rounds, we use 16 out of the 64 values of t in each
round.
Let us we will summarize iterations of all the four rounds:
In each case, the output of the intermediate as well as the final iteration is
copied into the register abcd. Note that we have 16 such iterations in each
round.
1. A process P is first performed on b, c, and d. This process P is
different in all the four rounds.
2. The variable a is added to the output of the process P (i.e. to the
register abcd).
3. The message sub-block M[i] is added to the output of Step 2 (i.e. to
the register abcd).
4. The constant t[k] is added to the output of Step 3 (i.e. to the register
abcd).
5. The output of Step 4 (i.e. the contents of register abcd) is circular-
left shifted by s bits. (The value of s keeps changing, as we shall
study).
6. The variable b is added to the output of Step 5 (i.e. to the register
abcd).
7. The output of Step 6 becomes the new abcd for the next step.
124
124 Fig 8.5.9 One MD5 operation
We can mathematically express a single MD5 operation as follows: Integrity
a = b + ((a + Process P (b, c, d) + M[i] + T[k]) <<< s)

Table 8.5 Process P in each round
8.6 SHA-512
SHA-512 (Secure Hash Algorithm 512) is just one of several

algorithms in the Secure Hashing Algorithm (SHA) family. In 2001,
SHA-512 was published by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) as a U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard
(FIPS).
SHA-512 is a hashing algorithm which takes a message of length 2128
bits and produces a message digest of length of 512 bits (64 bytes).This
algorithm is commonly used for password hashing, email addresses
hashing and digital record verification. SHA-512 is also used in block
chain technology.
Fig 8.6.1 Structure of SHA-512
SHA-512 steps are as follows to create a message digest:

• Step 1: Append padding bits
• Step 2: Append length
• Step 3: Divide the input into 1024-bit blocks
• Step 4: Initialize hash buffer
• Step 5: Process blocks
125
Information Security Now we will focus on above steps one by one
Step 1: Padding
The message needs to be padded so that its length is congruent to 896
modulo 1024 [length = 896(mod 1024)]. Even if the message is in
desired length already, padding is always added. Thus number of
padding bits is in the range 1 to 1024. It consists of a single 1 bit
followed by necessary no. of 0’s (100000….00).
Step 2: Append length
Here we add 128 bits consisting of the length of the original message
(before padding in Step 1). The length of the message is taken in
hexadecimal format for adding in this 128 bit pad. Thus the length of
the block becomes of length 1024 ( = 896 + 128).
( |M| + |P| + 128 ) = 0 mod 1024 -> |P| = ( - |M| - 128 ) MOD 1024
Fig 8.6.2 Length Field and Padding
Example: What is the number of padding bits if the length of the

original message is 2590 bits?
We can calculate the number of padding bits as follows:
|P| = ( - 2590| - 128 ) MOD 1024= -2718 MOD 1024 =354
The padding consists of one 1 followed by 353 0’s.
Step 3: Divide the input into 1024-bit blocks
The input message is now divided into blocks, each of length 1024 bits.
These blocks become the input to the message digest processing logic.
Step 3: Initialize Hash Buffer

A 512-bit buffer is used to hold intermediate and final results of the
hash function. The buffer can be represented as eight 64-bit registers (a,
b, c, d, e, f, g, h). These registers are initialized to the following 64- bit
integers (hexadecimal values) which were obtained by taking the first
sixty-four bits of the fractional parts of the square roots of the first eight
prime numbers(2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19). These values are called the Initial
Vectors (IV):
126
126
a = 6A09E667F3BCC908 e = 510E527FADE682D1 Integrity
b = BB67AE8584CAA73B d = A54FF53A5F1D36F1
c = 3C6EF372FE94F82B f = 9B05688C2B3E6C1F
g = 1F83D9ABFB41BD6B h = 5BE0CDI9137E2179
Step 5: Process blocks
Now the actual algorithm begins. Here also, the steps are quite similar to
those in MD5. The combination of a-h, called as abcdefgh will be
considered as a single register for storing the temporary intermediate and
final results. Then the current 1024-bit block divided into 16 sub-
blocks, each consisting of 64 bits.
Fig 8.6.3 Message Digest creation using SHA-512
SHA-512 consists of 80 rounds, labeled F in Figure 3.3.6.3. Each round

takes the current 1024-bit block, the register abcdefgh and a constant
K[t] (where t= 0 to 79) as the three input values as shown in Figure
3.3.6.4. It then updates the contents of the register abcdefgh using SHA-
512 algorithm steps. The operation of a single round is as shown in Fig
3.3.6.5.
127
Fig 3.6.4 SHA-512 Round Function
Fig 8.6.5 Single SHA-512 iteration

Each 64-bit word shuffled along one place, and in some cases manipulated
using a series of simple logical functions (ANDs, NOTs, ORs, XORs,
ROTates), in order to provide the avalanche & completeness properties of
the hash function.
Each round consists of the following operations:
Temp1=h+ Ch(e,f,g)+ ∑(ei for i= 1 to 512)+ Wt+ Kt
128
128
Temp2= ∑(ai for i= 1 to 512)+ Maj(a,b,c) Integrity
a = Temp1+Temp2
b=a
c=b
d=c
e=d+Temp1
f=e
g=f
h=g
Where:
t = Round Number
Ch(e,f,g) = (e AND f) XOR (NOT e AND g)
Maj(a,b,c) = (a AND b) XOR (a AND c) XOR (b AND c)
∑(a) = ROTR(a,28) XOR ROTR(a,34) XOR ROTR(a,39)
∑(e) = ROTR(e,14) XOR ROTR(e,18) XOR ROTR(e,41)
ROTR(x) = Circular right shift, i.e. rotation, of the 64-bit array x by the
specified number of bits
+ = addition modulo 2^64
Kt = a 64-bit additive constant
Wt = a 64-bit word derived from the current 512-bit input block.
Six of the eight words of the output of the round function involve simply
permutation (b, c, d, f, g, h) by means of rotation. This is indicated by
shading in Figure 3.3.6.5 Only two of the output words (a, e) are generated
by substitution. Word e is a function of input variables d, e, f, g, h, as well
as the round word Wt and the constant Kt. Word a is a function of all of
the input variables, as well as the round word Wt and the constant Kt.
Calculation of Wt
The 64-bit word values for Wt are derived from 1024 -bit message using
certain mappings. Wt is used in each of the 80 rounds of each block where
t = (0 to 79). Each wt is of length 64 bits.
Wt is calculated as follows:
• First 16 Wt’s (0 to 15) are taken as it is from the message (16 x

64=1024).
• The remaining values are defined as a function of the earlier values
using ROTates, SHIFTs and XORs as shown in Fig. 3.3.6.6.
Rest of the Wt’s are calculated using the formula –
Wt= ∂1(x) [W (t-2)] + W (t-7) + ∂0(x) [W (t-15)] + W (t- 16).
Where, ∂0(x) = ROTR(x, 1) XOR ROTR(x, 8) XOR SHR(x, 7)
∂1(x) = ROTR(x, 19) XOR ROTR(x, 61) XOR SHR(x, 6).
129
Fig. 8.6.6 Creation of 80 word input sequence for SHA-512 Processing

of Single Block
8.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter we studied the concept message integrity and message

digest, the requirements of cryptographic hash functions, the properties of
hash function, and discussed the concept of MAC and HMAC. HMAC is a
message digest that involves encryption. Here we also discussed MD5 and
SHA-512. MD5 is considered to be vulnerable to attacks now. And SHA-
512 is the latest algorithm in SHA family.
8.8 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUSETION ANSWERS
i. Message authentication code is also known as _______

a) key code
b) hash code
c) keyed hash function
d) message key hash function
Ans : c
ii. In SHA-512, the message is divided into blocks of size ___ bits for
the hash computation.
a) 1024
b) 512
c) 256
d) 1248
Ans : a
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130
iii. Which attack requires the least effort/computations? Integrity
a) Pre-image
b) Second Pre-image
c) Collision
d) All required the same effort
Ans : c
iv. The _______ criterion states that it must be extremely difficult or
impossible to create the message if the message digest is given.
a) one-wayness
b) weak-collision-resistance
c) strong-collision-resistance
d) none of the above
Ans : a
v. MD5 produces________ bits hash data.
a. 112
b. 128
c. 150
d. 160
Ans : b
8.9 TRUE OR FALSE
i. A collision occurs if we have x=y and H(x) = H(y). --- False
ii. SHA-512 produces a hash value of 512 bits. ---True

iii. A function that is second pre-image resistant is also collision
resistant. ---False
iv. The output of MD5 is 32 hexa digest characters. ----True
8.10 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. What are the requirements of the cryptographic hash functions?

2. Compare and contrast HMAC and CMAC.
3. Explain steps in MD5 algorithm.
4. Explain steps in SHA-512 algorithm
131
Information Security 8.11 LIST OF REFERENCES
1. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/cryptography/
cryptography_hash_functions.htm
2. https://medium.com/@zaid960928/cryptography-explaining-sha-
512-ad896365a0c1
3. https://sandilands.info/crypto/HashFunctionsandMACs.html#x27-
13300016.3
4. Atul Kahate, “Cryptography and Network Security”, McGraw Hill

William Stallings

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9
INTERNET AND WEB SECURITY
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 An Overview
9.1.1 Internet Security and standards
9.1.2 Web services Security
9.1.3 Challenges of Computer security
9.2 Internet and web security
9.2.1 Web Security
9.2.2 SSL
9.2.3 IPSec
9.2.4 Email Security
9.2.4.1 PGP
9.2.4.2 Email Attacks
9.3 Web app versus Web service concept
9.3.1 Web App
9.3.2 Web service
9.3.3 Web App Vs Web Service
9.4 WS-Security
9.5 SOAP web service
9.6 SAML assertion
9.6.1What Is SAML?
9.6.2 Common Portion of an Assertion
9.6.3 Statements
9.7 Browser Attacks
9.8 Web attacks targeting users
9.9 Obtaining user or website data.
9.10 Summary
9.11 References
9.12 Bibliography
9.0 OBJECTIVES
• Understand the security issues to be solved in the Internet and web

• Gain the knowledge about email security
• Cognize about the working principle and security techniques of web
services
• Manage the browser attacks
• Elucidate the data from the website or the client
133
Information Security 9.1 AN OVERVIEW
9.1.1 Internet Security and standards

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably,
but they are not exactly the same thing; the internet refers to the global
communication system, including hardware and infrastructure, while the
Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist, invented the World Wide Web
(WWW) in 1989, while working at CERN. The Web was originally
conceived and developed to meet the demand for automated information-
sharing between scientists in universities and institutes around the world.
web is one of the services communicated over the internet.
Internet Explained
The internet originated with the U.S. government, which began building a
computer network in the 1960s known as ARPANET. In 1985, the U.S.
National Science Foundation (NSF) commissioned the development of a
university network backbone called NSFNET.
The system was replaced by new networks operated by commercial
internet service providers in 1995. The internet was brought to the public
on a larger scale at around this time. Since then, the Internet has grown
and evolved over time to facilitate services like:
• Email, Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services, Online

movies and gaming
• Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), , Instant messaging, Internet forums, Social networking,
Online shopping, Financial services
As a global network responsible for vast amounts of data transfer and
process facilitation, the Internet is constantly evolving.
It is governed by agencies like the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(or IANA) that establish universal protocols.
Defining groups like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) continue to work on standards and
universal approaches.
Some of the other authorities about Internet are:
Internet Architecture Board (IAB): A technical advisory group of the
ISOC, chartered by the ISOC Trustees to provide oversight of Internet
architecture and protocols and, in the context of Internet Standards.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): An Internet Standard protocol
(RFC 792) that is used to reporterror conditions during IP datagram
processing and to exchange other information concerning the state of the
IP network.
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134
• Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol Internet and Web Security
(ISAKMP): An Internet IPsec protocol [R2408] to negotiate,
establish, modify, and delete security associations, and to exchange
key generation and authentication data, independent of the details of
any specific key generation technique, key establishment protocol,
encryption algorithm, or authentication mechanism.
Computer security: Shall be classified as given below:
• Data confidentiality: Private or confidential information is not made

available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals.
• Privacy: Individuals control or influence about their information
• Data integrity: Information and programs are changed only in a

specified and authorized manner.
• System integrity: A system performs its intended function in an

unimpaired manner, free from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized
manipulation of the system.
• Availability: Systems work promptly and service is not denied to

authorized users.
9.1.2 Web Services Security
Today web services being deployed are distributed process that process
XML (eXtensibleMarkup Language) encoded SOAP (Simple Object
Access Protocol) messages sent over HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
and described using WSDL(Web Services Description Language).
As the web services are loosely coupled software components, they are
published, located, and invoked across the web. A web service comprises
of several operations like web service creation, publishing, discovering,
locating, and passing messages. Each operation in the architecture of web
services takes a SOAP package containing a list of input parameters,
fulfills a certain task, and returns the result in an output SOAP package.
Large enterprises are increasingly relying on web services as methodology
for large-scale software development and sharing of services within and
outside the organization. There are number of security challenges in this
regard and the challenges are overcome by the following techniques.
• Cryptography: Protects communications from disclosure or

modification by using encryption or digital signatures
• Authentication :Using passwords, tokens, public key certificates,or

secret keys
• Authorization: Rights to use resources
• Security association: To establish trust between client and target

components
135
Information Security 9.1.3 Challenges of Computer security
• Computer security is not as simple as it appears. The requirements

are explicit, techniques are complex.
• In developing a particular security mechanism or algorithm, one

must always consider potential attacks on those security features.
• It is necessary to decide where to use the security mechanisms.
• People are very reluctant in investing for security measures.
• Security requires consistent monitoring and enhancement which is

difficult in today’s rapid changing world.
9.2 INTERNET AND WEB SECURITY

Internet security refers to securing communication over the internet. It
includes specific security protocols such as: i) Internet Security Protocol
(IPSec) ii)Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
Threats
Internet security threats impact the network, data security and other
internet connected systems. Cyber criminals have evolved several
techniques to threat privacy and integrity of bank accounts, businesses,
and organizations.
Following are some of the internet security threats:
Mobile worms, Malware, PC and Mobile ransomware, Large scale attacks

like Stuxnet that attempts to destroy infrastructure.
Hacking as a Service, Spam, Phishing are also the threats for the internet
security.
9.2.1 Web Security
Virtually all businesses, most government agencies, scientific research

organizations, educational institutions and many individuals now have
Web sites. The number of individuals and companies with Internet access
is expanding rapidly and all of these have graphical Web browsers. As a
result, businesses are enthusiastic about setting up facilities on the Web for
electronic commerce. But the reality is that the Internet and the Web are
extremely vulnerable to compromises of various sorts. As businesses wake
up to this reality, the demand for secure Web services grows.
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136
Web Security Considerations Internet and Web Security
The Internet is two way. Unlike traditional publishing environments, even

electronic publishing systems involving teletext, voice response, or fax-
back, the Web is vulnerable to attacks on the Web servers over the
Internet.
The Web is increasingly serving as a highly visible outlet for corporate

and product information and as the platform for business transactions.
Reputations can be damaged and money can be lost if the Web servers are
subverted.
The World Wide Web is fundamentally a client/server application running

over the Internet and TCP/IP intranets.
Although Web browsers are very easy to use, Web servers are relatively
easy to configure and manage, and Web content is increasingly easy to
develop, the underlying software is extraordinarily complex. This complex
software may hide many potential security flaws.
A Web server can be exploited as a launching pad into the corporation’s

or agency’s entire computer complex. Once the Web server is subverted,
an attacker may be able to gain access to data and systems not part of the
Web itself but connected to the server at the local site
Casual and untrained users are common clients for Web based services.
Such users are not necessarily aware of the security risks that exist and do
not have the tools or knowledge to take effective countermeasures.
Web Security Threats
Threats are categorized in terms of passive and active attacks.
Passive attacks include eavesdropping on network traffic between browser

and server and gaining access to information on a Web site that is
supposed to be restricted.
Active attacks include impersonating another user, altering messages in

transit between client and server, and altering information on a Web site.
Another way to classify Web security threats is in terms of the location of

the threat: Web server, Web browser, and network traffic between browser
and server.
137
Information Security The Threats on the Web is shown in the Table 9.1
Threats Consequences Countermeasures
• Modification of user data • Loss of Cryptographic

information checksums
• Trojan horse browser
Compromise of
• Modification of memory machine
Integrity
• Modification of message Vulnerability to
traffic in transit all other threats
• Eavesdropping on the net • Loss of Encryption, Web

information proxies
• Theft of info from server
• Theft of data from client • Loss of privacy
Confidentiality • Info about network
configuration
• Info about which client
talks to server
• Killing of user threads • Disruptive Difficult to prevent

• Flooding machine with • Annoying
bogus requests • Prevent user from
Denial of
Service • Filling up disk or getting work
memory done
• Isolating machine by
DNS attacks
• Impersonation of • Misrepresentation Cryptographic
legitimate users of user techniques
Integrity
• Data forgery • Belief that false
Authentication information is
valid
Table 9.1 Threats on the Web
Web Traffic Security Approaches

i) Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Protocolis an encryption-based Internet
security protocol that protects confidentiality and integrity of data.
ii) Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol is widely used for the
privacy and security of data over the internet. It uses a pseudo-
random algorithm to generate the master secret key used for the
encryption between the protocol client and protocol server.
iii) Secure Hyper Text Transfer (SHTT) Protocol is designed to secure
internet communication such as establishing strong passwords,
setting up a firewall etc.
iv) Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) Approach assures the security
and integrity of electronic transactions made using credit cards.
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9.2.2 SSL -Secure Sockets Layer protocol Internet and Web Security
SSL was introduced in 1994 and Netscape originated SSL.

