13

2 . Basic Principle of AC generation

Alternating voltage is generated by rotating a coil of conducting wire in a strong magnetic field. The
magnetic flux linked with the coil changes with time and an alternating emf is thus induced.
Instantaneous flux linked with coil is
 
  ( A . B )n 

 ABn cos(t   0 )
where A = area of the coil (in m2)
B
B = magnetic field ( in tesla) =t
n̂
n = number of turns
2
 = angular frequency   2f (in rad s-1)
T
f = frequency (in hertz)
0 = initial phase angle.
and the alternating voltage is given by :
d
V=  = V0 sin  t
dt

Where V0 = ABn
The instantaneous value of an AC is given by :
I = I0 sin  t
Here ,  is the angular frequency of AC and (/2) is the frequency of AC. (2 /)
represents the time period of AC.
In one cycle of AC, current increases from zero to a maximum, then decreases to zero
and reverses in direction and then decreases to zero. Thus current is zero twice in one
cycle and is numerically maximum also twice in one cycle, once in the forward direction
and once in the backward direction in one cycle. Time taken to complete one cycle is
called Time Period. The frequency of AC represents the number of cycles of AC
completed in one second. AC supplied in India has a frequency of 50 Hz.
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3 . Average Values of ac Voltage and AC Current
AC voltage or currrents are commonly sinusoidal (sine or cosine function) and their mean values for
complete cycle is zero. The average values for half cycles are equally positive and negative
(i) Average value for one half cycle (or rectified average value):
V = V0sint
T /2

 V dt
0 2
T /2
2
 (V ) av  T /2

T  V sin t dt   V
0
0 0  0.637V0 .
 dt
0
This is also known as the rectified average value of a sinusoidal voltage and is represented
as Vav .
(ii) Root Mean Square Value (Vrms or I rms ) :
Since V or I are equally negative and positive, their squares will always be positive
and the square root of the average of their square will give the rms values.
 V = V0sint
T T
1 V02 V02
V 
2
av 
T 0
V0
2
sin 2
 tdt 
2T 0
(1  cos 2t ) dt 
2

V0
Thus Vrms  (V 2 )av 
2
I0 Peak value
and Irms  (I2 )av  or RMS value =
2 2

15
4 . Series AC Circuit
(i) When only Resistance is in AC Circuit
Consider a simple ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R and an ac generator, as
shown in figure.

According to Kirchhoff’s loop law at any instant, the algebraic sum of the potential differ-
ence around a closed loop in a circuit must be zero
 – VR = 0
 – iRR = 0
0sint – iRR = 0
0
iR  sin t  i0 sin t ...(i)
R
0
where i0 is the maximum current. i 0 
R
From above equations, we see that the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor is
VR = i0Rsint ...(ii)
We see in equation (i) and (ii), iR and VR both vary as sint and reach their maximum values
at the same time as shown in figure (a), they are said to be in phase. A phasor diagram is used
to represent phase relationships. The lengths of the arrows correspond to V0 and i0. The
projections of the arrows onto the vertical axis gives VR and iR. In case of the single-loop
resistive circuit, the current and voltage phasors lie along the same line, as shown in figure
(b), because iR and VR are in phase.
(ii) When only Inductor is in an AC Circuit
Now consider an ac circuit consisting only of an inductor of inductance L connected to the
terminals of an ac generator, as shown in the figure. The induced emf across the inductor is
given by Ldi/dt. On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit

di
 – VL = 0  – L 0
dt
When we rearrange this equation and substitute  = 0sint, we get
di
L  0 sin t ...(iii)
dt
Integration of this expression gives the current as a function of time
0 
iL   sin tdt   0 cos t  C
L L
For average value of current over one time period to be zero, C = 0
0
 iL   cos t
L
When we use the trigonometric identity cost = – sin(t – /2), we can express equation as
0  
iL  sin  t   ...(iv)
L  2
From equation (iv), we see that the current reaches its maximum values when cost = 1
0 
i0   0 ...(v)
L X L
where the quantity XL, called the inductive reactance, is
XL = L
The expression for the rms current is similar to equation (v), with 0 replaced by rms.