Architecture of SSL
SSL is using TCP to provide a reliable end-to-end secure service. SSL is
two layers of protocols, as illustrated in Figure 9.1
Fig 9.1 SSL Protocol Stack
Two important SSL concepts are:

SSL Session: It is an association between a client and a server. Sessions
are created by the Handshake Protocol. Shares set of cryptographic
security parameters among multiple connections.
SSL Connection: It is a transport that provides a suitable type of service.
Here it is peer-to-peer relationships. The connections are transient. Every
connection is associated with one session.
A session state and connection state is defined by the following
parameters (Table 9.2)
Session State Connection State
S.
Parameter Description Parameter Description
No.
An arbitrary byte
sequence chosen by
Byte sequences that are chosen
Session the server to Server and
1 by the server and client for each
identifier identify an active or client random
connection.
resumable session
state
An X509.v3 Secret key used in MAC

Server write
2 Peer certificate certificate of the operations on data sent by the
MAC secret
peer server
The algorithm used The secret key used in MAC

Compression Client write
3 to compress data operations on data sent by the
method MAC secret
prior to encryption client
Specifies the bulk

Data encrypted by the server
4 Cipher spec data encryption Server write key
and decrypted by the client
algorithm like AES
and a hash 139
Information Security algorithm like MD5
used for MAC
calculation
48-byte secret
Data encrypted by the client and
5 Master secret shared between the Client write key
decrypted by the server
client and server
A flag indicating
When a block cipher in CBC
whether the session
Initialization mode is used, an initialization
6 Is resumable can be used to
vectors vector (IV) is maintained for
initiate new
each key
connections
Each party maintains separate

Sequence sequence numbers for
7 --- ---
numbers transmitted and received
messages for each connection
The SSL Record Protocol provides basic security services to higher-layer

protocols like i) The Handshake Protocol ii) The Change Cipher Spec
Protocol iii) The Alert Protocol
i) The Handshake Protocol
The most complex part of SSL is the Handshake Protocol. This
protocol allows the server and client to authenticate each other and
to negotiate an encryption and MAC algorithm and cryptographic
keys to be used to protect data sent in an SSL record. The
Handshake Protocol is used before any application data is
transmitted.
The Handshake Protocol consists of a series of messages exchanged
by client and server.
the format shown in Figure 9.2. Each message has three fields:
1 byte 3 bytes >=0 bytes
Message Type Message Length Content
Fig 9.2 Handshake Protocol
Message Type Parameters:

hello_request, client_hello, server_hello, certificate,
server_key_exchange, certificate_request, server_done ,
certificate_verify , client_key_exchange, finished
ii) The Change Cipher Spec Protocol
The Change Cipher Spec Protocol is one of the three SSL-specific
protocols that use the SSL Record Protocol, and it is the simplest.
This protocol consists of a single message (Figure 9.3), which
consists of a single byte with the value 1. The sole purpose of this
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message is to cause the pending state to be copied into the current Internet and Web Security
state, which updates the cipher suite to be used on this connection
1 byte
Fig. 9.3 Change Cipher Spec Protocol
iii) Alert Protocol

It is used to convey SSL-related alerts to the peer entity. Each
message in this protocol consists of two bytes (Figure 9.4).
The first byte takes the value warning(1) or fatal(2) to convey the
severity of the message. Alerts that are always fatal are
unexpected_message, bad_record_mac, decompression_failure,
handshake_failure, illegal_parameter:
The second byte contains a code that indicates the specific alert.
First, we list those
1 byte 1 byte
Level Alert
Fig. 9.5 Alert Protocol
9.2.3, Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)

An organization can ensure secure networking by implementing security
at the IP level.
Three functional areas of IPSec are authentication, confidentiality, and key
management.
• The authentication mechanism assures that a received packet was,

transmitted by the party identified as the source in the packet header.
It also ensures that the packet has not been altered in transit.
• The confidentiality facility enables communicating nodes to encrypt

messages to prevent eavesdropping by third parties.
• The key management facility is concerned with the secure exchange

of keys.
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Information Security One way to provide Web security is to use IP security (IPsec) (Figure 9.6).
The advantage of using IPsec is that it is transparent to end users and
applications and provides a general-purpose solution
Applications of IPSec
Secure branch office connectivity over the Internet: A company can build
a secure virtual private network over the Internet or over a public WAN.
This enables a business to rely heavily on the Internet and reduce its need
for private networks, saving costs and network management overhead.
Secure remote access over the Internet: An end user whose system is
equipped with IPsecurity protocols can make a local call to an Internet
service provider (ISP) and gain secureaccess to a company network. This
reduces the cost of toll charges for traveling employees and
telecommuters.
Establishing extranet and intranet connectivity with partners: IPSec can

be used tosecure communication with other organizations, ensuring
authentication and confidentiality andproviding a key exchange
mechanism.
Enhancing electronic commerce security: Even though some Web and

electronic commerceapplications have built-in security protocols, the use
of IPSec enhances that security.
Fig. 9.6 IP Sec Scenario
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IP Security Architecture Internet and Web Security
IPSec Documents: The important documents
• RFC 2401: An overview of a security architecture

• RFC 2402: Description of a packet authentication extension to IPv4
and IPv6
• RFC 2406: Description of a packet encryption extension to IPv4 and
IPv6
• RFC 2408: Specification of key management capabilities
Support for these features is mandatory for IPv6 and optional for IPv4.
The extension header for authentication is known as the Authentication
header
Header for encryption is known as the Encapsulating Security Payload
(ESP) header.
Fig 9.7 IP Sec Document Overview
Additional drafts published by the IP Security Protocol Working Group set

up by the IETF (RFC 2401) are: (Fig 9.7)
• Architecture
• Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
• Authentication Header (AH)
• Encryption Algorithm
• Authentication Algorithm 143
Information Security • Key Management
• Domain of Interpretation (DOI)
IPSec Services
IPSec provides security services at the IP layer by enabling a system to
select required security protocols. The services are
• Access control
• Connectionless integrity
• Data origin authentication
• Rejection of replayed packets (a form of partial sequence integrity)
• Confidentiality (encryption)
• Limited traffic flow confidentiality
Security Associations (SA)
An association is a one-way relationship between a sender and a receiver
that affords security services to the traffic carried on it. Security services
are afforded to an SA for the use of AH or ESP, but not both.
A security association is uniquely identified by three parameters:
• Security Parameters Index (SPI): A bit string assigned to this SA and

having local significance only.
• IP Destination Address: Unicast addresses are allowed; this is the

address of the destination end point of the SA.
• Security Protocol Identifier: This indicates whether the association is

an AH or ESP security association.
SA Parameters
A security association is defined by the following parameters:
Sequence Number Counter, Sequence Counter Overflow,Anti-Replay
Window, AH Information, Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
Information, Lifetime of This Security Association, IPSec Protocol Mode
and Path MTU:
SA Selectors
The means by which IP traffic is related to specific SAs is the nominal
Security Policy Database (SPD). SPD contains entries, that defines a
subset of IP traffic and points to an SA for that traffic these selectors are
used to filter outgoing traffic in order to map it into a particular SA.
Outbound processing obeys the following general sequence for each IP
packet:
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1. Compare the values of the appropriate fields in the packet against Internet and Web Security
the SPD to find a matching SPD entry, which will point to zero or
more SAs.
2. Determine the SA if any for this packet and its associated SPI.
3. Do the required IPSec processing (i.e., AH or ESP processing).
The following selectors determine an SPD entry:
• Destination IP Address:
• Source IP Address:
• UserID:
• Data Sensitivity Level
• Transport Layer Protocol
• Source and Destination Ports:
Transport and Tunnel Modes
Both AH and ESP support two modes of use: transport and tunnel mode.
Transport Mode
Transport mode provides protection primarily for upper-layer protocols.
Tunnel Mode
Tunnel mode provides protection to the entire IP packet. AH or ESP fields
are added to the IP packet, the entire packet plus security fields is treated
as the payload of new "outer" IP packet with a new outer IP header.
9.2.4. EMAIL SECURITY-
Fig 9.8 Function Modules and Standardized Protocols Used between them in the
Internet Mail Architecture
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Information Security In todays internet world, electronic mail (Email) is the most heavily used
network-based application. Users, send email to others who are connected
directly or indirectly to the Internet, regardless of host operating system or
communications suite. With the explosively growing reliance on email,
there grows a demand for authentication and confidentiality services. Two
approaches in this regard are i) Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) and ii)
S/MIME.
Email Components
Key components of the Internet mail architecture, includes . (Fig 9.8)
• Message User Agent (MUA): Operates on behalf of user actors and

user applications. It is their representative within the email service.
• Mail Submission Agent (MSA): Accepts the message submitted by
an MUA and enforces the policies of the hosting domain and the
requirements of Internet standards.
• Message Transfer Agent (MTA): Relays mail for one application-
level hop. An MTA also adds trace information to the message
header.
• SMTP is used between MTAs and between an MTA and an MSA or
MDA.
• Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): Responsible for transferring the
message from the MHS to the MS.
• Message Store (MS): An MUA can employ a long-term MS. An MS
can be located on a remote server or on the same machine as the
MUA.
Email Protocols
Two types of protocols are used for transferring email.
i) SMTP - Used to move messages through the Internet from source to
destination.
ii) IMAP and POP - Used to transfer messages between mail servers
9.2.4.1 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)
Phil Zimmermann, developed PGP to provide a confidentiality and
authentication service that can be used for electronic mail and file storage
applications. PGP features:
1. Uses best available cryptographic algorithms
2. Integrated these algorithms into aindependent ,general-purpose
application
3. Source code and its documentation, freely available via theInternet,
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Notation Internet and Web Security
Ks =session key
PRa=private key of user A,
PUa=public key of user A
EP = public-key encryption
DP = public-key decryption
EC = symmetric encryption
DC = symmetric decryption
H = hash function
= concatenation
Z = compression using ZIP algorithm
R64 = conversion to radix 64 ASCII format
Operational Description
The actual operation of PGP consists of five services:Authentication,
Confidentiality, Compression, E-mail compatibility, and Segmentation
(Table 9.3).
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Information Security Function Algorithms Used Description
A hash code of a message is created

using SHA-1. This message digest is
Digital signature DSS/SHA or RSA/SHA encrypted using DSS or RSA with the
sender's private key and included with
the message
A message is encrypted using CAST-

128 or IDEA or 3DES with a one-
CAST or IDEA or Three-key time session key generated by the
Message encryption Triple DES with Diffie-Hellman or sender. The session key is encrypted
RSA using Diffie-Hellman or RSA with the
recipient's public key and included
with the message.
A message may be compressed, for

Compression ZIP
storage or transmission, using ZIP.
To provide transparency for email

applications, an encrypted message
Email compatibility Radix 64 conversion
may be converted to an ASCII string
using radix 64 conversion.
To accommodate maximum message

Segmentation -- size limitations, PGP performs
segmentation and reassembly
Table 9.3 Operational description
Authentication
Figure 9.9 illustrates the digital signature service provided by PGP. The
sequence is as follows:
1. The sender creates a message.
2. SHA-1 is used to generate a 160-bit hash code of the message.
3. The hash code is encrypted with RSA using the sender's private key,
and the result is prependedto the message.
4. The receiver uses RSA with the sender's public key to decrypt and
recover the hash code.
5. The receiver generates a new hash code for the message and
compares it with the decryptedhash code. If the two match, the
message is accepted as authentic.
Confidentiality
The 64-bit cipher feedback (CFB) mode is used. Each symmetric key is
used only once. That is, a new key is generated as a random 128-bit
number for each message. To protect the key, it is encrypted with the
receiver's public key. Figure 9.10 illustrates the sequence, which can be
described as follows:
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1. The sender generates a message and a random 128-bit number to be Internet and Web Security
used as a session key fort his message only.
2. The message is encrypted, using CAST-128 (or IDEA or 3DES)
with the session key.
3. The session key is encrypted with RSA, using the recipient's public
key, and is prepended to the message.
4. The receiver uses RSA with its private key to decrypt and recover
the session key.
5. The session key is used to decrypt the message.
Compression
PGP compresses the message after applying the signature but before
encryption. This has the benefit of saving space both for e-mail
transmission and for file storage.
The placement of the compression algorithm, indicated by Z for
compression and Z-1 for decompression in Figure 9.11, is critical.
1. The signature is generated before compression for two reasons:
a. One can store only the uncompressed message together with
the signature for future verification.
b. PGP algorithm is not deterministic; various implementations
of the algorithm achieve different trade-offs in running speed
versus compression ratio and, as a result, produce different
compressed forms.
2. Message encryption is applied after compression to strengthen
cryptographic security. Because the compressed message has less
redundancy than the original plaintext, cryptanalysis is more
difficult.
E-mail Compatibility
When PGP is used, at least part of the block to be transmitted is encrypted.
PGP provides the service of converting the raw 8-bit binary stream to a
stream of printable ASCII characters to support the compatability.
Segmentation and Reassembly
E-mail facilities often are restricted to a maximum message length. To
overcome the issue, PGP automatically subdivides a message that is too
large into segments that are small enough to send via e-mail.
Cryptographic Keys and Key Rings
PGP makes use of four types of keys:
i) One-time session symmetric keys
ii) Public keys
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Information Security iii) Private keys
iv) Passphrase-based symmetric keys Three separate requirements
can be identified with respect to these keys:
1. Generating unpredictable session keys is needed.
2. Users have multiple public-key/private-key pairs
3. A file has to be maintained for public/private key pairs
correspondents of public keys
We examine each of these requirements in turn.
Figure 9.12. General Format of PGP Message (from A to B)
The message component includes the actual data to be stored or

transmitted, as well as a filename and a timestamp that specifies the time
of creation.
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The signature component includes the following: Internet and Web Security
Timestamp and Message digest: The digest is calculated over the

signature time stamp concatenated with the data portion of the message
component.
Leading two octets of message digest: To determine if the correct public

key was used to decrypt the message digest for authentication
• Key ID of sender's public key: Identifies the public key that should
be used to decrypt the message digest
The session key component the identifier of the recipient's public key that
was used by the sender to encrypt the session key.
Key Rings
Two key IDs of PGP messages are both confidentiality and authentication.
These keys need to be stored and organized in a systematic way for
efficient and effective use by all parties. The scheme used in PGP is to
provide a pair of data structures at each node, one to store the
public/private key pairs owned by that node and one to store the public
keys of other users known at this node. These data structures are referred
to, respectively, as the private-key ring and the public-key ring.
Figure 15.4 shows the general structure of a private-key ring. We can

view the ring as a table, inwhich each row represents one of the
public/private key pairs owned by this user. Each row contains
thefollowing entries:
• Timestamp: The date/time when this key pair was generated.
• Key ID: The least significant 64 bits of the public key for this entry.
• Public key: The public-key portion of the pair.
• Private key: The private-key portion of the pair; this field is

encrypted.
• User ID: User's e-mail address to choose to associate a different

name with each pair or to reuse the same User ID more than once.
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Information Security Figure 9.13. General Structure of Private- and Public-Key Rings
The private-key ring can be indexed by either User ID or Key ID;

Figure 9.13 also shows the general structure of a public-key ring.
9.2.4.2 Email Attacks
For both organizations and individuals, email is both pervasive and
especially open to a wide range of security threats. In general terms, email
security threats can be classified as follows:
• Authenticity-related threats: Could result in unauthorized access to

an enterprise’semail system.
• Integrity-related threats: Could result in unauthorized modification
of emailcontent.
• Confidentiality-related threats: Could result in unauthorized
disclosure ofsensitive information.
• Availability-related threats: Could prevent end users from being
able to sendor receive email.
Sender Policy Framework (SPF): Uses the Domain Name System (DNS)
to allow domain owners to create records that associate the domain name
with a specific IP address range of authorized message senders.
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM): Enables an MTA to sign selected
headers and the body of a message.
Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance
(DMARC)
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9.3 WEB APP VERSUS WEB SERVICE CONCEPT Internet and Web Security
9.3.1 Web App

A web application (Web App) consists of one or more web pages that are
created usually by using a various number of web programming and
scripting languages. These pages contain a combination of static and/or
dynamic contents including text, images, and code that can be run on
servers or web browsers. Users can access these pages using their web
browsers. Web applications can reside on servers that have the ability to
handle user requests and to provide back the required responses. Besides,
they can use multiple servers in the network in order to deliver their
functionalities. Generally, users are not aware that the required task
requested by them might be distributed across multiple servers
Fig. 1.14 Web App Building Block
9.3.2 Web Service

A web service is a number of independent functional components that
allows different machines to interact and collaborate with each other
through a network to achieve a common goal. Building Block of Web
Services s given in the fig 9.15 .
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Information Security Here service provider publishes their product / functionality in the registry
through Web service Description Language(WSDL). The Consumer of the
servicees find the required service from the registry through WSDL.
Finally the consumer is bound with the provider through Simple Object
accesss Protocol(SOAP).
9.3.3 Web App Vs Web Service
Web applications
• It is Human-oriented
• Accessed by web browsers
• Developed using browser-oriented programming, scripting, and
styling languages/frameworks alongside server ones
• Development and Usability is Easy
• User Interface is Provided with Centralized structured view
• Fully Interoperable where as not having integrated infrastructure
control
• Users are not involved in updating the application while the
complexity is low
Web Services
• It is Machine-oriented
• Accessed by services, applications, and systems
• Developed using standard programming languages
• Development and Usability is comparatively difficult
• User interfaces not available where as having distributed structured
view
• Interaction models are available
• Uses SOAP, WSDL, and UDDI to build the blocks
• Both Synchronous and asynchronous operation modes are available
• Having Integrated infrastructure control
• Clients are involved in the updating process
• Reusability is the major advantage of web services
• The complexity level is comparatively high
9.4 WS-SECURITY
The WS-Security initiative defines a single security model that abstracts

security services
Unifies formerly the dissimilar security technologies such as PKI and
Kerberos.
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Operational Steps Internet and Web Security
i) In WS-Security the requester requests resources from the Web

Service.
ii) The Web Service requires proof of some claims before satisfying
the request.
iii) These claims could be an identity or a permission.
iv) If the requester has the needed proof, it will be sent to the Web
Service in a security token.
v) If the requester does not have the proof, the service provider will try
to get the proof from a security token service, which is also a Web
Service.
The joint effort will result in several specifications. The initial

specifications are:
WS-Security.How to attach signature and encryption information as well
as security tokens to SOAP messages
WS-Policy.How to specify the security requirements and capabilities of
Web Services nodes
WS-Trust : How to establish trust in a Web Services environment, either
directly or indirectly using a security token service
WS-Privacy: How to specify the privacy policies in place and privacy
preferences Additional specifications are:
WS-SecureConversation: How to authenticate the subscriber, the
provider, or both WS-Federation : How to support federation
WS-Authorization : How to specify and manage access control policies
155
Information Security Functionality
• The WS-Security specification addresses single-message, end-to-

endsecurity.
• WS-Security fills in some of the gaps left when XML Signatureand
XML Encryption are used with SOAP
• Aclaim is astatement made about a subject by the subject or another
party. It can assert an identity,
• A role, or the ownership of a key.
• A security token is a collection of claims
Security Element
• The security element iscontained in the SOAP message header and

is targeted at a specific role
• The Security element contains all claims or other message security
information thatis relevant to the role. Claims can include the
sender’s identity
• Other message securityinformation includes Signature elements and
EncryptedKeyelements for encryption.
• When EncryptedKey is in the Security element, it must contain a
ReferenceList
Structure
The Security element can contain several types of subelements. They are
UsernameToken, BinarySecurityToken, SecurityTokenReference,
KeyInfo, Signature, ReferenceList, and EncryptedData
Example
The followinga SOAP message with a WS-Security Securityheader,
signature, and encrypted content
<? Xml version=’1.0’ ?>
<env:Envelopexmlns:env=”http://www.w3.org/2002/06/soap-envelope”
xmlns:wsse=”http://schmas.xmlsoap.org/ws/2002/04/secext”
xmlns:sig=”http://www.w3.org/2002/02/xmldsig#”
xmlns:enc=”http://www.w3.org/2002/03/xmlenc#”>
<env:Header>
<wsse:Securityenv:role=http://www.w3.org/2002/06/soapenvelope/
role/next env:mustUnderstand=”true”>
<wsse:BinarySecurityToken
...
</wsse:BinarySecurityToken
<sig:Signature>
...
</sig:Signature>
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156 <enc:EncryptedKey>
... Internet and Web Security
</enc:EncryptedKey>
</wsse:Security>
</env:Header>
<env:Body>
<enc:EncryptedData>
...
</enc:EncryptedData>
</env:Body>
</env:Envelope>
9.5 SOAP WEB SERVICE
The major transport and description elements of Web services are SOAP,
WSDL and UDDI
A Web service is a software system that supports interoperable machine-
to-machine interaction.
• Interaction means that more than one application is involved.

• Interoperable means that applications can operate with oneanother
without sharing the same platform, operatingsystem, programming
language, etc.
Web services are largely delivered by SOAP(Simple Object Access
Protocol), WSDL (Web Services DescriptionLanguage), and UDDI
(Universal Description, Discovery, and Interoperability).
These three build on XML (the meta language for the representation)and
HTTP, the transport protocol
In overview,
• SOAP defines a uniform way of passing XML-encoded data.
• WSDL allows service providers to specify what a web service can

do, where it resides, and how to invoke it.
• UDDI provides a mechanism for clients to dynamically find

otherWeb services.
In SOAP messages, the name of the service request and the
inputparameters take the form of XML elements.
WSDL describes the data types and structures for Web services, and tells
how to map them into the messages that are exchanged.
UDDI provides a repository for Web-services descriptions. An UDDI
registry can be searched on various criteria to find all kinds of services
offered by businesses.
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Information Security SOAP is the standard messaging protocol used by Web services. SOAP’s
primary application is inter application communication. SOAP codifies the
use of XML as an encoding scheme for request and response parameters
using HTTP as a means for transport.
Fig. 9.17 Structure of SOAP Message

SOAP covers the following four main areas:
• A message format for one-way communication describing how a

message can be packed into an XML document.
• A description of how a SOAP message should be transported using
HTTP (for Web-based interaction) or SMTP (for e-mail-based
interaction).
• A set of rules that must be followed when processing a SOAP
message and a simple classification of the entities involved in
processing a SOAP message.
• A set of conventions on how to turn an RPC call into a SOAP
message and back.
WSDL was created to describe the formats and protocols of a Web service
in a uniform way.
WSDL elements describe the data and the operations to be performed on
it. Both are described in terms of XML schemas.
WSDL is usually used with SOAP.
In order to communicate, both sender and receiver must have access to the
same XML schema.
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9.6 SAML ASSERTION Internet and Web Security
9.6.1 What Is SAML?

SAML is a specification (OASIS 2002) that defines a standard way to
represent authentication, attribute, and authorization information that may
be used in a distributed environment by disparate applications. All the
security services that comply with the SAML specification will be able to
interpret the security data sent from one security service to another
security service.
The heart of the SAML specification is the XML Schema that defines the
representation of security data, which can be used as part of a general
solution to pass the security context between applications. This
representation of security data is an assertion by a trusted third-party
security service that the activity of authentication, attribute retrieval, or
authorization is correct as represented. For example, the authentication
assertion is a representation by a third party that the subject of the
assertion, the security principal, has been authenticated. As long as the
target trusts this third party, it can accept the assertion as true and can
accept the principal named by the authentication assertion as
authenticated. , SAML is designed to work with other specifications, such
as the digital signature specification (XML Signature Syntax and
Processing, W3C, 2002) or the HTTP and SOAP specifications created by
the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
SAML Containers: These are as assertions about authentication, attributes,
and authorization. SAML uses XML as its language. The use of XML
makes it fit for the security needs of Web Services.
The SAML assertion divided into two general areas.
i) Common to all SAML assertions Contains items like the version
number, the security principal involved in the transaction, some
required conditions, and an optional advice field.
ii) Statements
Actuals about authentication, attributes, or authorization.
9.6.2 Common Portion of an Assertion
Subject by SAML: Each assertion has a set of data that is common to all
assertions. Which contains the identity of the security principal of this
assertion.
The subject can have a domain and a name.
Subject confirmation: An alternate way of identifying the subject and/or as
a means by which the target can confirm the authentication of the subject
of the assertion
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Information Security 9.6.3 Statements
The top-level statement portion of an assertion is an abstract element.
A valid assertion must contain one of the three statements defined by
SAML, authentication, attribute, or authorization.
These will make up the concrete representation of the abstract element
Statement Abstract Type.
Abstract statement element can be used as an extension point,
Authentication Statement
The authentication statement is derived from the abstract Subject
Statement Abstract Type that, in turn, is derived from an abstract
Statement Abstract Type. In the common portion of the assertion we have
already assigned to the assertion a particular Subject, stated who the issuer
is, and signed the assertion.
<element name=”AuthenticationStatement”
type=”saml:AuthenticationStatementType”/>
<complexType name=”AuthenticationStatementType”>
<complexContent>
<extension base=”saml:SubjectStatementAbstractType”>
<sequence>
<element ref=”saml:SubjectLocality” minOccurs=”0”/>
<element ref=”saml:AuthorityBinding” minOccurs=”0”
maxOccurs=”unbounded”/>
</sequence>
<attribute name=”AuthenticationMethod” type=”anyURI”
use=”required”/>
<attribute name=”AuthenticationInstant” type=”dateTime”
use=”required”/>
</extension>
</complexContent>
</complexType>
Attribute Statement
The attribute statement returns the attributes that the issuer of the assertion
asserts are associated with the Subject identified in the common portion of
the assertion. The schema definition of an attribute is:
<element name=”AttributeStatement”
type=”saml:AttributeStatementType”/>
<complexType name=”AttributeStatementType”>
<complexContent>
<sequence>
<element ref=”saml:Attribute” maxOccurs=”unbounded”/>
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</sequence> Internet and Web Security
</extension>
</complexContent>
</complexType>
The attribute element contains the AttributeValues as shown below:
<element name=”Attribute” type=”saml:AttributeType”/>
<complexType name=”AttributeType”>
<complexContent>
<extension base=”saml:AttributeDesignatorType”>
<sequence>
<element ref=”saml:AttributeValue” maxOccurs=”unbounded”/>
</sequence>
</extension>
</complexContent>
</complexType>
Authorization Statement
SAML authorization deals with conveying the decision on whether some
action or actions may be performed on some resource.
The infrastructure for authorization may be complex, SAML does define
a few additional constructs that can be involved in an authorization
decision
These are a Policy Enforcement Point (PEP) : Responsible for enforcing
the results of an authorization decision.
Poliy Decision Point (PDP): The authorization decision is carried out in
this.
In order to satisfy an authorization request the PEP makes a request on the
PDP, passing authentication and/or attribute assertions as evidence that the
PDP can use to make an authorization decision. A fragment of the
authorization statement is presented below:
<element name=”AuthorizationDecisionStatement”
type=”saml:AuthorizationDecisionStatementType”/>
<complexType name=”AuthorizationDecisionStatementType”>
<complexContent>
<sequence>
<element ref=”saml:Action” “maxOccurs =”unbounded”/>
<element ref=”saml:Evidence” minOccurs=”0/>
</sequence>
<attribute name=”Resource” type=”anyURI” use=”required”/>
<attribute name=”Decision”type=”saml:DecisionType “use=”required”/>
</extension>
</complexContent>
</complexType> 161
Information Security 9.7 BROWSER ATTACKS
Web Browser Attacks

Web browser attacks are pretty typical of Web-based applications in
general.
The attacks can be summarized as follows:
• Hijacking :This is a man-in-the-middle attack in which the attacker

takes over the session.
• Replay : This is a man-in-the-middle attack in which sent data is

repeated (replayed) leading to various results.
• Spread of malcode (viruses, worms, and so on): The scripting nature

of Web browsers makes them prime targets for the spread of
malcode.
• Running dangerous executables on the host : In some cases, the

browser may permit executables to run on the host workstation. This
can be very risky.
• Accessing host files: Certain attacks allow the browser to send files
to an attacker. These files may contain personal information, such as
banking data, or system information, such as passwords.
• Theft of private information— Browsers are at risk of disclosing

sensitive information to strangers on the Internet. This information
may be used in identity theft or to conduct a social engineering
attack
Hijacking attack
Session hijacking occurs when an HTTP session is observed and captured
by a network sniffer.
The attacker modifies the captured traffic to allow the attacker to take the
place of the client.
All future traffic in the session is now channeled between the Web server
and the attacker.
The hijacking is usually done after the legitimate user has authenticated to
the Web server. The fig 9.18 explains that
1. A valid user does some web activity that results in their acquiring a
Cookie.
2. The Cookie is stolen or captured by an attacker.
3. The Cookie is transmitted with the attacker's attempt to access the
application. The Cookie authenticates the attacker as a valid user.
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162 The attacker gets access to the application.
Internet and Web Security
Figure 1.18 Hijacking attempt to exploit this

weak method of maintaining state.
Replay attack
Session replay occurs when an HTTP session is captured by a network
sniffer. Some aspect of the session is then modified (certain replays, such
as transferring bank funds, may not require modifications). The modified
session is then fed back onto the network. If the replay is successful, the
Web server will believe the replayed traffic to be legitimate and respond
accordingly.
Fig. 1.19 Relay attack