Inductive reactance, like resistance, has unit of ohm.

di
VL  L   0 sin t  I 0 X L sin t
dt
We can think of equation (v) as Ohms law for an inductive circuit.
On comparing result of equation (iv) with equation (iii), we can see that the current and voltage are
out of phase with each other by /2 rad, or 90°. A plot of voltage and current versus time is
given in figure (a). The voltage reaches its maximum value one quarter of an oscillation
period before the current reaches its maximum value. The corresponding phasor diagram for
this circuit is shown in figure (b). Thus, we see that for a sinusoidal applied voltage, the
current in an inductor always lags behind the votage across the inductor by 90°.

(iii) When only Capacitor is in an AC Circuit

Figure shows an ac circuit consisting of a capacitor of capacitance C
connected across the terminals of an ac generator. On applying
Kirchhoff’s loop rule to this circuit gives
 – VC = 0
VC =  = 0sint
where VC is the instantaneous voltage drop across the capacitor. From the definition of
capacitance, VC = Q/C, and this value for VC substituted into equation gives
Q = C0sint
Since i = dQ/dt, on differentiating above equation gives the instantaneous current in the
circuit.

dQ
iC =  C 0 cos t
dt
Here again we see that the current is not in phase with the voltage drop across the capacitor,
given by equation (vi). Using the trigonometric identity cost = sin(t + /2), we can ex-
press this equation in the alternative form

 
i C  C 0 sin  t   (vii)
 2
From equation (vii), we see that the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value when cost = 1.

0
i0  C0 
XC
where XC is called the capacitive reactance
1
XC 
C
The SI unit of XC is also ohm. The rms current is given by an expression similar to equation
with V0 replaced by Vrms.
Combining equation (vi) and (vii), we can express the instantaneous voltage drop across the
capacitor as VC  V0 sin t  I0X C sin t
Comparing the result of equation (v) with equation (vi), we see that the current is /2 rad = 90° out
of phase with the voltage across the capacitor. A plot of current and voltage versus time,
shows that the current reaches its maximum value one quarter of a cycle sooner than the
voltage reaches its maximum value. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in the fig-
ure (b). Thus we see that for a sinusoidally applied emf, the current always leads the voltage
across a capacitor by 90°.

(iv) Series L-R Circuit

Now consider an ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R and an inductor of induc-
tance L in series with an ac source generator.
Suppose in phasor diagram current is taken along positive x-direction.
Then VR is also along positive x-direction and VL along positive y-di-
rection. As we know potential difference across a resistance in ac is in
phase with current and it leads in phase by 90° with current across the
inductor, so we can write

| Z | R 2  (L) 2
The potential difference leads the current by an angle,

VL X 
  tan 1  tan 1 L 
VR  R 

 L 
  tan 1 
 R 
(v) Series R-C Circuit
Now consider an ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R and a capacitor of capaci-
tance C in series with an ac source generator.
Suppose in phasor diagram current is taken along positive x-direction. Then VR is along
positive x-direction but VC is along negative y-direction as potential difference across a
capacitor in ac lags in phase by 90° with the current in the circuit. So we can write.

2
2  1 
| Z | R   
 C 

and the potential difference lags the current by an angle,

VC X 
  tan 1  tan 1  C 
VR  R 

 1 / C  1  1 
 tan 1   tan  
 R   RC 
(vi) Series L-C-R Circuit and Resonance
Now consider an ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R, a capacitor of capacitacne
C and an inductor of inductance L are in series with an ac source generator.
Suppose in a phasor diagram current is taken along positive x-direction. Then VR is along
positive x-direction, VL along positive y-direction and VC along negative y-directino, as po-
tential difference across an inductor leads the current by 90° in phase while that across a
capacitor, lags it in phase by 90°.
V  VR2  (VL  VC )2

Here impendance is,

2
2 1 
| Z | R   L  
 C 
and the potential difference leads the current by an angle.
VL  VC  X  XC 
  tan 1  tan 1  L 
VR  R 

 1 
 L  
  tan 1  C 
 R 
 
 V0
The steady current in the circuit is given by i  sin( t  )
2
 1 
R 2   L  
 C 
where  is given from equation (19)
V0
The peak current is i 0  2
2  1 
R   L  
 C 
It depends on angular frequency  of ac source and it will be maximum when
1 1
L  0 
C LC

 1 1
and corresponding frequency is v  
2 2 LC
This frequency is known as resonant frequency of the given circuit. At this frequency peak
V0
current will be i 0 
R
V0
If the resistance R in the LCR circuit is zero, the peak current at resonance is i 0 
0
It means, there can be a finite current in pure LC circuit even without any applied emf,

1 1
This current in the circuit is at frequency, v 
2 LC