1. A valid user does some web activity such as "Transfer $5,000 from
account A to account B". There may or may not be a cookie.
2. The web page holding the transaction request is stolen or captured
by an attacker.
3. The web page is re-transmitted. The transaction is repeated - an
additional $5,000 is transferred. The attacker can re-transmit
numerous times.
4. Depending on whether the attacker had to do spoofing, the final
acknowledgment transaction may go back to the valid user's IP
address where it is dropped because no session is open.
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Information Security 9.8 WEB ATTACKS TARGETING USERS
• Denial of Service
• Phishing Attack
• Brute-Force
• SQL Injection
• Eavesdropping Attacks
• Birthday Attacks
Denial of Service
• A DDoS uses system’s resources so that the system cannot answer

service requests.
• ADDoS attack is additionally an attack on system’s resources, it is
performed from an oversized range of different host machines that
are infected by malicious code controlled by the hacker.
• If the attacked resource belongs to a business contender, then the
profit to the offender is also real enough.
• Another purpose of a DoS attack may be to require a system offline
in order that a distinct reasonably attack may be launched.
Types of DoS and DDoS attacks: transmission control protocol SYN
flood attack, teardrop attack, smurf attack, ping-of-death attack and
botnets.
Phishing Attack:
Phishing attack is that observe of causing emails that seem to be from sure
sources with the goal of gaining personal data or influencing users.
It combines social engineering and technical trickery. It may involve an
attachment to an email that masses malware onto the computer.
Brute-Force:
Brute-force positive identification estimation suggests that employing a
random approach by attempting totally different passwords and hoping
that one work
Some logic may be applied by attempting passwords associated with the
person’s name, job title, hobbies or similar things.
To repeat an encrypted file that contains the passwords, apply the identical
coding to a lexicon of ordinarily used passwords, and compare the results.
SQL Injection:
SQL injection has become a standard issue with database driven websites.
It happens once a wrong doer executes a SQL question to the info via the
input file from the consumer to server.
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SQL commands are inserted into data-plane input so as to run predefined Internet and Web Security
SQL commands.
Eavesdropping Attacks:
Eavesdropping attacks occur through the interception of network traffic.
By eavesdropping, an offender will get passwords, Mastercard numbers
and different wind that a user could be causing over the network.
Passive eavesdropping: A hacker detects the data by paying attention to
the message transmission within the network
Birthday Attacks:
Birthday attacks are created against hash algorithms to verify the integrity
of a message, code or digital signature.
A message processed by a hash perform produces a message digest (MD)
of fastened length, freelance of the length of the input message; this MD
unambiguously characterizes the message.
9.9 OBTAINING USER OR WEBSITE DATA
Spoofing
IP spoofing is used by an intruder to convince a system that it is
communicating with a known, trusted entity to provide the intruder with
access to the system.
IP spoofing involves an alteration of a packet at the TCP level, which is
used to attack Internet-connected systems that provide various TCP/IP
services.
The attacker sends a packet with an IP source address of a known, trusted
host instead of its own IP source address to a target host.
The user may accept the packet and act upon it.
Port scanning
A cracker can use scanning software to determine which hosts are active
and which are down to avoid wasting time on inactive hosts.
A port scan can gather data about a single host or hosts within a subnet A
scan can be implemented using the Ping utility.
After determining which hosts and associated ports are active, the cracker
will initiate different types of probes on the active ports.
Examples of probes are Gathering information from the Domain Name
System (DNS), Determining the network services that are available, such
as e-mail, FTP, and remote logon and Determining the type and release of
the operating system
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Information Security Dumpster diving
Dumpster diving involves the acquisition of information that is discarded
by an individual or organization.
Information found in trash is very valuable to a cracker. Because the
discarded information may include technical manuals, password lists,
telephone numbers, and organization charts.
It is important to note that one requirement for information to be treated as
a trade secret is that the information be protected and not revealed to any
unauthorized individuals.
9.10 SUMMARY
As a global network responsible for vast amounts of data transfer and

process facilitation, the Internet is constantly evolving and thus the
security of the data gets vital importance. As the internet protocols and
techniques are responsible for the security of information the concepts like
SSL and IPSec are discussed.
The mail transfer requires security and privacy inevitably. The protocol
PGP regarding email secures the transformation of messages and its
contents.
The web applications and web services are used in the business world for
data transformation and the security of these are discussed in this chapter.
9.11 REFERENCES

William Stallings
3. Computer Security :William Stallings , Edition 6
4. Network Security bible, Eric Cole
5. Cryptography And Information Security, V. K. Pachghare
6. Mastering Web Services Security, Bret Hartman Donald J. Flinn
Konstantin Beznosov Shirley Kawamoto, Wiley Publishing,2003
7. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-internet-security-protocols/
8. http://docs.oasis-open.org/security/saml/v2.0/saml-schema-
assertion-2.0.xsd
9. https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2419/internet#what-does-
internet-mean
10. https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949
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9.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY Internet and Web Security
1. J. Ghayathri J, Dr. S. PannirSelvam , Selection of Paramount Web

Service using Sentient QoS Parameters, International Journal of
Computer Applications (0975 – 8887) ,National Conference on
Research Issues in Image Analysis & Mining Intelligence
(NCRIIAMI-2015)
2. PatilShital, RaosahebChavan, Web Browser Security: Different
Attacks Detection and Prevention Techniques, International Journal
of Computer Applications (0975 – 8887) Volume 170 – No.9, July
2017
3. QusayIdrees Sarhan,Idrees S Gawdan, Web Applications and Web
Services: A Comparative Study, Science Journal of University of
Zakho · March 2018
1. What are the standards of internet?

2. Give the architecture of web service
3. Explain the concept of WS Security
4. Discuss the security functions of SSL
5. Explain the functionality of IPSec.
6. Compare Web services with web application
7. Discuss the structure and components of email
8. Elucidate the working principle of PGP
9. Write short note on Internet security
10. List the attacks on web browsers.
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10
FIREWALL
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Firewall Characteristics
10.3 Types of Firewalls
10.4 Attacks of Packet Filter
10.5 Bastion Host
10.6 Firewall Configurations
10.7 Limitations of Firewall
10.8 Summary
10.9 Bibliography
10.10 Exercises
10.0 OBJECTIVES
After this chapter, you should be able to understand the following

concepts:
1. List the key characteristic of firewalls.
2. Explain the role of firewalls as part of a computer and network
security strategy
3. Understand how to control the interface between private and public
network
4. Understand the different kinds of firewall
5. Know about the different types of attacks of firewall
6. Classify different types of configurations
7. Know about its functionality and limitations
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The dramatic rise and progress of the Internet has opened possibilities that
no one would have thought of. We can connect any computer in the world
to any other computer, no matter how far the two are located from each
other. This can be a nightmare for network support staff, which is left with
a very difficult job of trying to protect the corporate networks from a
variety of attacks.
Most corporations have large amounts of valuable and confidential data in
their networks. Leaking of this critical information to competitors can be a
great setback.
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Internet connectivity is no longer optional for organizations. Firewall
The information and services available are essential to the organization.
Moreover, individual users within the organization want and need Internet
access, and if this is not provided via their LAN, they will use dial-up
capability from their PC to an Internet service provider (ISP). However,
while Internet access provides benefits to the organization, it enables the
outside world to reach and interact with local network assets.
This creates a threat to the organization. While it is possible to equip each
workstation and server on the premises network with strong security
features, such as intrusion protection, this is not a practical approach.
Consider a network with hundreds or even thousands of systems, running
a mix of various versions of UNIX, plus Windows. When a security flaw
is discovered, each potentially affected system must be upgraded to fix
that flaw. The alternative, increasingly accepted, is the firewall.
A firewall can be simple a router that is used to filter the packets or a
complex multi-computer, multi-router solution that performs filtering of
packets along with application-level proxy services. A firewall is
essentially a router or a group of routers and computers to enforce access
control between two networks.
A firewall can be through of as a pair of mechanisms: allow, which
permits traffic and deny, which blocks traffic. There are some firewalls
which emphasize on blocking traffic, while others emphasize on
permitting traffic.
Apart from the danger of the insider information leaking out, there is a
great danger of the outside elements like viruses and worms entering a
corporate network to create havoc.
Firewalls are the first line of defence between the internal network and
untrusted networks like the Internet. A firewall is a combination of
software and hardware used to maintain security of a private network by
applying security policies at two or more network boundaries. Firewalls
are incorporated into a wide variety of networked devices to filter traffic
and lower the risk that malicious packets travelling over the public internet
can impact the security of private network. First introduced conceptually
in the late 1980s in a whitepaper from Digital Equipment Corporation,
“firewalls” provided a then new and important function to the rapidly
growing networks of the day.
The design goals include
All traffic from inside to outside a network must be pass through a
firewall.
Only authorized traffic will be allowed to pass from a firewall.
The firewall itself must be strong enough, so as to render attacks on it
useless.
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Figure 10.1 Firewall

Firewall design principles
Internet connectivity is no longer an option for most organizations.
However, while internet access provides benefits to the organization, it
enables the outside world to reach and interact with local network assets.
This creates the threat to the organization. While it is possible to equip
each workstation and server on the premises network with strong security
features, such as intrusion protection, this is not a practical approach. The
alternative, increasingly accepted, is the firewall.
The firewall is inserted between the premise network and internet to
establish a controlled link and to erect an outer security wall or perimeter.
The aim of this perimeter is to protect the premises network from internet-
based attacks and to provide a single choke point where security and audit
can be imposed. The firewall can be a single computer system or a set of
two or more systems that cooperate to perform the firewall function.
10.2 FIREWALL CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of firewall are
• Service Control
• Direction Control
• User Control
• Behaviour Control
● Service Control: Determines the types of Internet services that can
be accessed by the network user. The inbound or outbound traffic
may be filtered based on the basis of IP address and TCP port
number. It can be implemented by proxy software or host on the
server software.
● Direction control: Determines the direction such as inbound or
outbound in which particular service requests are allowed to flow
through the Firewall.
● User control: Controls access to a service according to the user.
Each user will have a ACLs indicates their level of access. Based on
ACL the user traffic may allowed or denied. This feature is typically
applied to users inside the private network to control outbound
traffic. It may also be applied to incoming traffic from external
users, but it needs authentication technique
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● Behavior control: It makes use of statistical data to control the Firewall
traffic. Controls how particular services are used (e.g. filter e-mail to
eliminate spam), or it may enable external access to only a portion of
the information on a local Web server.
10.3 TYPES OF FIREWALLS
There are three types of firewall namely,

1) Packet Filtering
2) Application Gateways
3) Circuit-level Gateways
1) Packet Filtering:
Firewalls filter each packet that attempt to enter or leave a private
network and either accept or reject them depending on the predefined set
of filter rules which is based on based on pattern-matching. Figure 5.8
shows the placement of packet filtering firewall which is between the
public and private network.
Figure 10.2 Packet Filtering Firewall

A packet filter performs the following functions.
1) Receive each packet as it arrives.
2) Pass the packet through a set of rules, based on the contents of the IP
and transport header fields of the packet. If there is a match with one
of the set rules, decide whether to accept or discard the packets
based on that rule.
3) If there is no match with any rule, take the default action. The
default can be discard all packets or accept all packets.
An advanced type of packet filter is called as stateful packet filter or
dynamic packet filter. This packet filter allows the examination of
packets based on the current state of the network. It adapts itself to the
current exchange of information, unlike the normal packet filters.
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Information Security Allow incoming TCP packets only if they are responses to the outgoing
TCP packets that have gone through our network. Dynamic packet filter
has to maintain a list of the currently open connections and outgoing
packets in order to deal with this rule. So, it is called dynamic or stateful.
This type of firewall combines the speed of packet filters with the
enhanced security of stored session information typified by proxies. While
traffic is being forwarded through the firewall, stateful inspections of the
packets create slots in session flow tables.
These tables contain source and destination IP addresses, port numbers,
and TCP protocol information. Before traffic can travel back through the
firewall, stateful inspections of the packets are cross-referenced to the
session flow tables for an existing connection slot. If a match is found in
the tables, the packets are forwarded; otherwise, the packets are dropped
or rejected.
Figure 10.3 Stateful inspection

Stateless Packet Filter:
Stateless packet filtering firewalls are perhaps the oldest and most
established firewall option. While they're less common today, they do still
provide functionality for residential internet users or service providers
who distribute low-power customer-premises equipment (CPE). They
protect users against malware, non-application-specific traffic and harmful
applications. If users host servers for multi-player video games, email or
live-streamed videos, for example, they often must manually configure
firewalls if they plan to deviate from default security policies. Manual
configurations allow different ports and applications through the packet
filter.
Advantages of Packet Filter Firewall:
It is simplicity
Packet filters are very fast in their operating speed.
Packet filter is transparent to the user.
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Disadvantages: Firewall
Setting up the packet filter rule correctly is difficult.

Most packet filter firewalls do not support advanced user authentication
schemes.
They are generally vulnerable to attacks such as layer address spoofing.
Because packet filter firewalls do not examine upper-layer data, they
cannot prevent attacks that employ application-specific vulnerabilities or
functions.
Because of the limited information available to the firewall, the logging
functionality present in packet filter firewalls is limited.
2) Application Gateway Firewall:
It is also called as proxy server. This is because it acts like a proxy
and decides about the flow of application-level traffic. Application
gateway work as follows:
1. An internal user contacts the application gateway using a TCP/IP
application, such as HTTP or TELNET.
2. The application gateway asks the user about the remote host with
which the user wants to set up a connection for actual
communication. The application gateway also asks for the user id
and password required to access the services of the application
gateway.
3. The user provides this information to the application gateway.
4. The application gateway now access the remote host on behalf of the
user and passes the packets of the user to the remote host.
5. The application gateway acts like a proxy of the actual end user and
delivers packets from the user to the remote host and vice versa.
Figure 10.4 Application Gateway Firewall

Advantages:
Application gateway is more secure than packet filter because it examines
every packet against a number of rules.
It is easy to log and audit all incoming traffic at the application level 173
Information Security Disadvantage:
Application gateway is the additional processing overhead on each
connection-.
3) Circuit level Gateway:
Provides TCP and UDP connection security and works at session layer
OSI model. It monitors the TCP data packet handshaking between packets
to ensure the session is legitimate and fulfilment of firewall rules and
policies.
Circuit level gateway can be a stand-alone system or it can be a specified
function performed by an application-level gateway for certain
applications. A Circuit level gateway does not permit an end-to-end TCP
connection; rather, the gateway sets up two TCP connections, one between
itself and a TCP user on an inner host and one between itself and a TCP
user on an outer host. Once the two connections are established, the
gateway typically relays TCP segments from one connection to the other
without examining the contents. The security function consists of
determining which connections will be allowed.
A typical use of Circuit level gateways is a situation in which the system
administrator trusts the internal users. The gateway can be configured to
support application level or proxy service on inbound connections and
circuit level functions for outbound connections.
Figure 9.5 shows the placement of circuit-level gateway firewall.
Figure 10.5 Circuit level Gateway

The SOCKS server is an example of the real-life implementation of a
circuit gateway. It is client-server application. The SOCKS client runs on
the internal hosts and the SOCKS server runs on the firewall.
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10.4 ATTACKS OF PACKET FILTER Firewall
IP address spoofing: The intruder transmits packets from the outside with
a source IP address field containing an address of an internal host. The
attacker hopes that the use of a spoofed address will allow penetration of
systems that employ simple source address security, in which packets
from specific trusted internal hosts are accepted. The countermeasure is to
discard packets with an inside source address if the packet arrives on an
external interface.
Source routing attacks: The source station specifies the route that a
packet should take as it crosses the Internet, in the hopes that this will
bypass security measures that do not analyze the source routing
information. The countermeasure is to discard all packets that use this
option.
Tiny fragment attacks: The intruder uses the IP fragmentation option to
create extremely small fragments and force the TCP header information
into a separate packet fragment. This attack is designed to circumvent
filtering rules that depend on TCP header information. Typically, a packet
filter will make a filtering decision on the first fragment of a packet.
All subsequent fragments of that packet are filtered out solely on the basis
that they are part of the packet whose first fragment was rejected. The
attacker hopes that the filtering router examines only the first fragment
and that the remaining fragments are passed through.
A tiny fragment attack can be defeated by enforcing a rule that the first
fragment of a packet must contain a predefined minimum amount of the
transport header. If the first fragment is rejected, the filter can remember
the packet and discard all subsequent fragments.
10.5 BASTION HOST
A bastion host is a system identified by the firewall administrator as a

critical strong point in the network's security. Typically, the bastion host
serves as a platform for an application-level or circuit level gateway.
Common characteristics of a bastion host include the following:
• The bastion host hardware platform executes a secure version of its

operating system, making it a trusted system.
• Only the services that the network administrator considers essential
are installed on the bastion host. These include proxy applications
such as Telnet, DNS, FTP, SMTP, and user authentication.
• The bastion host may require additional authentication before a user
is allowed access to the proxy services. In addition, each proxy
service may require its own authentication before granting user
access.
• Each proxy is configured to support only a subset of the standard
application's command set
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Information Security Each proxy is configured to allow access only to specific host systems.
This means that the limited command/feature set may be applied only to a
subset of systems on the protected network.
• Each proxy maintains detailed audit information by logging all

traffic, each connection, and the duration of each connection. The
audit log is an essential tool for discovering and terminating intruder
attacks.
• Each proxy module is a very small software package specifically
designed for network security. Because of its relative simplicity, it is
easier to check such modules for security flaws. For example, a
typical UNIX mail application may contain over 20,000 lines of
code, while a mail proxy may contain fewer than 1000.
• Each proxy is independent of other proxies on the bastion host. If
there is a problem with the operation of any proxy, or if a future
vulnerability is discovered, it can be uninstalled without affecting
the operation of the other proxy applications. Also, if the user
population requires support for a new service, the network
administrator can easily install the required proxy on the bastion
host.
• A proxy generally performs no disk access other than to read its
initial configuration file. This makes it difficult for an intruder to
install Trojan horse sniffers or other dangerous files on the bastion
host.
• Each proxy runs as a non privileged user in a private and secured
directory on the bastion host.
10.6 FIREWALL CONFIGURATION
In practical implementations, a firewall is usually a combination of packet

filters and application gateways. Based on this, there are three possible
configurations of firewalls as shown in figure.
Firewall
Configurations
Screened-host Screened Subnet

firewall (Single firewall
home bastion)
Figure 10.6 Firewall Configuration
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Screened Host Firewall, Single Homed Bastion: Firewall
In the screened host firewall, a firewall set up consists of two parts: a

packet-filtering router and an application gateway.
Their purposes are as follows.
The packet filter ensures that incoming traffic (i.e., form the Internet to the
corporate network) is allowed only if it is designed for the application
gateway, by examining the destination address field of every incoming IP
packet. Similarly, it also ensures that the outgoing traffic is allowed only if
it is originating from the application gateway, by examining the source
address field of every outgoing IP packet.
The application gateway performs authentication and proxy functions.
The bastion host performs authentication and proxy functions. This
configuration has greater security than simply a packet filtering router or
an application-level gateway alone, for two reasons:
This configuration implements both packet level and application-level
filtering, allowing for considerable flexibility in defining security policy.
An intruder must generally penetrate two separate systems before the
security of the internal network is compromised.
Figure 10.7 Screened-host firewall, Single homed bastion

Screened host firewall, Dual-Homed Bastion:-
To overcome the drawback of a screened host firewall, single-homed
bastion configuration another type of configuration, called as screened
host firewall, dual-homed bastion. In the previous configuration, if the
packet filtering router is compromised, traffic could flow directly through
the router between the internet and the other hosts on the private network.
This configuration physically prevents such a security break. The internal
hosts are protected.
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Figure 10.8 Dual-homed bastion

Screened Subnet Firewall:-
It offers the highest security among the possible firewall configurations. It
is an improvement over the previous scheme of screened host firewall,
dual-homed bastion. Two packet filtering routers are used, one between
the bastion host and internet and one between the bastion host and the
internal network.
This configuration creates an isolated sub-network, which may consist of
simply the bastion host but may also include one or more information
servers and modems for dial-in capability. Typically, both the internet and
the internal network have access to hosts on the screened subnet, but
traffic across the screened subnet is blocked. This configuration offers
several advantages:
• There are now three levels of defense to prevent intruders.

• The outside router advertises only the existence of the screened
subnet to the internet; therefore, the internal network is invisible to
the internet.
• Similarly, the inside router advertises only the existence of the
screened subnet to the internal network; therefore, the systems on
the internal network cannot construct direct routes to the internet.
Figure 10.9 Screened subnet firewall
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10.7 LIMITATIONS OF FIREWALL Firewall
We must note that although a firewall is an extremely useful security

measure for an organization, it does not solve all the practical security
problems. The main limitations of a firewall can be listed as follows.
1) Insider’s intrusion:
As we know, a firewall system is designed to prevent outside
attacks. Therefore, if an inside user attacks the internal network in
some way, the firewall cannot prevent such an attack. The firewall
does not protect against internal threats, such as a disgruntled
employee or an employee who unwittingly cooperates with an
external attacker.
2) Direct internet traffic:
A firewall must be configured very carefully. It is effective only if it
is the only entry-exit point of an organization’s network. If instead,
the firewall is one of the entry-exit points, user can bypass the
firewall and exchange information with the internet via the other
entry-exit points. This can open up the possibilities of attacks on the
internal networks through those points. Such situation can not be
handled by firewall.
3) Virus attacks:
A firewall cannot protect internal network from virus threats.
Because of the variety of operating systems and applications
supported inside the perimeter, it would be impractical and perhaps
impossible for the firewall to scan all incoming files, e-mail, and
messages for viruses.
10.8 SUMMARY
This chapter provided an in-depth overview of firewalls and their roles in

protecting the corporate network and also design principles of firewall.
There are three main types of firewalls: packet filters, application
gateways, and circuit-level gateways. Corporate networks can be attacked
from outside or internal information can be leaked out. Encryption cannot
prevent outside attackers from attacking a network. A firewall should be
placed between a corporate network and the outside world. A firewall is a
special type of router, which applies rules for allowing or stopping traffic.
10.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Behrouz A Forouzan, Cryptography and Network Security
William Stallings, Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and
Practice
Mark Rhodes-Ousley, The complete reference Information Security
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Information Security 10.10 EXERCISES
1. What are the limitations of a firewall?

2. List the characteristics of a good firewall implementation.
3. What is an application-level gateway?
4. What is a circuit-level gateway?
5. What is the difference between a packet filtering firewall and a
stateful inspection firewall?
6. What are some weaknesses of a packet filtering firewall?
7. What information is used by a typical packet filtering firewall?
8. How is Screened host firewall, Dual-homed bastion different from
screened host firewall, Single-homed bastion?
9. How is a circuit gateway different from an application gateway?
10. What is the disadvantage of a screened host firewall, Single-homed
bastion?
11. Study at least one real-life firewall product. Study its features with
reference to the theory introduced in this chapter.
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11
INTRUSION
Unit Structure
11.1 Objective
11.2 Introduction
11.3 What is Intrusion,
11.4 Intruders,
11.5 Intrusion Detection,
11.6 Behavior of Authorized user and Intruder,
11.7 Approaches for Intrusion Detection: Statistical Anomaly Detection
and Rule based Detection.
11.8 Audit Record and Audit Record Analysis.
11.9 Summary
11.1 OBJECTIVE
• Understand the concept of IDS & two major categorizations by

feature model and by location.
• Understand the behavior of authorized user and intruder
• Understand the approaches for intrusion detection.
• Identifying the attacks in a system or network.
• To analyze the data for possible attacks.
11.2 INTRODUCTION
• Network security is becoming increasingly important in the modern

World, where The Internet is an essential part of human life. Due to
large extensive use of the Internet, the risks and chances of attacks
are also increased. So, it is necessary to protect our system from
different attacks.
• The mechanism, which is used to protect our system from different
attacks is called intrusion detection systems (IDS).
• The process of recognizing the attacks in a system or computer
network is called intrusion detection.
• An intrusion is a deliberate or unauthorized activity or action that
attempts to access or manipulate the information or compromise the
security of the systems to make them unreliable or unusable.
• An intruder is a kind of a person who is responsible for intrusions. It
may be a person from inside the network, i.e, legitimate user of the
network or from outside the network.
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Information Security • In computer networks a firewall is used to prevent such types of
attacks on the network. Firewall governs a set of rules and it protects
those attacks, which are defined in advance as a rule. So, a firewall
does not protect the new attack coming from the attacker, as the rule
is not defined.
• In this instance, IDS is useful to detect new attacks. But it is
impractical to prevent all the types of attacks. An IDS collects all
the information from inside as well as from outside the network and
examines this information to identify whether there is intrusion or
not.
• Intrusion detection is non-identical from intrusion prevention.
Intrusion detection means the process of observing, analyzing &
examining the incoming and outgoing traffic and it collects the data.
Then, it analyzes the data for possible attacks. Intrusion is the
process of identifying the attacks and it attempts to block the
detected possible incidents. Intruders are the person who has
unauthorized access to the network.
11.3 WHAT IS INTRUSION?
An intrusion is any activity that is designed to compromise your data or

information security. This can be through more threatened and prevalent
formats like ransomware or unintentional data violation by employees or
others attached to computer networks.
An intrusion may include any of the following:
1. Malware or ransomware
2. Unauthorized Access to a system
3. DDOS attacks
4. Cyber-enabled equipment destruction
5. Accidental employee security breaches
6. Untrustworthy users both team members and those outside of your
organization
7. Social engineering attacks such as phishing campaigns and other
ways of tricking users with seemingly legitimate communication
11.4 INTRUDERS:
• Intruders are the person who has unauthorized access to the network.
• This is one of the two most publicized threats to security is the
intruder & the other is viruses, frequently referred to as a hacker or
cracker.
• There are different type of intruders:
1. Masquerader: An individual person who is not authorized to
use the computer and who penetrates a system’s access
controls to exploit a legitimate user’s account. Generally it is
an outsider.
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2. Misfeasor: A allowable user who accesses data, programs, or Intrusion
resources for which such access is not authorized, or who is
authorized for such types of access but misuses his or her
privileges.
3. Clandestine user: It refers to the user who seizes supervisory
control of the system and uses this control to evade auditing
and access controls or to suppress audit collection. It may be
an insider or outsider.
● The masquerader is mostly from an outsider; the misfeasor generally
is an insider; and the clandestine user can be either an outsider or an
insider. Intruder attacks range from the warm hearted to the serious.
At the benign end of the scale, there are many people who simply
wish to explore the internet and see what is out there. At the serious
end are individuals or a person who are intercepting to read special
rights data, perform unauthorized modifications to data, or disrupt
the system. lists the following examples of intrusion:
1. Performing a remote root compromise of an e-mail server
2. Defacing a Web server
3. Guessing and cracking passwords.
4. Copying a database containing credit card numbers.
5. Viewing sensitive data, including payroll records and medical
information, without authorization or login.
6. Running a packet sniffer application on a workstation to
capture usernames and passwords.
7. Using a permission error on an anonymous FTP server to give
out pirated software and music files Dialing into an unsecured
modem and gaining internal network access.
8. Present as an executive, calling the help desk, resetting the
executive’s email password, and learning the new password.
9. Using an unattended, logged-in workstation without
permission.
11.5 INTRUSION DETECTION:
• Intrusion detection means to detect or find the vulnerabilities

exploited against the computer system or against any application
running on the computer system.
• Intrusion detection system helps in providing the information about
such vulnerabilities to the network administrator and helps him in
preparing some system to protect such attacks or deal with such
vulnerabilities.
• It also includes collection of all information by monitoring the
network traffic and the suspicious activities in the network.
• It also collects the information about these vulnerabilities from
different sources and analyzes the same.
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Information Security • Many people think that a firewall is Sufficient to protect their
network and can recognise the attacks on the network and block the
intrusions. But the fact is that the firewall works just like a tene
home.
• It restricts the access only to the designated points on the network,
but the whole network cannot be secured using a firewall.
• Firewall cannot detect the new au on the network. This detection of
new attacks is done by IDS.
• Intrusion detection provides the following functions:
1. Monitoring and analyzing both the user and the system
activities
2. Analyzing system configurations and vulnerabilities
3. Assessing the integrity of system and files
4. Analyzing the traffic pattern based on knowing attack patterns
5. Analyzing abnormal activity patterns
6. Tracking the policy violations by the user
7. Doing audit of the operating system
• The intrusion detection system can be divided into following two
types depending on the architecture:
1. Network intrusion detection system (NIDS):
It works on the network and performs an analysis of all the traffic
passing on the entire subnet. Every packet is monitored and if the
attack is identified or some abnormal behavior is observed, then the
alert can be sent to the administrator.
2. Host intrusion detection system (HIDS):
It works off the host, monitors the system events and audits the
event logs. It then takes a snapshot of the existing system files and
compares it with the previous snapshot available. If any of these
files are found modified or deleted, then the alert is sent to the
administrator.
• An intrusion-detection system obtains information related to

an information system to perform a diagnosis on the security
status of the latter. The objective is to discover breaches of
security, attempted breaches, or open vulnerabilities that could
lead to potential breaches. A classic intrusion-detection system
is shown in Figure 1.
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Intrusion
Fig. 1 Simple IDS

Characteristics of intrusion-detection systems:
1. Performance: The performance of an intrusion-detection system is
the rate at which audit events are processed. If the performance of
the intrusion-detection system is weak, then real-time detection is
not possible.
2. Completeness: Completeness is the property of an intrusion-
detection system to detect all attacks. imperfection occurs when the
intrusion-detection system fails to detect any types of attack. This
measure is much more difficult to evaluate than the others because it
is impossible to have a worldwide knowledge about attacks or
exploit of privileges. Let see more two additional properties
• Fault tolerance:
• An intrusion-detection system should be resistant to

attacks, especially denial-of-service-type attacks
• This is important because most intrusion-detection
systems run above commercially available operating
systems or hardware, which are known to be vulnerable
to attacks.
• Timeliness:
• To perform and propagate its analysis as quickly as

possible to enable the security officer to react before
much damage has been done, and also to prevent the
attacker from subverting the audit source or the
intrusion-detection system itself.
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Information Security • This implies more than the measure of performance
because it not only encompasses the intrinsic processing
speed of the intrusion-detection system, but also the time
required to propagate the information and react to it.
11.6 BEHAVIOR OF AUTHORIZED USER AND

INTRUDER
• Inevitably, the best intrusion prevention system will fail. A system’s

second important is intrusion detection, and this has been the focus
of much research in recent trends. This interest is inspired by a
number of considerations, including the following:
1. If an intrusion is detected rapidly & on or before, the intruder

can be identified and removed from the system before any
damage is done or any data is being compromised. Even if the
recognition is not adequately timely to prevent the intruder, the
sooner that the intrusion is detected, the less the amount of
damage and the more quickly that recovery can be achieved.
2. Intrusion detection permits the collection of information

related to intrusion techniques that can be used to toughen the
intrusion prevention facility. Intrusion detection depends on
the assumption that the behavior of the intruder differs from
that of a legitimate user in ways that can be determined. Of
course, it is not expected that there will be a breakable, exact
distinction between an attack by an intruder and the normal
use of resources by an authorized user.
● Figure 1 shows a very abstract term, the nature of the task

confronting the designer of an intrusion detection system. In spite of
the fact that the typical behavior of an intruder differs from the
typical behavior of an authorized user, there is an overlap in these
behaviors. Consequently, a loose interpretation of intruder behavior,
which will snatch more intruders, will also lead to a number of
"false positives," or authorized users identified as intruders. In
contrast, trying to limit false positives by a tight explanation of
intruder behavior will lead to an increase in false negatives, or
intruders not identified as intruders. Hence, there is an component of
compromise and art in the practice of intrusion detection.
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Intrusion
Fig. 2 Behavior of Authorized user and Intruder
11.7 APPROACHES FOR INTRUSION DETECTION:

STATISTICAL ANOMALY DETECTION AND
RULE BASED DETECTION.
1. Statistical anomaly detection:
• Involves the collection of data relating to the behavior of

legitimate users over a period of time. Then statistical tests are
applied to observed behavior to determine with a high level of
confidence whether that behavior is not legitimate user
behavior.
a. Threshold detection: This approach involves defining
thresholds, independent of the user, for the frequency of
occurrence of various events.
b. Mean and standard deviation: The confidence interval
for the abnormality is computed using the comparison of
event measures and the mean and standard of a profile
deviation.
c. Multivariate model: This model considers computing
the correlation between different event measures with
respect to the profile expectations.
d. Markov process model: This model considers the types
of events with respect to the state variables in a state
transition matrix.
e. Profile based: A profile of the activity of each user is
developed and used to detect changes in the behavior of
individual accounts.
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Fig. 2 Anomaly-based detection system
• Advantage of Anomaly-based detection:
• It is possible to detect new or unknown attacks.

• Accuracy is more.
• Internal attacks can be detected easily.
• Disadvantages of anomaly-based detection system
• False negatives are more.

• It is expensive.
• Accuracy is less.
• Limitations
• The performance of statistics-based IDS depends on the data

representation. if it contains some irrelevant data, then IDS
may fail to identify an unknown attack.
• The performance of this approach depends on the threshold. Is
it set too low or too high, then it affects false negatives and
false positives.
2. Rule-based detection:
• Involves an attempt to define a set of rules that can be used to

decide that a given behavior is that of an intruder.
a. Anomaly detection: Rules are developed to detect
deviation from previous usage patterns.
b. Penetration identification: An expert system approach
that searches for suspicious behavior.
• In terms of the types of attackers listed earlier, statistical

anomaly detection is effective against masqueraders. On the
other hand, such techniques may be unable to deal with
misfeasors. For Such attacks, rule-based approaches may be
able to recognize events and sequences that, in context, reveal
penetration.
11.8 AUDIT RECORD AND AUDIT RECORD ANALYSIS
• A fundamental tool for intrusion detection is the audit record. Some

record of ongoing activity by users must be maintained as input to
an intrusion detection system. Basically, two plans are used:
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• Native audit records: Virtually all multiuser operating systems Intrusion
include accounting software that collects information on user
activity. The advantage of using this information is that no
additional collection software is needed. The disadvantage is that the
native audit records may not contain the needed information or may
not contain it in a convenient form.
• Detection-specific audit records: A collection facility can be
implemented that generates audit records containing only that
information required by the intrusion detection system. One
advantage of such an approach is that it could be made vendor
independent and ported to a variety of systems. The disadvantage is
the extra overhead involved in having, in effect, two accounting
packages running on a machine.
• Example:
A good example of detection-specific audit records is one developed
by Dorothy Denning. Each audit record contains the following
fields:
• Subject: Initiators of actions. A subject is typically a terminal
user but might also be a process acting on behalf of users or
groups of users.All activity arises through commands issued
by subjects. Subjects may be grouped into different access
classes, and these classes may overlap.
• Action: Operation performed by the subject on or with an
object; for example, login, read, perform I/O, execute.
• Object: Receptors of actions. Examples include files,
programs, messages, records, terminals, printers, and user- or
program-created structures. When a subject is the recipient of
an action, such as electronic mail, then that subject is
considered an object. Objects may be grouped by type. Object
granularity may vary by object type and by environment. For
example, database actions may be audited for the database as a
whole or at the record level.
• Exception-Condition: Denotes which, if any, exception
condition is raised on return.
• Resource-Usage: A list of quantitative elements in which each
element gives the amount used of some resource (e.g., number
of lines printed or displayed, number of records read or
written, processor time, I/O units used, session elapsed time).
• Time-Stamp: Unique time-and-date stamp identifying when
the action took place. Most user operations are made up of a
number of elementary actions.
For example, a file copy involves the execution of the user command,
which includes doing access validation and setting up the copy, plus the
read from one file, plus the write to another file. Consider the command
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Information Security COPY GAME.EXE TO <Libray>GAME.EXE
issued by Smith to copy an executable file GAME from the current
directory to the directory. The following audit records may be generated:
In this case, the copy is aborted because Smith does not have write
permission to .
• The decomposition of a user operation into elementary actions has

three advantages:
1. Because objects are the protectable entities in a system, the use
of elementary actions enables an audit of all behavior affecting
an object. Thus, the system can detect attempted subversions
of access controls and can detect successful subversions by
noting an abnormality in the set of objects accessible to the
subject.
2. Single-object, single-action audit records simplify the model
and the implementation.
3. Because of the simple, uniform structure of the detection-
specific audit records, it may be relatively easy to obtain this
information or at least part of it by a straightforward mapping
from existing native audit records to the detection-specific
audit records.
Fig. 3 detection-specific audit records

● In this case, the copy is aborted because Smith does not have write
permission to. The decomposition of a user operation into
elementary actions has three advantages:
1. Because objects are the protectable entities in a system, the use
of elementary actions enables an audit of all behavior affecting
an object. Thus, the system can detect attempted subversions
of access controls (by noting an abnormality in the number of
exception conditions returned) and can detect successful
subversions by noting an abnormality in the set of objects
accessible to the subject.
2. Single-object, single-action audit records simplify the model
and the implementation.
3. Because of the simple, uniform structure of the detection-
specific audit records, it may be relatively easy to obtain this
information or at least part of it by a straightforward mapping
from existing native audit records to the detection-specific
audit records.
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11.9 SUMMARY Intrusion
• The System which is used to protect our system from different

attacks is called intrusion detection systems (IDS).
• The Process of identifying the attacks in a system or network is
called intrusion detection.
• An intrusion is a deliberate or authorized activity or action that
attempts to access or manipulate the information or compromise the
security of the system to make it unreliable or unusable.
• An intruder is a person who is responsible for intrusion. There are
different types of intruders, masquerader, misfeasor, and clandestine
user.
• The intrusion detection system can be divided into two types
depending on the architecture. network intrusion detection system &
Host intrusion detection system.
11.10 REFERENCE FOR FURTHER READING
1. AtulKahate, “Cryptography and Network Security”, McGraw Hill

2. Network Security and Cryptography: Bernard Menezes, CENGAGE
Learning
1. List and briefly define three classes of intruders

2. What is the difference between statistical anomaly detection and
rule-based intrusion detection?
3. What is intrusion?
4. What are the different types of intruders? Explain in brief.
5. Explain the different categories of intrusion detection systems in
brief.
6. Why is intrusion detection system required?
7. Classify the intrusion detection system.
8. Explain anomaly detection.
9. What is misuse-based detection? Explain in brief.
10. Explain model-based intrusion detection.

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12
DATABASE AND OS
SECURITY
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction to Database and OS
12.2 What is Database Security?
12.2.1 Security requirements of database
12.2.2 Sensitive data
12.2.3 Threats to Databases
12.3 Control Measures
12.3.1 Database access control
12.3.2 Inference control
12.3.3 Flow control
12.3.4 Encryption
12.4 Security in operating systems
12.4.1 Operating System Structure
12.4.2 Security Features of Ordinary Operating Systems
12.4.3 Operating System Tools to Implement Security Functions
12.5 Rootkit
12.5.1 Phone Rootkit
12.5.2 Sony XCP Rootkit
12.5.3 TDSS Rootkits
12.6 Let us Sum Up
Self learning topics:
Cryptographic Toolkits, Denial of Service attack
12.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the unique need for database security, separate from

ordinary computer security measures.
• Compare and contrast different approaches to database access
control.
• Explain how inference poses a security threat in database systems.
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• Understand the Security in operating systems. Database and
OS security
• Understand the Security Features of Ordinary Operating Systems.
• Discuss various ways of structuring an operating system.
• Learn the topic rootkit and its examples.
12.1 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE AND

OPERATING SYSTEM
DATABASE: Data is a valuable entity that must have to be firmly

handled and managed as with any economic resource. So, some part or all
of the commercial data may have tactical importance to their respective
organization and hence must have to be kept protected and confidential. In
this chapter, you will learn about the scope of database security. There is a
range of computer-based controls that are offered as countermeasures to
these threats.
• Database is a collection of data and set of rules that organize the data
by specifying certain relationships among data.
• Through these rules, the user describes a logical format for the data.
• The user interacts with the data base through a program called a
database manager or database management system (DBMS)
informally known as a front end.
Advantages of Using Databases
• Shared Access – so that many users can use one common,

centralized set of data.
• Minimal Redundancy – so that individual users do not have to
collect and maintain their own sets of data.
• Data consistency – so that a change to a data value affects all users
of the data value.
• Data integrity – so that data values are protected against accidental
or malicious incorrect changes.
• Controlled access – so that only authorized users allowed to view or
modify
OPERATING SYSTEM: Operating system security (OS security) is the
process of ensuring OS integrity, confidentiality and availability.
OS security refers to specified steps or measures used to protect the OS
from threats, viruses, worms, malware or remote hacker intrusions. OS
security encompasses all preventive-control techniques, which safeguard
any computer assets capable of being stolen, edited or deleted if OS
security is compromised.
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Information Security 12.2 WHAT IS DATABASE SECURITY?
Database security refers to the collective measures used to protect and

secure a database or database management software from illegitimate use
and malicious cyber threats and attacks.
Database security procedures are aimed at protecting not just the data
inside the database, but the database management system and all the
applications that access it from intrusion, misuse of data, and damage.
It is a broad term that includes a multitude of processes, tools and
methodologies that ensure security within a database environment.
Database security must address and protect the following:
• The data in the database

• The database management system (DBMS)
• Any associated applications
• The physical database server and/or the virtual database server and
the underlying hardware
• The computing and/or network infrastructure used to access the
database
12.2.1 SECURITY REQUIREMENTS OF DATABASES
The basic security requirements of database systems are not unlike those
of other computing systems. The basic problems access control, exclusion
of spurious data, authentication of users, and reliability has appeared in
many contexts.
Following is a list of requirements for database security.
• Physical database integrity: The data of a database are immune

from physical problems, such as power failures, and someone can
reconstruct the database if it is destroyed through a catastrophe.
• Logical database integrity: The structure of the database is
preserved. With logical integrity of a database, a modification to the
value of one field does not affect other fields.
• Element integrity: The data contained in each element are accurate.
• Auditability: It is possible to track who or what has accessed (or
modified) the elements in the database.
• Access control: A user is allowed to access only authorized data,
and different users can be restricted to different modes of access
(such as read or write).
• User authentication: Every user is positively identified, both for the
audit trail and for permission to access certain data.
• Availability: Users can access the database in general and all the
data for which they are authorized.
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12.2.2 SENSITIVE DATA Database and
OS security
Sensitive data is data that should not made public. Sensitive data is
defined as any information that is protected against unwarranted
disclosure. Protection of data may be required for legal or ethical reasons,
for issues pertaining to personal privacy, or for proprietary
considerations. Determining which data items are sensitive depends on the
individual database and the underlying meaning of the data.
• Confidential Data is the most sensitive classification and LSU
students, faculty and staff are required by law to protect it. Examples
of confidential data include:
• Social Security Numbers
• Credit Card Numbers
• Health Records
• Financial Records
• Student Records
• Private Data is not considered confidential, but reasonable effort
should be made so that it does not become readily available to the
public. Examples of private data include:
• Research Data
• Personal Contact Data
• Proprietary information
• LSU ID (i.e. 89 number)
• Public Data is suitable for public consumption and protection of the
data is at the discretion of the owner. Examples of public data
include:
• Public budget data
• Employee contact data
• Departmental Websites
12.2.3 THREATS TO DATABASES
• Loss of integrity. Database integrity refers to the requirement to
protect information from incorrect changes. Integrity is lost if
unauthorized changes are made to the data as a result of deliberate or
accidental actions. If the loss of system or data integrity is not
resolved, further use of the infected system or corrupted data may
lead to inaccuracies, fraud or erroneous decisions.
• Loss of availability. Database availability means the accessibility of
objects to a user or program that has a legal right to these data
objects.
• Loss of confidentiality. Database confidentiality refers to the
protection of data from unauthorized disclosure. Unauthorized,
unanticipated, or unintentional disclosure could result in loss of
public confidence, embarrassment, or legal action against the
organization.
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Information Security 12.3 CONTROL MEASURES
To protect databases from threats, there are general types of control

measures:
1. Database Access control
2. Inference control
3. Flow control
4. Encryption
12.3.1 DATABASE ACCESS CONTROL
Database access controls to a database systems is based on the granting
and revoking of privileges. A privilege allows a user to create or access
(that is read, write or modify) a database object or to execute a DBMS
utility. The DBMS keeps track of how these privileges are granted to users
and possibly revoked, and ensures that at all times only users with
necessary privileges can access an object.
Database access control is a method of allowing access to company’s
sensitive data only to those people (database users) who are allowed to
access such data and to restrict access to unauthorized persons.
It includes two main components: authentication and authorization.
Authentication is a method of verifying the identity of a person who is
accessing your database.
Authorization determines whether a user should be allowed to access the
data or make the transaction he’s attempting.
Access control systems come in three variations:
1. Discretionary Access Control (DAC),
2. Mandatory Access Control (MAC),
3. Role Based Access Control (RBAC).
1. DISCRETIONARY ACCESS CONTROL (DAC)
Discretionary Access Control is a type of access control system that
holds the business owner responsible for deciding which people are
allowed in a specific location, physically or digitally.
DAC is the least restrictive compared to the other systems, as it essentially
allows an individual complete control over any objects they own, as well
as the programs associated with those objects.
The drawback to Discretionary Access Control is the fact that it gives the
end user complete control to set security level settings for other users and
the permissions given to the end user are inherited into other programs
they use which could potentially lead to malware being executed without
the end user being aware of it.
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Database and
OS security
2. MANDATORY ACCESS CONTROL (MAC),
With mandatory access control, this security policy is centrally

controlled by a security policy administrator; users do not have the
ability to override the policy and, for example, grant access to files that
would otherwise be restricted.
By contrast, discretionary access control (DAC), which also governs the

ability of subjects to access objects, allows users the ability to make policy
decisions and/or assign security attributes.
MAC-enabled systems allow policy administrators to implement

organization-wide security policies. Under MAC (and unlike DAC), users
cannot override or modify this policy, either accidentally or intentionally.
This allows security administrators to define a central policy that is
guaranteed (in principle) to be enforced for all users (ie. military
institutions).
3. ROLE-BASED ACCESS CONTROL (RBAC)
Role-based access control (RBAC) is a policy-neutral access-control

mechanism defined around roles and privileges. The components of
RBAC such as role-permissions, user-role and role-role relationships
make it simple to perform user assignments.
RBAC addresses many needs of commercial and government

organizations. RBAC can be used to facilitate administration of security
in large organizations with hundreds of users and thousands of
permissions. Although RBAC is different from MAC and DAC access
control frameworks, it can enforce these policies without any
complication.
12.3.2 INFERENCE CONTROL
Inference is a way to infer or derive sensitive data from non-sensitive

data.
Inference, as it relates to database security, is the process of performing

authorized queries and deducing unauthorized information from the
legitimate responses received. The inference problem arises when the
combination of a number of data items is more sensitive than the
individual items, or when a combination of data items can be used to infer
data of a higher sensitivity. Figure illustrates the process. The attacker
may make use of nonsensitive data as well as metadata.
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Fig. 12.1 inference channel

Metadata refers to knowledge about correlations or dependencies among
data items that can be used to deduce information not otherwise available
to a particular user. The information transfer path by which unauthorized
data is obtained is referred to as an inference channel.
Statistical databases are used to provide statistical information or
summaries of values based on various criteria.
For example, a database for population statistics may provide statistics
based on age groups, income levels, household size, education levels, and
other criteria. Statistical database users such as government statisticians or
market research firms are allowed to access the database to retrieve
statistical information about a population but not to access the detailed
confidential information about specific individuals. Security for
statistical databases must ensure that information about individuals cannot
be accessed.
In general terms, there are two approaches to dealing with the threat of
disclosure by inference:
• Inference detection during database design: This approach

removes an inference channel by altering the database structure or
by changing the access control regime to prevent inference.
Examples include removing data dependencies by splitting a table
into multiple tables or using more fine-grained access control roles
in an RBAC scheme. Techniques in this category often result in
unnecessarily stricter access controls that reduce availability.
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• Inference detection at query time: This approach seeks to Database and
OS security
eliminate an inference channel violation during a query or series of
queries. If an inference channel is detected, the query is denied or
altered.
12.3.3 FLOW CONTROL
Distributed systems encompass a lot of data flow from one site to another
and also within a site. Flow control prevents data from being transferred in
such a way that it can be accessed by unauthorized agents. A flow policy
lists out the channels through which information can flow. It also defines
security classes for data as well as transactions. Prevents information from
flowing in such a way that it reaches unauthorized users. Suitable for
database over multiuser system or network.
Flow control checks that information contained in some data objects does
not flow (explicitly or implicitly) into less protected objects.
• A clearance for a security class can be assigned to each application

program.
• Like a DB user, each application program is subjected to the same
read/write restrictions.
12.3.4 DATA ENCRYPTION
Suppose we communicate data, but our data falls into the hands of a
nonlegitimate user. In this situation, by using encryption we can disguise
the message so that even if the transmission is diverted, the message will
not be revealed.
Database encryption is the process of converting data, within
a database, in plain text format into a meaningless cipher text by means of
a suitable algorithm.
Database decryption is converting the meaningless cipher text into the
original information using keys generated by the encryption algorithms.
It enhances security and privacy when access controls are bypassed,
because in cases of data loss or theft, encrypted data cannot be easily
understood by unauthorized persons.
12.4 SECURITY IN OPERATING SYSTEMS
In this chapter we explore the role of the operating system in security.

Although operating systems are crucial for implementing separation and
access control, they are not invulnerable, and therefore compromise of an
operating system can lead to security failure. Furthermore, user’s objects
can be commingled with code and data for applications and support
routines, and operating systems are limited in their ability to separate and
protect these resources.
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Information Security In this chapter a brief overview of operating system designs. We continue
by examining aspects of operating system design that enhance security.
Finally, we consider rootkits, the most serious compromise of an operating
system; with such an exploit the attacker undermines the entire operating
system and thus all the security protections it is expected to provide.
The operating system is the fundamental controller of all system
resources—which makes it a primary target of attack, as well.
When the operating system initializes at system boot time, it initiates tasks
in an orderly sequence, such as, first, primitive functions and device
drivers, then process controllers, followed by file and memory
management routines and finally, the user interface. To establish security,
early tasks establish a firm defense to constrain later tasks. Primitive
operating system functions, such as interprocess communication and basic
input and output, must precede more complex structures such as files,
directories, and memory segments, in part because these primitive
functions are necessary to implement the latter constructs, and also
because basic communication is necessary so that different operating
system functions can communicate with each other. Antivirus applications
are usually initiated late because they are add-ons to the operating system;
still, antivirus code must be in control before the operating system allows
access to new objects that might contain viruses. Clearly, prevention
software can protect only if it is active before the malicious code.
But what if the malware embeds itself in the operating system, such that it
is active before operating system components that might detect or block
it? Or what if the malware can circumvent or take over other parts of the
operating system? This sequencing leads to an important vulnerability:
Gaining control before the protector means that the protector’s power is
limited. In that case, the attacker has near-complete control of the system:
The malicious code is undetectable and unstoppable. Because the malware
operates with the privileges of the root of the operating system, it is called
a rootkit. Although embedding a rootkit within the operating system is
difficult, a successful effort is certainly worth it. We examine rootkits later
in this chapter. Before we can study that class of malware, we must first
consider the components from which operating systems are composed.
12.4.1 OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE
Every operating system has its own internal structure in terms of file
arrangement, memory management, storage management, etc., and the
entire performance of the system depends on its structure. The internal
structure of operating system provides an idea of how the components of
the operating system are interconnected and blended into kernel. This
section discusses various system structures that have evolved with time.
Some approaches of Operating System are:
1. Simple Structure
2. Monolithic Systems
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4. Microkernels Database and
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5. Client-Server Model
6. Virtual Machines
7. Exokernels
1. Simple Structure:
OS started as small, simple, and limited systems and then grew beyond
their original scope. MS- DOS is an example of such a system. Early
operating systems were developed with an elementary approach without
much concern about the structure. In this approach, the structure of the
operating systems was not well-defined. The operating systems were
monolithic, written as a collection of procedures where each procedure is
free to call any other procedure. An example of operating systems
designed with this approach is MS-DOS. Initially, MS-DOS was designed
as a small-size and simple system, and with limited scope, but grew
beyond its scope with time. It was designed with the idea of providing
more functionality within less space; therefore, it was not carefully
divided into modules. Figure shows the structure of the MS-DOS system.
Fig 12.2 MS-DOS Structure

Though MS-DOS has a limited structuring, there is no clear separation
between the different interfaces and level of functionality. For example,
application programs can directly call the basic I/O routines to read/write
data on disk instead of going through a series of interfaces. This
exemption makes the MS-DOS system susceptible to malicious programs
that may lead to system crash. Moreover, due to the lack of hardware
protection and dual-mode operation in the Intel 8088 system (for which
MS-DOS system was developed), the base hardware was directly
accessible to the application programs.
2. Monolithic System
In the monolithic approach the entire operating system runs as a single
program in kernel mode. The operating system is written as a collection
of procedures, linked together into a single large executable program.
Each procedure in the system is free to call any other process. Being able
to call any procedure makes the system very efficient. No information
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and LINUX.
This organization suggests a basic structure for the operating system:
• Main Function- invokes requested service procedure

• Service Procedures- carry out system calls
• Utility functions- Help service procedures to perform certain tasks
Disadvantage:
1. Difficult and complicated structure.
2. A crash in any of these procedures will take down the entire
operating system
Fig. 12.3 Simple Structuring model for a monolithic system

3. Layered Structure
In the layered approach, the operating system is organized as a hierarchy
of layers with each layer built on the top of the layer below it. The topmost
layer is the user interface, while the bottommost layer is the hardware.
Each layer has a well defined function and comprises data structures and a
set of routines. The layers are constructed in such a manner that a typical
layer (say, layer n) is able to invoke operations on its lower layers and the
operations of layer n can be invoked by its higher layers.
The same concept of layered approach was also implemented by
MULTICS with concentric rings. The procedures in out rings are
supposed to make a system call to access the process in the inner ring.
The diagram reflects the structure of the operating system with following
details
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Fig. 12.4 Structure of the THE Operating System

Layer 0 dealt with allocation of the processor, switching between
processes when interrupts occurred or timers expired.
Layer 1 did the memory management. It allocated space for processes in
main memory
Layer 2 handled communication between each process and the operator
console
Layer 3 took care of managing the I/O devices and buffering the
information streams
Layer 4 was where the user programs were found.
Layer 5 the system operator process was located.
TRAP instruction whose parameters were carefully checked for validity
before the call was allowed to proceed.
4. Microkernels
In the mid-1980s, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University developed an
operating system called Mach that modularized the kernel using the
microkernel approach. This method structures the operating system by
removing all nonessential components from the kernel and implementing
them as system and user-level programs. The result is a smaller kernel.
Microkernel structure focuses on making the kernel smaller by reducing
the non essential components from the kernel. These non essential
components are placed in user space. The basic idea behind the
microkernel design is to achieve high reliability by splitting the operating
system up into small, well-defined modules. The microkernel—runs in
kernel mode. The main function of microkernel is to provide a
communication facility between the client program and various services
that are also running in user space. All new services are added to the user
space and the kernel doesn’t need to be modified.
Microkernel provides high security and reliability as most of the services
are running in user space, if a service fails the rest operating system
remains untouched
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overhead.
Fig. 12.5 Microkernel structure

5. Modular structure or approach:
It is considered as the best approach for an OS. It involves designing of a
modular kernel. The kernel has only set of core components and other
services are added as dynamically loadable modules to the kernel either
during run time or boot time. It resembles layered structure due to the fact
that each kernel has defined and protected interfaces but it is more flexible
than the layered structure as a module can call any other module.
For example Solaris OS is organized as shown in the figure.
Fig. 12.6 Modular structure

6. Client Server System
The servers, each of which provides some service, and the clients, which
use these services. This model is known as the client-server model. Since
clients communicate with servers by sending messages, the clients need
not know whether the messages are handled locally on their own
machines, or whether they are sent across a network to servers on a remote
machine. As far as the client is concerned: requests are sent and replies
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come back. Thus the client-server model is an abstraction that can be used Database and
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for a single machine or for a network of machines.
Fig. 12.7 Client Server System

7. Virtual Machines
Virtual machine is nothing but the identical copy of the bare hardware
including CPU, disks, I/O devices, interrupts, etc. It allows each user to
run operating system or software packages of his choice on a single
machine thereby creating an illusion that each user has its own machine.
The virtual machine operating system (VMOS) creates several virtual
machines by partitioning the resources of the real machine. The operating
system uses the CPU scheduling and virtual memory concept to create an
appearance that each running process has its own processor as well own
virtual memory (see Figure 1.14). The spooling and file system are used to
create illusion of each user having own card reader and line printer.
Fig. 12.8 Virtual Machine Structure

The virtual memory approach provides the following benefits: Using
virtual machines does not result in an extra overhead and performance
degradation as each virtual machine has same architecture as that of a real
machine.
Generally, while developing the operating system, the normal functioning
of the current system is to be halted. However, by using the virtual
machine system, each system programmer can be provided with his own 205
Information Security virtual machine for system development. Thus, there is no need to
interrupt the normal system operation. The VMOS keeps the virtual
machines isolated from one another. This results in the protection of
system resources.
8. Exokernel
Exokernel runs in the bottom layer of kernel mode. Its job is to allocate
resources to virtual machines and then check attempts to use them to make
sure no machine is trying to use somebody else’s resources.
Rather than cloning the actual machine, as is done with virtual machines,
another strategy is partitioning it, giving each user a subset of the
resources. At the bottom layer, running in kernel mode, is a program
called the exokernel. Its job is to allocate resources to virtual machines
and then check attempts to use them to make sure no machine is trying to
use somebody else’s resources. Example: VM/360
The advantage of the Exo-kernel scheme is that it saves a layer of
mapping. In the other designs, each virtual machine thinks it has its own
disk, with blocks running from 0 to some maximum, so the virtual
machine monitor must maintain tables to remap disk addresses (and all
other resources).With the exokernel, this remapping is not needed.
Fig. 12.9 Exokernel Structure

12.4.2 SECURITY FEATURES OF ORDINARY OPERATING
SYSTEMS
A multiprogramming operating system performs several functions that
relate to security.
To see how, examine Figure which illustrates how an operating system
interacts with users, provides services, and allocates resources.
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Fig. 12.10 Ordinary Operating System

We can see that the system addresses several particular functions that
involve computer security:
• Enforced sharing. Resources should be made available to users as

appropriate.
• Sharing brings about the need to guarantee integrity and consistency.

Table lookup, combined with integrity controls such as monitors or
transaction processors, is often used to support controlled sharing.
• Interprocess communication and synchronization. Executing

processes sometimes need to communicate with other processes or
to synchronize their accesses to shared resources. Operating systems
provide these services by acting as a bridge between processes,
responding to process requests for asynchronous communication
with other processes or synchronization. Interprocess
communication is mediated by access control tables.
• Protection of critical operating system data. The operating system

must maintain data by which it can enforce security. Obviously, if
these data are not protected against unauthorized access (read,
modify, and delete), the operating system cannot provide
enforcement. Various techniques (including encryption, hardware
control, and isolation) support protection of operating system
security data.
• Guaranteed fair service. All users expect CPU usage and other
service to be provided so that no user is indefinitely starved from
receiving service. Hardware clocks combine with scheduling
disciplines to provide fairness. Hardware facilities and data tables
combine to provide control. 207
Information Security • Interface to hardware. All users access hardware functionality. Fair
access and controlled sharing are hallmarks of multitask operating
systems (those running more than one task concurrently), but a more
elementary need is that users require access to devices,
communications lines, hardware clocks, and processors. Few users
access these hardware resources directly, but all users employ such
things through programs and utility functions. Hardware interface
used to be more tightly bound into an operating system’s design;
now, however, operating systems are designed to run on a range of
hardware platforms, both to maximize the size of the potential
market and to position the operating system for hardware design
enhancements.
• User authentication. The operating system must identify each user

who requests access and must ascertain that the user is actually who
he or she purports to be. The most common authentication
mechanism is password comparison.
• Memory protection. Each user’s program must run in a portion of

memory protected against unauthorized accesses. The protection
will certainly prevent outsiders’ accesses, and it may also control a
user’s own access to restricted parts of the program space.
Differential security, such as read, write, and execute, may be
applied to parts of a user’s memory space. Memory protection is
usually performed by hardware mechanisms, such as paging or
segmentation.
• File and I/O device access control. The operating system must
protect user and system files from access by unauthorized users.
Similarly, I/O device use must be protected. Data protection is
usually achieved by table lookup, as with an access control matrix.
• Allocation and access control to general objects. Users need

general objects, such as constructs to permit concurrency and allow
synchronization. However, access to these objects must be
controlled so that one user does not have a negative effect on other
users. Again, table lookup is the common means by which this
protection is provided.
You can probably see security implications in many of these primitive
operating systems functions. Operating systems show several faces:
traffic director, police agent, preschool teacher, umpire, timekeeper, clerk,
and housekeeper, to name a few. These fundamental, primitive functions
of an operating system are called kernel functions, because they are basic
to enforcing security as well as the other higher-level operations an
operating system provides. Indeed, the operating system kernel, which we
describe shortly, is the basic block that supports all higher-level operating
system functions.
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12.4.3 OPERATING SYSTEM TOOLS TO IMPLEMENT Database and
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SECURITY FUNCTIONS
In this section we consider how an operating system actually implements
the security functions for general objects of unspecified types, such as
files, devices, or lists, memory objects, databases, or sharable tables.
Operating systems implement both the underlying tables supporting access
control and the mechanisms that check for acceptable uses.
Important operating system function related to the access control function
is audit: a log of which subject accessed which object when and in what
manner. Auditing is a tool for reacting after a security breach, not for
preventing one. If critical information is leaked, an audit log may help to
determine exactly what information has been compromised and perhaps
by whom and when. Such knowledge can help limit the damage of the
breach and also help prevent future incidents by illuminating what went
wrong this time.
Audit logs show what happened in an incident; analysis of logs can
guide prevention of future successful strikes.
An operating system cannot log every action because of the volume of
such data. This is too much data impedes timely and critical analysis.
Virtualization
Another important operating system security technique is virtualization,
providing the appearance of one set of resources by using different
resources. If you present a plate of cookies to a group of children, the
cookies will likely all disappear. If you hide the cookies and put them out
a few at a time you limit the children’s access. Operating systems can do
the same thing.
Virtual Machine
Suppose one set of users, call it the A set, is to be allowed to access only
A data, and different users, the B set, can access only B data. We can
implement this separation easily and reliably with two unconnected
machines. But for performance, economic, or efficiency reasons, that
approach may not be desirable. If the A and B sets overlap, strict
separation is impossible.
Another approach is virtualization, in which the operating system
presents each user with just the resources that class of user should see. To
an A user, the machine, called a virtual machine, contains only the A
resources. It could seem to the A user as if there is a disk drive, for
example, with only the A data. The A user is unable to get to or even
know of the existence of B resources, because the A user has no way to
formulate a command that would expose those resources, just as if they
were on a separate machine.
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Information Security Virtualization: presenting a user the appearance of a system with only
the resources the user is entitled to use.
Virtualization has advantages other than for security. With virtual
machines, an operating system can simulate the effect of one device by
using another. So, for example, if an installation decides to replace local
disk devices with cloud-based storage, neither the users nor their programs
need make any change; the operating system virtualizes the disk drives by
covertly modifying each disk access command so the new commands
retrieve and pass along the right data.
Hypervisor
A hypervisor, or virtual machine monitor, is the software that
implements a virtual machine. It receives all user access requests, directly
passes along those that apply to real resources the user is allowed to
access, and redirects other requests to the virtualized resources.
Virtualization can apply to operating systems as well as to other resources.
Thus, for example, one virtual machine could run the operating system of
an earlier, outdated machine. Instead of maintaining compatibility with old
operating systems, developers would like people to transition to a new
system. However, installations with a large investment in the old system
might prefer to make the transition gradually; to be sure the new system
works, system managers may choose to run both old and new systems in
parallel, so that if the new system fails for any reason, the old system
provides uninterrupted use. In fact, for a large enough investment, some
installations might prefer to never switch. With a hypervisor to run the old
system, all legacy applications and systems work properly on the new
system.
A hypervisor can also support two or more operating systems
simultaneously. Suppose you are developing an operating system for a
new hardware platform; the hardware will not be ready for some time, but
when it is available, at the same time you want to have an operating
system that can run on it. Alas, you have no machine on which to develop
and test your new system. The solution is a virtual machine monitor that
simulates the entire effect of the new hardware. It receives system calls
from your new operating system and responds just as would the real
hardware. Your operating system cannot detect that it is running in a
software-controlled environment.
This controlled environment has obvious security advantages: Consider a
law firm working on both defense and prosecution of the same case. To
install two separate computing networks and computing systems for the
two teams is infeasible, especially considering that the teams could
legitimately share common resources (access to a library or use of
common billing and scheduling functions, for example). Two virtual
machines with both separation and overlap support these two sides
effectively and securely.
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Sandbox Database and
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A concept similar to virtualization is the notion of a sandbox. As its name
implies, a sandbox is a protected environment in which a program can run
and not endanger anything else on the system.
Sandbox: an environment from which a process can have only limited,
controlled impact on outside resources
The original design of the Java system was based on the sandbox concept,
skillfully led by Li Gong. The designers of Java intended the system to run
code, called applets, downloaded from untrusted sources such as the
Internet. Java trusts locally derived code with full access to sensitive
system resources (such as files). It does not, however, trust downloaded
remote code; for that code Java provides a sandbox, limited resources that
cannot cause negative effects outside the sandbox. The idea behind this
design was that web sites could have code execute remotely (on local
machines) to display complex content on web browsers.
Java compilers and a tool called a byte code verifier ensure that the system
executes only well-formed Java commands. A class loader utility is part of
the virtual machine monitor to constrain untrusted applets to the safe
sandbox space. Finally, the Java Virtual Machine serves as a reference
monitor to mediate all access requests. The Java runtime environment is a
kind of virtual machine that presents untrusted applets with an
unescapable bounded subset of system resources.
Unfortunately, the original Java design proved too restrictive; people
wanted applets to be able to access some resource outside the sandbox.
Opening the sandbox became a weak spot, as you can well appreciate. A
subsequent release of the Java system allowed signed applets to have
access to most other system resources, which became potential and soon
actual security vulnerability. Still, the original concept showed the security
strength of a sandbox as a virtual machine.
Honeypot
A final example of a virtual machine for security is the honeypot. A
honeypot is a faux environment intended to lure an attacker. Usually
employed in a network, a honeypot shows a limited (safe) set of resources
for the attacker; meanwhile, administrators monitor the attacker’s
activities in real time to learn more about the attacker’s objectives, tools,
techniques, and weaknesses, and then use this knowledge to defend
systems effectively.
Honeypot: system to lure an attacker into an environment that can be
both controlled and monitored
Cliff Stoll and Bill Cheswick both employed this form of honeypot to
engage with their separate attackers. The attackers were interested in
sensitive data, especially to identify vulnerabilities (presumably to exploit
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Information Security later). In these cases, the researchers engaged with the attacker, supplying
real or false results in real time.
As a best security practice, the honeypots aimed at diverting attacks

from the Internet should be run on a dedicated physical machine, which
is not connected to your real production network or, has a firewall
between the two. The honeynet is typically placed in the DMZ or
perimeter network. Another approach is to place a honeypot on your
internal network to detect attacks that come from insiders.
12.5 ROOTKIT
In the UNIX operating system root is the identity of the most powerful
user, owning sensitive system resources such as memory and performing
powerful actions such as creating users and killing processes. The identity
root is not normally a user with login credentials; instead it is the name of
the entity (subject) established to own and run all primitive system tasks
(and these tasks create the remaining user identities such as admin and
ordinary users). Thus, compromising becoming a task with root privilege
is a hacker’s ultimate goal because from that position the hacker has
complete and unrestricted system control.
Root: most privileged subject (in a UNIX system)
As you have seen, there are two types of attackers: those who craft new
attacks and those who merely execute someone else’s brainchild. The
latter far outnumber the former, but the new attacks are especially
troublesome because they are new, and therefore unknown to protection
tools and response teams. People who execute attack code from someone
else are sometimes pejoratively called “script kiddies” because they
simply execute someone else’s attack script or package. An attack package
that attains root status is called a rootkit. In this section we look at rootkits
to see how the power of root can be used to cause serious and hard-to-
eradicate harm.
Rootkit: Tool or script that obtains privileges of root
12.5 .1 Phone Rootkit
Researchers at Rutgers University demonstrated an ability to load a rootkit
onto a mobile phone. The operating system of a mobile phone is rather
simple, although Smartphone with their rich functionality demand a more
complex operating system to support a graphical user interface,
downloadable applications, and files of associated data. The complexity of
the operating system led to more opportunities for attack and, ultimately, a
rootkit. Rootkits can exist on any operating system; the Rutgers
researchers chose to investigate this platform because it is relatively
simple and many users forget or are unaware it is an operating system that
can be compromised. The points in this research apply equally to
operating systems for more traditional computers.
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In one test, the researchers demonstrated a rootkit that could turn on a Database and
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phone’s microphone without the owner’s knowing it happened. In such a
case, the attacker would send an invisible text message to the infected
phone, telling it to place a call and turn on the microphone; imagine the
impact of such an attack when the phone’s owner is in a meeting on which
the attacker wants to eavesdrop.
In another demonstration, these same researchers displayed a rootkit that
responds to a text query by relaying the phone’s location as furnished by
its GPS receiver. This would enable an attacker to track the owner’s
whereabouts.
In a third test, the researchers showed a rootkit that could turn on power-
hungry capabilities such as the Bluetooth radio and GPS receiver to
quickly drain the battery. People depend on cell phones for emergencies.
Imagine a scenario in which the attacker wants to prevent the victim from
calling for help, for example, when the attacker is chasing the victim in a
car. If the phone’s battery is dead, the cell phone cannot summon help.
The worst part of these three attacks is that they are effectively
undetectable: The cell phone’s interface seems no different to the user
who is unaware of danger. The rootkit can thus perform actions normally
reserved for the operating system but does so without the user’s
knowledge. A rootkit is a variation on the virus theme. A rootkit is a piece
of malicious code that goes to great lengths not to be discovered or, if
discovered and removed, to reestablish itself whenever possible. The name
rootkit refers to the code’s attempt to operate as root, the ultra-privileged
user of a Unix system, so-named because the most critical and
fundamental parts of the Unix operating system are called root functions.
Put yourself in the mind of an attacker. If you want persistency, you want
an attack that is really difficult to detect so your victim cannot find and try
to eradicate your code.
Two conditions can help you remain undiscovered: your code executing
before other programs that might block your execution and you’re not
being detected as a file or process. You can achieve these two goals
together. Being in control early in the system boot cycle would allow you
to control the other system defenses instead of their controlling you. If
your code is introduced early enough, it can override other normal system
functions that would detect its presence.
12.5.2 SONY XCP ROOTKIT
A computer security expert named Mark Russinovich developed a rootkit
revealer, which he ran on one of his systems. Instead of using a high-level
utility program like the file manager to inventory all files, Russinovich
wrote code that called the NTQueryDirectoryObject function directly.
Summing the file sizes in his program, he compared the directory size
against what the file manager reported; a discrepancy led him to look
further. He was surprised to find a rootkit. On further investigation he
determined the rootkit had been installed when he loaded and played a
Sony music CD on his computer. 213
Information Security Princeton University researchers Edward Felten and Alex Halderman
extensively examined this rootkit, named XCP (short for extended copy
protection).
What XCP Does
The XCP rootkit was installed (automatically and without the user’s
knowledge) from the Sony music CD to prevent a user from copying the
tunes, while allowing the CD to be played as audio. To do this, it includes
its own special music player that is allowed to play the CD. But XCP
interferes with any other access to the protected music CD by garbling the
result any other process would obtain in trying to read from the CD. The
rootkit scrambled the result so that it was meaningless as music and passed
that uninterruptable result to the calling application.
The rootkit has to install itself when the CD is first inserted in the PC’s
drive. To do this, XCP depends on a “helpful” feature of Windows: With
the “autorun” feature, Windows looks on each newly inserted CD for a file
with a specific name, and if it finds that, it opens and executes the file
without the user’s involvement. (The file name can be configured in
Windows, although it is autorun.exe by default.) You can disable the
autorun feature. XCP has to hide from the user so that the user cannot just
remove or disable it. So the rootkit does as we just described: It blocks
display of any program whose name begins with $sys$ (which is how it is
named). Unfortunately for Sony, this feature concealed not just XCP but
any program beginning with $sys$ from any source, malicious or not. So
any virus writer could conceal a virus just by naming it $sys$virus-1, for
example.
Sony did two things wrong: First, as we just observed, it distributed code
that inadvertently opens an unsuspecting user’s system to possible
infection by other writers of malicious code. Second, Sony installs that
code without the user’s knowledge, much less consent, and it employs
strategies to prevent the code’s removal.
Patching the Penetration
Why “penetrate and patch” was abandoned as a security strategy? Among
other reasons, the pressure for a quick repair sometimes leads to
shortsighted solutions that address the immediate situation and not the
underlying cause: Fixing one fault often causes a failure somewhere else.
Sony’s uninstaller itself opened serious security holes. It was presented as
a web page that downloaded and executed the uninstaller. But the
programmers did not check what code they were executing, and so the
web page would run any code from any source, not just the intended
uninstaller. And worse, the code to perform downloads and installations
remained on the system even after XCP was uninstalled, meaning that the
vulnerability persisted. (In fact, Sony used two different rootkits from two
different sources and, remarkably, the uninstallers for both rootkits had
this same vulnerability.) How many computers were infected by this
rootkit? Nobody knows for sure.
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Security researcher Dan Kaminsky found 500,000 references in DNS Database and
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tables to the site the rootkit contacts, but some of those DNS entries could
support accesses by hundreds or thousands of computers. How many users
of computers on which the rootkit was installed are aware of it? Again
nobody knows, nor does anybody know how many of those installations
might not yet have been removed. An interesting analysis of this situation,
examining how digital rights management (copy protection for digital
media such as music CDs) leads to requirements similar to those for a
malicious code developer. The full potential range of rootkit behavior as a
way of determining how to defend against them. Automatic software
updates, antivirus tools, spyware, even applications all do things without
the user’s express permission or even knowledge. They also sometimes
conspire against the user: Sony worked with major antivirus vendors so its
rootkit would not be detected, because keeping the user uninformed was
better for all of them, or so Sony and the vendors thought.
12.5.3 TDSS Rootkits
TDSS is the name of a family of rootkits, TDL-1 through (currently) TDL-

4, based on the Alureon rootkit, code discovered by Symantec in
September 2008. The TDSS group originated in 2008 with TDL-1, a
relatively basic rootkit whose main function seemed to be collecting and
exfiltrating personal data. TDL-1 seemed to have stealth as its major
objective, which it accomplished by several changes to the Windows
operating system.
First, it installed filter code in the stack of drivers associated with access to
each disk device. These filters drop all references to files whose names
begin with “tdl,” the file name prefix TDL uses for all its files. With these
filters, TDL-1 can install as many files as it requires, anywhere on any
disk volume. Furthermore, the filters block direct access to any disk
volume, and other filters limit access to network ports, all by installation
of malicious drivers, the operating system routines that handle
communication with devices. The Windows registry, the database of
critical system information, is loaded with entries to cause these malicious
drivers to reload on every system startup.
The TDL-1 rootkit hides these registry values by modifying the system
function NTEnumerateKey, used to list data items (keys) in the registry.
The modification replaces the first few bytes of the system function with a
jump instruction to transfer to the rootkit function, which skips over any
rootkit keys before returning control to the normal system function.
Modifying code by inserting a jump to an extension is called splicing, and
a driver infected this way is said to have been hooked. Splicing: a
technique allowing third-party code to be invoked to service interrupts and
device driver calls.
215
Information Security In early 2009, the second version, TDL-2 appeared. Functionality and
operation were similar to those of TDL-1, the principal difference being
that the code itself was obscured by scrambling, encrypted, and padded
with nonsense data such as words from Hamlet. Later that year, the TDSS
developers unleashed TDL-3. Becoming even more sophisticated, TDL-3
implemented its own file system so that it could be completely
independent of the regular Windows functions for managing files using
FAT (file allocation table) or NTFS (NT file system) technology
[DRW09]. The rootkit hooked to a convenient driver, typically atapi.sys,
the driver for IDE hard disk drives, although it could also hook to the
kernel, according to Microsoft’s Johnson. At this point, TDSS developers
introduced command-and-control servers with which the rootkit
communicates to receive work assignments and to return data collected or
other results.
TDL-3 also began to communicate by using an encrypted communications

stream, effectively preventing analysts from interpreting the data stream.
All these changes made the TDSS family increasingly difficult to detect.
Network World estimated that in 2009, 3 million computers were
controlled by TDSS, more than half of which were located in the United
States. These controlled computers are sold or rented for various tasks,
such as sending spam, stealing data, or defrauding users with fake
antivirus tools. But TDL-3 is not the end of the line.
A fourth generation, TDL-4, appeared in autumn 2010. This version

circumvented the latest Microsoft security techniques. TDL-4 follows the
path of other TDSS rootkits by hooking system drivers to install itself and
remain undetected. But during this time, Microsoft’s 64-bit Windows
software implemented a cryptographic technique by which a portion of
each driver is encrypted, using a digital signature. Basically, Microsoft’s
digital signatures let it verify the source and integrity of kernel-level code
each time the code is to be loaded (ordinarily at system boot time). TDL-4
changes a system configuration value Load Integrity Check Policy so that
the unsigned rootkit is loaded without checking. TDL-4 infects the master
boot record (MBR) and replaces the kernel debugger (kdcom.dll) that
would ordinarily be available to debug kernel-level activity. The replaced
debugger returns only safe values (meaning those that do not reveal TDL-
4), making it difficult for analysts to investigate the form and function of
this rootkit. The sophistication of the TDSS family is amazing, as is its
ability to adapt to system changes such as code integrity checking.
12.6 LET US SUM UP

This chapter covered the Security related to database, Database access
control and inference. We studied the Security in operating systems.
Structure of the operating system has evolved with time. Most common
216
216 ones includes monolithic, layered, microkernel etc.
In this chapter we studied how an operating system actually implements Database and
OS security
the security functions for general objects of unspecified types, such as
files, devices, or lists, memory objects, databases, or sharable tables. A
multiprogramming operating system performs several functions that relate
to security. For best security practices, the operating systems and
applications running on VMs should be secured in the same way you
would secure them on individual physical machines. Virtualization
should be only one of many tools in your security arsenal. Rootkits to
see how the power of root can be used to cause serious and hard-to-
eradicate harm.
12.7 LIST OF REFERENCES
Reference Reference Name

Books:
1 Security in Computing fifth edition Charles P.
Pfleeger Shari Lawrence Pfleeger Jonathan
Margulies
Reference No Reference Name
1 https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F9
78-1-4302-6383-8_16.pdf
2 docs.oracle.com/cd/B19306_01/server.102/b14220/
security.htm
3 https://www.w3.org/Security/security-resource
4 https://www.sophos.com/en-us/labs/security-threat-
report.aspx
5 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/cryptography/data_i
ntegrity_in_cryptography.htm
6 https://www.unf.edu/public/cop4610/ree/Notes/PPT
/PPT8E/CH15-OS8e.pdf
12.8 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Explain Security requirements of database.

2. Define term: a) Database b)Sensitive data c)Rootkits
3. Explain Database access control and its types.
4. Explain with neat diagram Inference Control.
5. Explain the micro kernel approach of Operating System design.
6. Explain client-server model.
7. List various Operating Systems. Explain any two.
8. Describe threats to databases.
9. Describe purpose of inference control
217
Information Security 10. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Exokernel
(b) Virtual machines
(c) Layered Structure
11. Explain Security Features of Ordinary Operating Systems.
12. Explain any two Operating System Tools to Implement Security
Functions.
13. What is Rootkit? Give Example.
14. Write short notes on the following:
a. Phone Rootkit
b. Sony XCP Rootkit
c. TDSS Rootkits

218
218

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F.Y.

Dr. Suhas Pednekar

Programme Co-ordinator : Shri Mandar Bhanushe

May 2022, Print - 1

DTP composed and Printed by:

Module 2 Cryptography and Authentication

3 Stream Cipher and block Cipher.............................................................................34

Module 3 Digital certificates and integrity

7 Public Key Infrastructure........................................................................................90

Module 4 Internet and web security

9 Internet and web security......................................................................................133

Module 5 Firewall and IDS

Module 6 Database and OS Security

12 DATABASE AND OS SECURITY......................................................................192

Sr. Module Detail Contents

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SECURITY

• Freedom from risk or danger; safety.

• Protect vital information while still allowing access to those who

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF SECURITY

Now we classify the principles related to security, which help us

Fig. 1.2 Principles of Security

Examples of Security Requirements

• Confidentiality – student grades

Security attack is an action that compromises the security of information

Fig. 1.3.1 Normal flow

Security attacks are classified into four general categories:

Fig. 1.3.2 Interruption

Fig. 1.3.3 Interception

Fig. 1.3.4 Modification

Fig. 1.3.5 Fabrication

Security attacks are classified into two:

Fig. 1.3.6 Release of message contents

2. Traffic analysis: In traffic analysis attack opponents will observe

Fig. 1.3.7 Traffic analysis

1. Masquerade: It takes place when one entity claims to be a different

Fig. 1.3.8 Masquerade

2. Replay: It involves the passive capture of a data unit and its

Fig. 1.3.9 Replay

Fig. 1.3.10 Modification of messages

Fig. 1.3.11 Repudiation

Fig. 1.3.12 Denial of service

The usual use of communication systems can be prevented. This attack

ACTIVE ATTACK PASSIVE ATTACK

Attacker needs to have Attacker merely needs to

It can be easily detected. It cannot be easily detected.

It affects the system. It does not affect the system.

It involves a modification of It involves the monitoring of

Types of active attacks are Types of passive attacks are the

It does not check for It scans the ports and network in

It is difficult to prevent Passive attacks can be

1.4 SECURITY SERVICES

The International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication

• Connection Confidentiality: All user data on a connection link is

• Connection Integrity with Recovery: Maintains the integrity of all

• Peer Entity Authentication: Used in association with a logical

• Nonrepudiation, Origin : Proof that the message was sent by the

• Nonrepudiation, Destination : Proof that the message was received

1.5 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF SECURITY

Functional requirements define the basic system behavior. Essentially,

• Able to uniquely identify individual system users